Classifications

• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07C51/00—Preparation of carboxylic acids or their salts, halides or anhydrides
  • C07C51/10—Preparation of carboxylic acids or their salts, halides or anhydrides by reaction with carbon monoxide
  • C07C51/14—Preparation of carboxylic acids or their salts, halides or anhydrides by reaction with carbon monoxide on a carbon-to-carbon unsaturated bond in organic compounds
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07C51/00—Preparation of carboxylic acids or their salts, halides or anhydrides
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07C51/00—Preparation of carboxylic acids or their salts, halides or anhydrides
  • C07C51/09—Preparation of carboxylic acids or their salts, halides or anhydrides from carboxylic acid esters or lactones
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07C51/00—Preparation of carboxylic acids or their salts, halides or anhydrides
  • C07C51/42—Separation; Purification; Stabilisation; Use of additives
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D307/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one oxygen atom as the only ring hetero atom
  • C07D307/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one oxygen atom as the only ring hetero atom not condensed with other rings
  • C07D307/26—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one oxygen atom as the only ring hetero atom not condensed with other rings having one double bond between ring members or between a ring member and a non-ring member
  • C07D307/30—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one oxygen atom as the only ring hetero atom not condensed with other rings having one double bond between ring members or between a ring member and a non-ring member with hetero atoms or with carbon atoms having three bonds to hetero atoms with at the most one bond to halogen, e.g. ester or nitrile radicals, directly attached to ring carbon atoms
  • C07D307/32—Oxygen atoms
  • C07D307/33—Oxygen atoms in position 2, the oxygen atom being in its keto or unsubstituted enol form
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C08—ORGANIC MACROMOLECULAR COMPOUNDS; THEIR PREPARATION OR CHEMICAL WORKING-UP; COMPOSITIONS BASED THEREON
  • C08G—MACROMOLECULAR COMPOUNDS OBTAINED OTHERWISE THAN BY REACTIONS ONLY INVOLVING UNSATURATED CARBON-TO-CARBON BONDS
  • C08G69/00—Macromolecular compounds obtained by reactions forming a carboxylic amide link in the main chain of the macromolecule
  • C08G69/02—Polyamides derived from amino-carboxylic acids or from polyamines and polycarboxylic acids
  • C08G69/26—Polyamides derived from amino-carboxylic acids or from polyamines and polycarboxylic acids derived from polyamines and polycarboxylic acids
  • C08G69/28—Preparatory processes
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C08—ORGANIC MACROMOLECULAR COMPOUNDS; THEIR PREPARATION OR CHEMICAL WORKING-UP; COMPOSITIONS BASED THEREON
  • C08H—DERIVATIVES OF NATURAL MACROMOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
  • C08H8/00—Macromolecular compounds derived from lignocellulosic materials
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
  • Y02P20/00—Technologies relating to chemical industry
  • Y02P20/10—Process efficiency

Definitions

• the present invention relates to processes for synthesising dicarboxylic acids.
• Dicarboxylic acids may be used as monomer units in the preparation of polymers.
• adipic acid is used as a monomer unit in the preparation of Nylon 6-6.
• Step (a) may be carried out substantially in the absence of water.
• the process according to the first aspect above may further comprise a step of removing water from the lactone and/or from the first catalyst system prior to step (a).
• the heating of the lactone in step (a) may comprise reactive distillation, thereby providing a distillate comprising the alkenoic acid.
• Step (a) may be carried out at a temperature at or above the normal boiling point of the lactone.
• Step (a) may be carried out at a temperature of between about 150°C and about 370°C.
• Step (a) may be carried out at a pressure of between about 0.5 bar and 30 bar.
• Step (a) may be carried out at a pressure of about 1 bar.
• the first catalyst system may comprise an acidic catalyst.
• the first catalyst system may comprise a heterogeneous solid catalyst.
• the first catalyst system may comprise a homogeneous catalyst.
• the first catalyst system may comprise one or more of alumina, silica, a zeolite, a clay, sulphuric acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid and methanesulfonic acid.
• the first catalyst system may, for example, comprise a mixture of alumina and silica.
