Classifications

• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01K—MEASURING TEMPERATURE; MEASURING QUANTITY OF HEAT; THERMALLY-SENSITIVE ELEMENTS NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • G01K17/00—Measuring quantity of heat
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C23—COATING METALLIC MATERIAL; COATING MATERIAL WITH METALLIC MATERIAL; CHEMICAL SURFACE TREATMENT; DIFFUSION TREATMENT OF METALLIC MATERIAL; COATING BY VACUUM EVAPORATION, BY SPUTTERING, BY ION IMPLANTATION OR BY CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION, IN GENERAL; INHIBITING CORROSION OF METALLIC MATERIAL OR INCRUSTATION IN GENERAL
  • C23F—NON-MECHANICAL REMOVAL OF METALLIC MATERIAL FROM SURFACE; INHIBITING CORROSION OF METALLIC MATERIAL OR INCRUSTATION IN GENERAL; MULTI-STEP PROCESSES FOR SURFACE TREATMENT OF METALLIC MATERIAL INVOLVING AT LEAST ONE PROCESS PROVIDED FOR IN CLASS C23 AND AT LEAST ONE PROCESS COVERED BY SUBCLASS C21D OR C22F OR CLASS C25
  • C23F1/00—Etching metallic material by chemical means
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C23—COATING METALLIC MATERIAL; COATING MATERIAL WITH METALLIC MATERIAL; CHEMICAL SURFACE TREATMENT; DIFFUSION TREATMENT OF METALLIC MATERIAL; COATING BY VACUUM EVAPORATION, BY SPUTTERING, BY ION IMPLANTATION OR BY CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION, IN GENERAL; INHIBITING CORROSION OF METALLIC MATERIAL OR INCRUSTATION IN GENERAL
  • C23F—NON-MECHANICAL REMOVAL OF METALLIC MATERIAL FROM SURFACE; INHIBITING CORROSION OF METALLIC MATERIAL OR INCRUSTATION IN GENERAL; MULTI-STEP PROCESSES FOR SURFACE TREATMENT OF METALLIC MATERIAL INVOLVING AT LEAST ONE PROCESS PROVIDED FOR IN CLASS C23 AND AT LEAST ONE PROCESS COVERED BY SUBCLASS C21D OR C22F OR CLASS C25
  • C23F4/00—Processes for removing metallic material from surfaces, not provided for in group C23F1/00 or C23F3/00
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01K—MEASURING TEMPERATURE; MEASURING QUANTITY OF HEAT; THERMALLY-SENSITIVE ELEMENTS NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • G01K17/00—Measuring quantity of heat
  • G01K17/006—Microcalorimeters, e.g. using silicon microstructures
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
  • G01N25/00—Investigating or analyzing materials by the use of thermal means
  • G01N25/20—Investigating or analyzing materials by the use of thermal means by investigating the development of heat, i.e. calorimetry, e.g. by measuring specific heat, by measuring thermal conductivity
  • G01N25/48—Investigating or analyzing materials by the use of thermal means by investigating the development of heat, i.e. calorimetry, e.g. by measuring specific heat, by measuring thermal conductivity on solution, sorption, or a chemical reaction not involving combustion or catalytic oxidation
  • G01N25/4806—Details not adapted to a particular type of sample
  • G01N25/4813—Details not adapted to a particular type of sample concerning the measuring means
  • G01N25/482—Details not adapted to a particular type of sample concerning the measuring means concerning the temperature responsive elements

Definitions

• the invention relates to the field of calorimetry and, more particularly, to a differential calorimetric measuring sensor and to its method of manufacture.
• a heat exchange occurs between the material and the external environment, the meaning of which depends on the endothermic or exothermic nature of the transition process.
• Metallurgy is particularly relevant for the study of oxidation-reduction reactions and thermal transitions, polymer chemistry, biochemistry and the food industry.
• thermodynamic stability In particular, in biophysics, calorimetry is the only method that allows direct access to thermodynamic data (thermodynamic stability, free energy, entropy, etc.).
• Known calorimeters use various methods, such as differential scanning calorimetry, adiabatic calorimetry, isothermal calorimetry or alternating current or AC calorimetry (AC) calorimetry.
• differential scanning calorimetry adiabatic calorimetry
• isothermal calorimetry alternating current or AC calorimetry (AC) calorimetry.
• AC calorimetry AC calorimetry
• thermometric elements Presence of thermometric elements, sometimes one or more heating elements, one or more isothermal zones in very good thermal contact with the sample or the reference.
• each method has its own constraints, and an instrument or a sensor dedicated to a measurement method can hardly be used for another.
• the adiabaticity describes the degree of thermal insulation of the isothermal zone containing the sample relative to the outside considered as a thermal bath.
• Adiabaticity is a relative criterion that depends on the dynamics of the calorimetric measurement method used.
• At my is the experimental time scale. This is the characteristic time scale on which the calorimetric measurement is performed. It depends on the calorimetric method used.
• thermometric cell for an AC calorimetry method
• thermometric cell for an AC calorimetry method
• thermometric cell for a heating cell
• the thermometric cell comprising a membrane supporting an active element.
• This sensor is intended for small samples.
• the thermal leak is established through the membrane.
• the present patent application focuses on differential scanning calorimetry or DSC calorimetry in the English terminology (Differential Scanning Calorimetry) which was used to design the sensor according to the invention.
• This analysis technique consists of measuring the differences in heat exchange between a sample to be analyzed and a reference, each being placed in a measurement cell.
• a differential measurement has the advantage of eliminating most of the thermal drifts due to the environment, without adding noise to the system. Thus, it makes it possible to detect only the signal induced by the thermodynamic transformation to be studied.
• the two sensors retain the same thermal conditions, namely the same thermal insulation and the same thermal symmetry, for the active element present in the sensor.
• thermodynamic evolution of a protein two identical cells are produced, these cells being combined with the environment so thermally equivalent.
• One of them is filled with a volume of buffer solution, constituting the reference, the other being filled with a solution comprising the buffer solution and the protein constituting the sample.
• the two cells are placed in an oven whose temperature evolves in a determined manner, generally along ramps. This will cause a physical transformation of the sample and therefore a heat flow exchanged between the sample and the oven.
• a differential measurement between the two measuring cells makes it possible to determine the difference in heat flux between the sample and the reference and thus directly obtain the useful signal generated by the protein.
• the concentration of sample molecules is relatively low, so as to limit the problems of biochemical interaction and aggregation.
• Mettler Toledo recently marketed a DSC-type calorimeter that can work with minute amounts of samples and scan rates up to 10 5 K / s, but these instruments are only suitable for measurements on solid samples.
• EP-1 351 052 and US-6 079 873 disclose calorimetric devices obtained by micro and nanofabrication techniques which are suitable for calorimetric measurements on low volume samples.
• the device described in document EP-1 351 052 does not make it possible to implement differential scanning calorimetry analysis. Indeed, it is dedicated to the calorimetric detection of biochemical or biological interactions carried out at constant temperature.
• the device described in US-6 079 873 comprises two suspended platforms, made of silicon, which serve as a support for the sample and the reference.
• This device is limited in its applications because it does not allow the measurement of biological samples in aqueous solution. Indeed, it is not designed to receive a liquid sample. It should be only a very small volume. However, in this case, the sample would evaporate very quickly by generating parasitic thermal effects due to evaporation. Finally, the sample and the reference are placed on the platforms. This results in too weak thermal couplings causing temperature gradients that disturb the measurement for high temperature ramps because the heat does not have time to propagate throughout the sample.