• the first catalyst system and the temperature and pressure of step (a) may be such that conversion of lactone to alkenoic acid in step (a) is greater than about 95%.
• the alkenoic acid produced in step (a) may comprise a plurality of isomers.
• Step (b) may be carried out substantially in the absence of oxygen.
• Step (b) may be carried out at a temperature of between about 50°C and about 150°C.
• Step (b) may be carried out at a temperature of between about 80°C and about 120°C.
• Step (b) may be carried out at a pressure of between about 1 bar and about 150 bar.
• Step (b) may be carried out at a pressure of between about 3 bar and about 80 bar.
• Step (b) may be carried out at a pressure of between about 5 bar and about 60 bar.
• the second catalyst system may comprise a palladium catalyst.
• the palladium catalyst may have the formula (I):
• X is a ligand and each of R 1 , R 2 , R 5 and R 6 is independently, an optionally substituted organic group or R 1 and R 2 and/or R 5 and R 6 , together with the P atom to which they are attached, form a cyclic group.
• the second catalyst system may be prepared in situ.
• the process according to the first aspect above may further comprise the step of preparing the palladium catalyst.
• the palladium catalyst may be prepared by combining a palladium compound, a bidentate diphosphine and an acid.
• X may be derived from the acid.
• the bidentate diphosphine may have the formula (II):
• Ar is an optionally substituted aromatic group
• R 1 and R 2 are either the same or different and represent a tertiary alkyl or, together with the P atom to which they are attached, form a phospha trioxa-adamantane group having formula (III):
• R 7 , R 8 , R 9 and R 10 each independently represent an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl group
• R 3 and R each independently represent an optionally substituted alkylene group; and R 5 and R 6 each independently represent an optionally substituted organic group or together with the P atom to which they are attached, form a cyclic group.
• R 5 and R 6 may each independently represent a tertiary alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclyl or aryl.
• R 5 and R 6 may each independently represent tertiary butyl, adamantyl or phenyl, or, together with the P atom to which they are attached, form a phospha trioxa-adamantane group of formula (III).
• the palladium compound from which the second catalyst is prepared may be selected from the group consisting of palladium carboxylates and palladium(O) compounds.
• the palladium compound may be palladium acetate, tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) or palladium acetylacetonate.
• the bidentate diphosphine may be 1,2-bisIdi(i-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene.
• the acid used in preparing the palladium catalyst may have a pKa of less than about 5 (measured in water at 18°C).
• the acid may be selected from the group consisting of sulfonic acids, sulphuric acids, phosphorous acids and carboxylic acids.
• the acid may, for example, be a C Ci 0 aliphatic acid.
• the acid may be selected from the group consisting of methanesulfonic acid, triflic acid, trifluoroacetic acid and acetic acid.
• the acid may be the alkenoic acid obtained in step (a).
• the acid may be present in molar excess relative to the palladium compound.
• the molar ratio of the acid to the palladium compound may be from 2 to 10000 (i.e.
• the molar ratio of the acid to the palladium compound may be from 5 to 5000 (i.e. 5:1 to 5000: 1).
• the molar ratio of the acid to the palladium compound may be from 5 to 300 (i.e. 5:1 to 300:1).
• the palladium catalyst may be prepared by combining palladium acetate, 1 ,2- bis[di(f-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene, and methane sulfonic acid.
• the second catalyst system and the temperature and pressure of step (b) may be such that the conversion of alkenoic acid to dicarboxylic acid in step (b) is greater than about 95%.
• Step (b) may be carried out in a solvent.
• the solvent may be such that the dicarboxylic acid can be separated from the unreacted alkenoic acid by reducing the temperature of the reaction composition.
• the solvent may be the lactone used in step (a).
• a portion of the lactone may be unreacted after step (a).
• the process according to the first aspect above may further comprise step (a ) of separating part or substantially all the unreacted lactone from the pentenoic acid.
• the process according to the first aspect above may further comprise step (a2) of recycling the separated unreacted lactone to step (a).