• the object of the invention is to overcome these drawbacks by proposing a high-performance differential calorimetric measuring sensor, designed for very small volumes of solid or liquid sample and operating with much larger temperature ramps than the calorimeters available today on the market, while presenting a resolution of the same order and being of a simplified manufacture.
• the invention relates to a differential calorimetric measuring sensor comprising two cells, a thermometric cell and another cell, each cell comprising:
• a membrane made of a material with low thermal conductivity, with a first face and a second face, and
• thermometric cell made of a material having a high coefficient of thermal diffusivity, typically greater than or equal to 1 cm 2 / s, in contact with said first face of the membrane, the thermometric cell comprising at least two thermometric active elements; located on said first face of the membrane, and the two cells being intended to be assembled so that the second faces of the membranes of said cells are in facing relation, a sample and a reference used to make the measurement that can be placed between the two membranes and directly in contact with said second faces and at least one of the cells comprising a closure means vis-à-vis the first face of the membrane, a free space being provided between said closure means and the membrane for a gas.
• the active elements are never in direct contact with a sample used to make the measurement.
• the other cell is a heating cell, at least two heating active elements being located on said first face of the membrane of this other cell, so that each of said active heating elements is substantially aligned with one of said thermometric active elements of the thermometric cell, when the two cells are assembled, a sample and a reference used to carry out the measurement can then be placed between two active elements of each of the two cells.
• thermometric active element of the thermometric cell facing it, while a reference is placed between the other heating element of the heating cell and the other thermometric active element of the temperature sensor.
• the measuring sensor according to the invention is intended to be placed in an oven which makes it possible to regulate the temperature inside the sensor and possibly to apply temperature ramps.
• the oven may be used to heat the sample placed inside the sensor at a constant temperature.
• the heating cell then makes it possible to apply temperature ramps almost instantaneously to the sample.
• the second face of the membrane of at least one cell comprises, opposite said at least two active elements, a layer made of a material having a high thermal conductivity, typically greater than 1 Watt per centimeter and per Kelvin (W /cm.K).
• This layer is in particular made of gold and it makes it possible to homogenize the temperature of each thermometric active element.
• said support means are located at the periphery of the membrane. This arrangement makes it possible to thermally isolate the active elements of each cell with respect to said support means, by means of the membrane.
• the active elements of each cell are embedded in a layer of electrically insulating material.
• the active thermometric and heating elements are located on the same side as the membrane support means, which increases their resistance.
• the invention relates to a differential calorimeter comprising a measuring sensor according to the invention, an oven in which said sensor is disposed, and a cooling means.
• This calorimeter advantageously comprises pressurized gas supply means which are in fluid communication with the free spaces in the measuring sensor.
• the invention also relates to a method for manufacturing a measurement sensor according to the invention consisting in producing two cells, a thermometric cell and another cell, the thermometric cell comprising a membrane made of a material with a low thermal conductivity, this method comprising a step (a- ⁇ ) during which at least two active elements are simultaneously produced on a first face of the membrane,
• the cells being intended to be assembled, so that the second faces of the respective membranes of said cells are opposite each other.
• step (a- ⁇ ) a step (a 0 ) is carried out in which the membrane is fixed on a ring of material ceramic, this ring being in contact with the second face of the membrane, the method of performing step (82) after step (a- ⁇ ), then a step (83) in which the ring is removed.
• the other cell is a heating cell which is obtained by implementing the preceding steps (a 1) and (82), at least two active heating elements being made in the course of step (a- ⁇ ), and optionally steps (ao) and (a 3 ).
• the method according to the invention advantageously comprises a complementary step of depositing, after step (a), an electrically insulating resin layer, so as to coat the active elements of at least one of the two cells.
• the method advantageously comprises another complementary step, after step (a- ⁇ ), consisting in depositing on the second face of a membrane at least one of the two cells, and facing an active element said cell, a layer of a material having a high thermal conductivity.
• step (a) comprises, preferably, the following steps:
• the metal deposited during step (b) has a high temperature coefficient, typically greater than 2.10 -3 K -1 .