• the process according to the first aspect above may further comprise the steps of: (a1) separating part or substantially all of the unreacted lactone from the alkenoic acid; and (a2) recycling part or substantially all of the separated unreacted lactone from step (a1) to step (a).
• the reaction composition produced by step (b) may comprise part or substantially all of the unreacted lactone from step (a).
• the process according to the first aspect above may comprise a step (b1) of separating part or substantially all the unreacted lactone from the dicarboxylic acid.
• the process according to the first aspect above may comprise a step (b2) of recycling the separated unreacted lactone to step (a).
• the process according to the first aspect above may comprise the steps of. (b1) separating part or substantially all of the unreacted lactone from the dicarboxylic acid; and (b2) recycling part or substantially all of the separated unreacted lactone from step (b1) to step (a).
• the reaction composition produced by step (b) may comprise unreacted alkenoic acid.
• the process according to the first aspect above may comprise a step (b3) of separating part or substantially all the unreacted alkenoic acid from the dicarboxylic acid.
• the process according to the first aspect above may comprise a step according to the first aspect above may comprise the steps of: (b3) separating part or substantially all of the unreacted alkenoic acid from the dicarboxylic acid and (b4) recycling part or substantially all of the separated unreacted alkenoic acid from step (b3) to step (a) and/or recycling part or substantially all of the separated unreacted alkenoic acid from step (b3) to step (b).
• the process according to the first aspect may further comprise the step of: (c) separating the dicarboxylic acid from the remainder of the reaction composition to produce a first portion comprising the dicarboxylic acid and a second portion comprising the second catalyst system.
• the first portion may comprise substantially none of the second catalyst system.
• Step (c) may comprise reducing the temperature of the reaction composition such that the dicarboxylic acid crystallises.
• the process according to the first aspect above may further comprise the step of washing the first portion.
• the process according to the first aspect above may further comprise the step of: (d) recycling the second portion, comprising the second catalyst system, to step (b).
• the process according to the first aspect above may comprise the steps of: (c) separating the dicarboxylic acid from the remainder of the reaction composition of step (b) to produce a first portion comprising the dicarboxylic acid and a second portion comprising the second catalyst system; and (d) recycling the second portion, comprising the second catalyst system, to step (b).
• the lactone used in step (a) may be ⁇ -valerolactone, whereby the alkenoic acid is pentenoic acid and the dicarboxylic acid is adipic acid.
• the pentenoic acid may comprise one or more, or optionally all, of 2-pentenoic acid, 3-pentenoic acid and 4-pentenoic acid.
• the process according to the first aspect above may further comprise the step of preparing the ⁇ -valerolactone by hydrogenation of levulinic acid.
• the process according to the first aspect above may further comprise the step of preparing the levulinic acid by acid catalysed hydrolysis of cellulose.
• the process according to the first aspect above may further comprise the step of preparing the cellulose by cracking lignocellulose.
• the process according to the first aspect above may comprise the steps: (a) heating a lactone in the presence of a first catalyst system to produce an alkenoic acid; and (b) contacting the alkenoic acid with carbon monoxide, water and a second catalyst system to produce a reaction composition comprising the second catalyst system and the dicarboxylic acid, wherein the heating of the lactone in step (a) comprises reactive distillation, thereby providing a distillate comprising the alkenoic acid.
• a process for preparing a dicarboxylic acid comprising the steps:
• step (a) is carried out substantially in the absence of water.
• step (a) is carried out substantially in the absence of water and the heating of the lactone in step (a) comprises reactive distillation, thereby providing a distillate comprising the alkenoic acid.
• step (a) is carried out substantially in the absence of water and the heating of the lactone in step (a) comprises reactive distillation, thereby providing a distillate comprising the alkenoic acid.
• step (a) is carried out substantially in the absence of water and the heating of the lactone in step (a) comprises reactive distillation, thereby providing a distillate comprising the alkenoic acid, and
• the palladium catalyst is prepared by combining palladium acetate, 1 ,2- bis[di(f-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene, and methane sulfonic acid.