• step (a 1) preferably comprises the following steps:
• FIG. 1 is a perspective view schematically showing the two cells of an exemplary measuring sensor according to the invention
• FIG. 2 is a sectional view of the two cells of a measurement sensor according to the invention.
• FIG. 3 to 6 show schematically the steps of making a cell of a sensor according to the invention.
• the elements common to the different figures will be designated by the same references.
• FIG. 1 shows diagrammatically and in perspective, a thermometric cell 1 and a heating cell 2,
• Each of these cells comprises a membrane 10, 20.
• This membrane is supported by means 11, 21.
• these support means have the shape of a ring positioned at the periphery of the membrane 10, 20.
• the ring 1, 21 is fixed on a first face 100, 200 of the membrane.
• the membrane 10, 20 comprises two active elements: the thermometric elements 12 and 13 and the heating elements 22 and 23.
• the invention is not limited to the illustrated embodiment and the support means could have another form.
• the annular shape illustrated in FIG. 1 makes it possible to obtain thermal symmetry.
• the form chosen must allow thermally isolating the active elements of the support means.
• the thermometric active elements must be thermally insulated from one another, such as the heating elements.
• thermometric active elements and the active heating elements are metal resistances lithographed in thin layers, which allow a very fast thermal response. All these elements are made simultaneously by the same manufacturing steps, which simplifies the manufacture of the sensor.
• a sensor according to the invention with a considerable number of active elements would allow calorimetric measurements in parallel on a large number of samples. This is interesting in the field of biology, particularly in the field of drug design.
• References 18 and 28 denote contact wires for connecting the active elements of each cell to the contacts (not shown in FIG. 1).
• This figure illustrates the two cells 1 and 2 of the sensor in their respective position, before assembly, the assembly being carried out according to the arrows F.
• thermometric cell 1 has been turned over, so that it is the second faces 101 and 201 of the membranes 10 and 20 which are directly opposite each other.
• closure means 14, 24 (not shown in FIG. 1)
• FIG. 2 shows a preferred embodiment of the sensor according to the invention, in which the active elements 12, 13 and 22, 23 of each cell 1, 2 are embedded in a resin layer 15, 25. is not illustrated in Figure 1.
• FIG. 2 shows that the dimensions of the closing means 14, 24 and of the resin layer 15, 25 are chosen so that a free space 16, 26 is provided between the resin layer 15, 25 and the means of closure 14, 24. The interest of this space will be explained in the following description.
• references 17, 27 designate the contacts to which the wires 18, 28 are connected. They are accessible through through-holes 110, 210 formed in the support means 11, 21.
• the membranes 10, 20 are made of a low thermal conductivity material, less than 10 mW / cm.K.
• Kapton® marketed by DuPont. This material has a thermal conductivity ⁇ of 1.2 mW / cm.K and a specific heat of 1.13 J / gK.
• Kapton® has the advantage of being stable over a wide temperature range (from -269 ° C to 400 ° C) and having a high chemical inertness.
• Another polyimide such as that sold under the name Upilex® by Ube Industries, which has a thermal conductivity of 3 mW / cm.K, can be used.
• This membrane has a micrometric thickness, typically between 10 and 100 pm. In this range of values, the membrane is sufficiently resistant, while remaining poorly conductive and having a heat capacity suitable for measuring small volume samples.
• the membrane ensures good thermal insulation while having sufficient mechanical strength.
• the membrane could also be made of glass, its thermal conductivity would then be about 10 mW / cm.K.
• the support means 11, 21 are made of a material having a high coefficient of thermal diffusivity, typically greater than 1 W / cm.K.
• the material that will be used preferably is copper because it has a very good thermal conductivity (about 4 W / cm.K), while having a reasonable manufacturing cost.
• the closure means 14, 24 may also be made of copper.