• step (a) is carried out substantially in the absence of water and the heating of the y-valerolactone in step (a) comprises reactive distillation, thereby providing a distillate comprising the pentenoic acid, and
• the palladium catalyst is prepared by combining palladium acetate, 1 ,2- bis[di(f-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene, and methane sulfonic acid.
• step (a) is carried out substantially in the absence of water and the heating of the y-valerolactone in step (a) comprises reactive distillation, thereby providing a distillate comprising the pentenoic acid, and
• the palladium catalyst is prepared by combining palladium acetate, 1 ,2- bis[di(i-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene, and methane sulfonic acid.
• a process for preparing adipic acid- comprising the steps:
• step (a) is carried out substantially in the absence of water and the heating of the ⁇ -valerolactone in step (a) comprises reactive distillation, thereby providing a distillate comprising the pentenoic acid, and
• the palladium catalyst is prepared by combining palladium acetate, 1,2- bis[di(f-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene, and methane sulfonic acid.
• step (a') distilling the composition from step (a) to produce a distillate comprising pentenoic acid
• a dicarboxylic acid prepared in accordance with the process of the first aspect above.
• the dicarboxylic acid may have a purity of greater than about 99%.
• the dicarboxylie-acid may be adipic acid.
• a method of preparing Nylon 6-6 comprising the step of copolymerising adipic acid prepared in accordance with the third aspect above with hexamethylenediamine, thereby forming the Nylon 6-6.
• Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of an embodiment of the process for preparing a diacid according to the present invention.
• the process for preparing a dicarboxylic acid according to the present invention generally comprises a step (a) of heating a lactone in the presence of a first catalyst system to produce an alkenoic acid.
• a subsequent step (b) the alkenoic acid is contacted with carbon monoxide, water and a second catalyst system to produce a reaction composition comprising the second catalyst system and the dicarboxylic acid.
• the present invention includes a process for preparing adipic acid, a Nylon 6-6 monomer, from ⁇ -valerolactone.
• ⁇ -Valerolactone can be derived from hydrogenation of levulinic acid, a so-called bio-based platform molecule.
• levulinic acid can be readily obtained from acid-catalysed decomposition of cellulose or C 6 sugars.
• the process according to the present invention provides a method of producing adipic acid from a renewable feedstock.
• substantially in the absence of water may mean that the concentration of water is sufficiently low that any reduction of this concentration would not increase the yield of alkenoic acid by more than about 10% or more than about 1 %. Such concentrations may be less than about 0.1 , 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02 or 0.01 moles of water per mole of lactone. This phrase may additionally or alternatively indicate the absence of any added water.
• substantially in the absence of oxygen may mean that the concentration of oxygen is less than about 0.1 moles of oxygen per mole of carbon monoxide. Such concentrations may be less than about 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02, 0.01 , 0.009, 0.008, 0.007, 0.006, 0.005, 0.003, 0.002, 0.001, 0.0005, 0.0001 , 0.00005 and 0.000001 moles of oxygen per mole of carbon monoxide.
• substantially none of the second catalyst system may mean that the concentration of the second catalyst system is less than about 1 wt% of the first portion. Such concentrations may be less than about 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1 , 0.05, 0.01 , 0.005 and 0.0001 wt% of the first portion.
• step (a) of the process according to the present invention a mixture of pentenoic acid isomers can be obtained in high selectivity by heating ⁇ -valerolactone in the presence of an acidic catalyst to drive the equilibrium between the lactone and alkenoic acid toward the formation of the alkenoic acid.
• Heating the lactone in step (a) may comprise refluxing, non-reflux heating, distillation or a combination of any two or more of the foregoing.
• the heating may comprise reactive distillation to produce a distillate comprising the alkenoic acid.
• the reactive distillation may include refluxing the ⁇ -valerolactone in the presence of an acidic catalyst followed by distillation to produce a distillate comprising the alkenoic acid.
• the distillation or reactive distillation may represent a purification step.
• the lactone used in step (a) may be any suitable lactone.
• the lactone may have any suitable number of carbon atoms.
• the lactone may be a propiolactone, a butyrolactone, a valerolactone or a caprolactone.
• the lactone may have any suitable heterocycle ring size.
• the lactone may be a ⁇ -lactone, a ⁇ -lactone, a ⁇ - lactone or a ⁇ -lactone.
• the lactone may be ⁇ -lactone propiolactone, ⁇ - valerolactone, ⁇ -valerolactone, ⁇ -caprolactone or ⁇ -caprolactone.
• the process according to the invention may further comprise the step of preparing the lactone prior to step (a).
• the alkenoic acid produced in step (a) is determined by the lactone used. For example, if the lactone is ⁇ -vaierolactone, the alkenoic acid produced in step (a) is pentenoic acid.
• the alkenoic acid produced in step (a) may comprise a single isomer or a plurality of isomers.
• the alkenoic acid produced in step (a) comprises pentenoic acid
• the alkenoic acid may comprise one or more or 2-pentenoic acid, 3- pentenoic acid and 4-pentenoic acid.
• the alkenoic acid may comprise 2-pentenoic acid and 3-pentenoic acid, 2-pentenoic acid and 4-pentenoic acid, 3-pentenoic acid and 4- pentenoic acid or 2-pentenoic acid, 3-pentenoic acid and 4-pentenoic acid.
• the alkenoic acid comprises 2-pentenoic acid
• the 2-pentenoic acid may comprise one or both of c/s-2-pentenoic acid and - /ra/7s-2-pentenoic acid.
• the -alkenoic- acid comprises 3-pentenoic acid
• the 3-pentenoic acid may comprise one or both of c/s-3- pentenoic acid and frans-3-pentenoic acid.
• the first catalyst system may be any suitable catalyst system capable of catalysing the conversion of a lactone to an unsaturated carbox lic acid.
• the first catalyst system may comprise an acidic catalyst.
• the first catalyst system may be a homogenous catalyst or a heterogeneous solid catalyst.
• the homogeneous acidic catalyst may comprise one or more of the group consisting of alumina, silica, zeolites (for example, X zeolites, ZSM-5, HZSM-5 and mordenite), clays (for example, montmorillonite), sulphuric acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid or methanesulfonic acid.
• the first catalyst system may comprise, for example, any of the following mixtures: alumina and silica, alumina and a zeolite, alumina and a clay, alumina and sulphuric acid, alumina and p-toluenesulfonic acid, alumina and methanesulfonic acid, silica and a zeolite, silica and a clay, silica and sulphuric acid, silica and p-toluenesulfonic acid, silica and methanesulfonic acid, a zeolite and a clay, a zeolite and sulphuric acid, a zeolite and p-toluenesulfonic acid, a zeolite and methanesulfonic acid, a clay and sulphuric acid, a clay and sulphuric acid, a clay and sulphuric acid, a clay and p-toluene
• Step (a) may be carried out substantially in the absence of water.
• the process according to the present invention may comprise the step of removing water from the lactone and/or from the first catalyst system prior to step (a).
• the process according to the present invention may comprise the step of removing water from any apparatus used in step (a) prior to this step.
• Step (a) may be carried out at any suitable temperature.
• Step (a) may be carried out at a temperature at or above the normal boiling point of the lactone or step (a) may be carried out at a temperature at or above the boiling point of the lactone at the pressure at which step (a) is carried out.
• Step (a) may be carried out at a temperature of between about 150°C and 400°C.
• step (a) may be carried out at a temperature between about 150°C and about 160°C, 170°C, 180°C, 190°C, 200°C, 210°C, 220°C, 230°C, 240°C, 250°C, 260°C, 270°C, 280°C, 290°C, 300°C, 310°C, 320°C, 330°C, 340°C, 350°C, 360°C, 370°C, 380°C, 390°C or 400°C; between about 160°C and about 170°C, 180°C, 190°C, 200°C, 210°C, 220°C, 230°C, 240°C, 250°C, 260°C, 270°C, 280°C, 290°C, 300°C, 310°C, 320°C, 330°C, 340°C, 350°C, 360°C, 370°C, 380°C, 390X or 400°C
• Step (a) may be carried out at a temperature of about 150°C, 155°C, 160°C, 165°C, 170°C, 175°C, 180°C, 185°C, 190°C, 195°C, 200°C, 205°C, 210°C, 215°C, 220°C, 225°C, 230°C, 235°C, 240°C, 245°C, 250°C, 255°C, 260°C, 265°C, 270°C, 275°C, 280°C, 285°C, 290°C, 295°C, 300°C, 305°C, 310°C, 315°C, 320°C, 325°C, 330°C, 335°C, 340°C, 345°C, 350°C, 355°C, 360°C, 365°C, 370°C, 375°C, 380°C, 385°C, 390°C, 395°
• Step (a) may be carried out at any suitable pressure.