• closure means 14, 24 each comprise a bore which is not illustrated in FIG. 2, this piercing being in communication with each of the spaces 16, 26.
• the height of the two closure means 14 and 24 is different.
• the height of the closing means 14 of the thermometric cell is adapted so as to create a thermal conduction of predetermined value via the gas between the membrane 10 and the closure means 14. This will determine the time constant thermal measurement.
• the height of the closing means 24 of the heating cell 2 is adapted so as to create negligible thermal conduction via the gas between the membrane 20 and the closure means 24.
• thermometric cell comprises a closure means 14 through which the thermal leakage is established by the gas present in the space 16.
• heating cell 2 could also be designed to perform this function through the closure means 24 and the space 26.
• the two cells could be designed symmetrically, the thermal leakage being equivalent at the level of each cell.
• the closure means 14, 24 illustrated in Figure 2 could be omitted. In this case, the heat of the furnace would be directly transmitted to the sample and the reference placed between the two membranes of the sensor, through the membranes.
• the sensor's time constant can be adjusted by modifying the pressure of the gas or the volume of the spaces 16, 26, that is to say the distance between the closure means and the membrane 10, 20. It can also be adjusted by appropriately choosing the nature of the gas, each gas having a different thermal conductivity.
• the gas under pressure has two functions: on the one hand, to enclose the sample and the reference between the two membranes and thus to ensure a significant thermal coupling and, on the other hand, to facilitate the conduction of heat from the external environment to the sensor, to the sample and the reference.
• Thermal conduction is achieved through the gas, even if it is not under pressure. Conduction would only occur in case of secondary vacuum, with pressures of the order of 10 "5 or 10 " 6 mbar.
• the thermal bond between the sample and the heat bath is achieved by means of the gas located behind the membrane.
• the membrane no longer plays a role in the establishment of the thermal link between the one hand, the sample and the reference, and on the other hand, the outside of the sensor.
• the temperature gradients in the sample and the reference are avoided.
• the temperature gradients are through a membrane, it imposes them on the sample and the reference.
• FIG. 2 illustrates, facing each of the active elements 12 and 13 of the thermometric cell, a layer 121 and 131.
• This layer is made of a material having a high thermal conductivity, typically greater than 1 W / cm.K.
• the material used is typically gold.
• These two layers 121 and 131 are located on the face 101 of the membrane 10, or on the face opposite to the face 100 which receives the active elements 12 and 13.
• the invention is not limited to this embodiment and these layers of material with high thermal conductivity could also be provided on the face 201 of the membrane 20, facing the active elements 22 and 23. Such layers could also be provided on both sides 01, 201 of the membranes 10 and 20.
• the sensor according to the invention is used as follows:
• a sample 3 is placed on the element 121 of the thermometric cell 1, while a reference 4 is placed on the element 131 of the cell 1.
• the two cells are then assembled by moving for example the cell 2 according to the arrows F and then fixing them together when the membrane 20 comes into contact with the elements 121 and 131.
• the sample and the reference are in contact with the second faces 101 and 201 of the membranes 10 and 20.
• the active elements of each cell are never in contact with the sample or the reference, since they are separated from them by a membrane 10, 20. The latter protects them from contact with a liquid (or a solid), despite its small thickness.
• the membrane 10 thermally isolates the sample or the reference of the support means 11, 21 and also the sample of the reference, which contributes to increasing the resolution of the sensor.
• a thermometric element 12, 13 is in good thermal contact with the corresponding heating element 22, 23.
• the constituent material of the membranes has a low thermal conductivity, it is not necessary to structure them for make them more insulating and their mechanical strength is reinforced. The thickness of the membranes is thus greater than that of the platforms described in US-6 079 873.
• FIGS. 1 and 2 show a sensor comprising a thermometric cell 1 and a heating cell 2.
• the sensor could operate without the cell 2 having active heating elements.
• heating of the sample and the reference if provided, will be provided by the oven in which the sensor is to be placed.