• Step (a) may be carried out at a pressure of between about 0.5 bar and about 30 bar.
• Step (a) may be carried out at a pressure of between about 0.5 bar and about 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25 or 30 bar, between about 1 bar and about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25 or 30 bar, between about 2 bar and about 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25 or 30 bar, between about 3 bar and about 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25 or 30 bar, between about 4 bar and about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25 or 30 bar, between about 5 bar and about 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25 or 30 bar, between about 6 bar and about 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25 or 30 bar, between about 7 bar and about 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25 or 30 bar, between about 8 bar and about 9, 10, 5, 20, 25 or 30 bar, between about 9 bar and about 10, 15, 20, 25 or 30 bar, between about 10 bar and about 15, 20, 25 or 30 bar,
• Step (a) may be carried out at a pressure of about 0.5, 0.75, 1 , 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11 , 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 19.5, 20, 20.5, 21 , 21.5, 22, 22.5, 23, 23.5, 24, 24.5, 25, 25.5, 26, 26.5, 27, 27.5, 28, 28.5, 29. 29.5 or 30 bar.
• Step (a) may be carried out at a pressure of about 1 bar.
• the first catalyst system and the temperature and pressure of step (a) contribute to determining the percent conversion of lactone to alkenoic acid.
• the first catalyst system and the temperature and pressure of step (a) may be such that conversion of lactone to alkenoic acid in step (a) is greater than 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 99.5%.
• the first catalyst system and the temperature and pressure of step (a) may be such that conversion of lactone to alkenoic acid in step (a) is between about 10% and about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100%, between about 20% and about 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100%, between about 30% and about 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100%, between about 40% and - - about 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%; 80%, 85%, 90%,- 91%, 92% 7 93%, 94%, 95% r 96%, 97%— 98%,
• the first catalyst system and the temperature and pressure of step (a) may be such that conversion of lactone to alkenoic acid in step (a) is about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%,
• step (a) may produce a reaction composition of the alkenoic acid and unreacted lactone.
• the process according to the invention may further comprise a step (a1),
• step (a1) of separating part or substantially all the unreacted lactone from the pentenoic acid produced in step (a).
• the separation of the unreacted lactone in step (a1) may be achieved by any suitable means.
• the separation in step (a1) may be achieved using a flashing unit, a normal distillation unit, a vacuum distillation unit, chromatography or crystallisation.
• step (a1) the process may comprise a further step (a2), subsequent to step (a1), of recycling the separated unreacted lactone to step (a).
• step (b) of the process according to the present invention the dicarboxylic acid
• step 35 produced is determined by the alkenoic acid used and, therefore, the lactone used in step (a).
• the lactone used in step (a) is y-valerolactone
• the alkenoie aoid produced in step (a) is pentenoic acid
• the dicarboxylic acid produced in step (b) is adipic acid.
• Step (b) may include preparation of the second catalyst system in situ.
• step (b) may include combining the catalyst precursors.
• the process according to the invention may comprise an additional step of preparing a palladium catalyst.
• the additional step may include combining the catalyst precursors.
• the second catalyst system may be any suitable catalyst system.
• the second catalyst system may comprise a catalyst based on an element from group 9 or group 10 of the periodic table.
• the second catalyst system may comprise a palladium catalyst, a platinum catalyst, a nickel catalyst, an iridium catalyst or a rhodium catalyst.
• the second catalyst system may comprise a palladium catalyst.