• the temperature of the sample and the reference follows the temperature ramp applied by the oven with a certain delay.
• the temperature of the sample and the reference almost instantaneously follow the ramp of temperature applied by the oven. This makes it possible to apply much faster temperature ramps.
• thermometric cell of a sensor according to the invention The steps of producing a thermometric cell of a sensor according to the invention will now be described with reference to FIGS. 3 to 6. They correspond to a preferred mode of the method of manufacturing a sensor according to the invention.
• Figure 3 illustrates the membrane 10 of the thermometric cell.
• this membrane is obtained by cutting with a punch in a polyimide sheet, in particular a Kapton® sheet.
• this membrane 10 is circular in shape. Any other shape could be chosen, the circular shape having the advantage of thermal symmetry.
• the reference 11 denotes a ring made of a ceramic material. More generally, the ring may be made of any machinable material and having a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, typically less than 10 -5 / ° C.
• This ring may in particular be made of Macor® which is a ceramic marketed by Corning Incorporated.
• the membrane 10 is intended to be bonded to the ceramic ring 11 '.
• the active elements 12 and 13 of the thermometric cell illustrated in Figure 4. These active elements are obtained through the following steps that use microelectronics techniques.
• a metal layer will first be deposited on the membrane 10.
• the material used is platinum which is deposited by magnetron sputtering.
• a so-called hook layer is deposited on the membrane 10, before platinum is deposited.
• This hooked layer may in particular be made of an alloy of tungsten and titanium. Chrome is also perfectly suited.
• the thickness of the platinum layer is typically 0.36 ⁇ , while that of the hook layer is typically 0.01 ⁇ .
• the next step is a lithography step which makes it possible to obtain, on the platinum layer, the desired pattern. This is protected by the deposit of a layer of resin, which is then cured.
• the last step is an ion etching step, whereby the metal layer is removed from the surface of the membrane, in areas not covered by the pattern.
• the method according to the invention makes it possible to produce the active elements by implementing the same thin-layer deposition step, the same microphotolithography step and the same etching step. They are therefore made simultaneously.
• the production method is therefore considerably simplified, compared to a method consisting of producing two independent sensors each comprising an active element.
• the active elements being obtained simultaneously by the same manufacturing steps, they therefore have almost identical electrical characteristics. This identity is essential in a differential sense.
• thermometric elements 12 and 13 have the shape of a disc and are located in the central part of the membrane 10.
• the shape of a disc is preferred because it provides thermal symmetry. However, other forms could be considered. Moreover, being located in the central part of the membrane, the elements 12 and 13 are substantially identically isolated with respect to the ring 11.
• thermometric elements obtained have a very low heat capacity, which is 0.652 mJ / K.
• the contacts 17 and the contact wires 18 are also made.
• a welding step subsequently takes place to ensure the electrical contact between the wires and the contacts.
• thermometric elements can be mounted according to a Wheatstone bridge type diagram to directly obtain the differential temperature between the sample and the reference.
• the next step of the process consists in depositing a layer of resin on the whole of the first face 100 of the membrane 10, with the exception of the regions of the membrane supporting the contacts 17.
• This resin layer 15 makes it possible to electrically isolate the thermometric elements 12 and 13 and to provide mechanical protection.
• This resin may especially be a photosensitive polyimide which hardens after an annealing step.
• a photosensitive polyimide By way of example, mention may be made of polyimide PoliFuji 2210 A®, marketed by Fujifilm. At the end of the steps which have just been described, the product illustrated in FIG.
• FIG. 5 illustrates another step, in which are made, on the second face 101 of the membrane 10, elements making it possible to homogenize the temperature of each thermometric element 12 and 13.
• These elements 121, 131 will, in the following the description, called isothermal elements.
• a layer of a hanging material for example WTi, will be deposited before the metal layer.
• the mask makes it possible to produce the two isothermal elements 121, 131 facing the two thermometric elements 12 and 13.
• the metal used is preferably gold.
• the thickness of the hook material is typically 0.01 ⁇ m and that of the 0.5 ⁇ m gold layer. The product then obtained is illustrated in FIG.
• this ring 11 Due to its low coefficient of thermal extension, this ring 11 'remains rigid and does not deform at high temperature. As a result, the membrane 10 will not undergo stretching stress during the various steps which have just been described with reference to FIGS. 3 to 5.
• FIG. 6 illustrates the last stage of the process, in which the copper ring 11 is bonded to the first face 100 of the membrane 10.
• thermometric cell 1 illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2
• the use, during the production process, of a ceramic ring makes it possible to carry out without any constraint the thermometric elements 12 and 13.
• these elements will be protected, not only by the presence of the resin layer 15, but also by the ring 11 itself.
• thermometric cell The steps of producing a heating cell according to the invention are very similar to the steps of producing a thermometric cell that have just been described.
• a metal layer in particular by magnetron sputtering.
• the deposited metal is preferably an alloy of copper and nickel. With a proportion of 80% copper and 20% nickel, this alloy has a relatively low temperature coefficient (a few hundred ppm per degree), making it a suitable material for heating.
• This metal can be deposited directly on the first face 200 of the membrane 20.
• the heating active elements 22 and 23 are also obtained by a microphotolithography process.
• the last step of removing the portion of the metal layer that does not belong to the pattern is achieved by wet etching, i.e., etching obtained by etching in aqueous solution.
• This alloy has the advantage of having a resistivity that varies little with temperature and its temperature coefficient is about 1, 2.10 -4 K -1 from room temperature to 100 ° C. As a result, a current of constant amplitude will be converted into almost constant heat output over large temperature ranges.
• the heat capacity of the active heating elements 22 and 23 is 0.648 mJ / K.
• the cell 2 associated with the thermometric cell 1 does not comprise a heating element, its implementation is considerably simplified. Indeed, it is obtained by fixing, on the first face 200 of the membrane, the support means 21.
• thermometric elements and heating elements are very low, which promotes diffusion and thermal conductivity.
• the temperature ramps can be large and go up to a hundred degrees per minute, without temperature gradients appearing.
• the sensitivity of the measurement obtained depends not only on the temperature coefficient of the thermometric elements, but also on their polarization (voltage or current).
• the sensitivity of the sensor can therefore be adapted to the physical chemistry of the sample, which gives it another advantage over existing sensors.
• the sensitivity of the measurement can be adapted by varying the polarization of the thermometers. For important transitions to be detected, a lower sensitivity will be chosen, whereas for very fine thermal events to be detected, a greater sensitivity will be chosen by polarizing the thermometer more strongly. Of course in this case, the power generated by the thermometer or thermometers will be larger and the temperature difference between the sensitive areas and the support will be greater. Thus, when the thermometers are mounted according to a Wheatstone bridge pattern, a strong polarization of the Wheatstone bridge gives a high sensitivity in volts per degree.
• thermopiles passive sensors
• the sensitivity depends only on the number of couples used and we can not choose the sensitivity once the sensor is made.
• the use of a ring of ceramic material during the steps of microfabrication of the active heating elements protects the membrane 20 from any stress.
• the sensor which has just been described can be used in a differential calorimeter, in association with an oven in which the sensor is placed.
• the volume of the sample or reference is between 0.001 and 0.01 ml.
• Each heating cell is fed for 2 minutes, three different values of thermal power being dissipated (0.01 mW, 0.3 mW and 1 mW), corresponding to dissipated energies of 1, 2; 36 and 120 mJ.
• the bridge output voltage is measured at the thermometric elements, it is a differential measurement.
• the results obtained lead to a sensor power sensitivity of about 2.5 mV / mW, whereas the known sensors have a sensitivity of the order of 100 pV / mW.

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