• the second catalyst system may comprise a palladium catalyst of formula (I):
• R 1 , R 2 , R 5 and R 6 may independently be an optionally substituted organic group or R and R 2 and/or R 5 and R 6 , together with the P atom to which they are attached, may form a cyclic group.
• R 1 , R 2 , R 5 and R 6 may each independently represent a tertiary alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclyl, aryl or heteroaryl.
• R 1 , R 2 , R 5 and R 6 may each independently represent tertiary butyl, adamantyl or phenyl, or, together with the P atom to which they are attached, form a phospha trioxa-adamantane group of formula (III):
• R 7 , R 8 , R 9 and R 0 may each independently represent an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl group.
• R 7 , R 8 , R 9 and R 10 may, for example, each independently represent an optionally substituted alkyl, haloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl.
• R 7 , R 8 , R 9 and R 10 may each independently represent an optionally substituted (VCe-alkyl, Ci-C 6 -haloalkyl, C 6 -C 10 -aryl, C 4 -C 8 -heteroaryl, C -C 10 - cycloalkyi or C 4 -C8-heterocycly):
• the haloalkyl may comprise one or more-halogen-atoms-- selected from the group consisting of F, CI and Br.
• R 7 , R 8 , R and R 10 may each independently represent CF 3 .
• the heteroaryl and heterocyclyl may comprise N, S or O atoms.
• the process according to the invention may comprise the step of preparing a palladium catalyst of formula (I) by combining a palladium compound, a bidentate diphosphine and an acid. This may be conducted in situ or may be conducted separately. Step (b) may include preparing a palladium catalyst of formula (I) by combining a palladium compound, a bidentate diphosphine and an acid.
• X in formula (I) may be derived from the acid used to prepare the palladium catalyst.
• the bidentate diphosphine used to prepare the palladium catalyst may be any suitable bidentate diphosphine.
• the bidentate diphosphine may have the formula (II): (R 1 )(R 2 )P— R 3 — Ar— R 4 — P(R 5 )(R 6 )
• Ar is an optionally substituted aromatic group
• R 1 and R 2 may either be the same or different and may represent a tertiary alkyl or, together with the P atom to which they are attached, may form a phospha trioxa- adamantane group having formula (III):
• R 7 , R 8 , R 9 and R 10 may each independently represent an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl group
• R 3 and R 4 each independently represent an optionally substituted alkylene group; and R 5 and R 6 each independently represent an optionally substituted organic group or together with the P atom to which they are attached, form a cyclic group.
• R 3 and R 4 may occupy ortho positions on Ar.
• R 5 and R 6 may each independently represent a tertiary alkyl, cycloalkyi, heterocyclyl or aryl.
• R 5 and R 6 may each independently represent tertiary butyl, adamantyl or phenyl, or, together with the P atom to which they are attached, form a phospha trioxa-adamantane group of formula (111).
• the bidentate diphosphine may, for example, be 1 ,2-bis[di(f-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene.
• the palladium compound used to prepare the palladium catalyst may be any suitable palladium compound.
• the palladium compound may be selected from the group consisting of palladium (ii) compounds (e.g., palladium carboxylates) and palladium(O) compounds.
• the palladium compound may be palladium acetate, palladium tosylate, tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) or palladium acetylacetonate.
• the second catalyst system may comprise a palladium catalyst derived from palladium acetate, 1 ,2-bis[di(i-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene, and methane sulfonic acid (Scheme 1).
• the palladium catalyst may be prepared in situ by combining palladium acetate, 1 ,2-bis[di(i-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene, and methane sulfonic acid.
• the process according to the invention may comprise an additional step of preparing the palladium catalyst by combining palladium acetate, 1 ,2-bis[di(f-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene, and methane sulfonic acid.
• the acid used to prepare the palladium catalyst may be any suitable acid, having any suitable pKa.
• the acid may be a monoprotic acid or a polyprotic acid.
• the acid may have a pKa (measured in water at 18°C) of less than about 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 , 0, -1 , -2, -5, -10 or -15.
• the acid may have a pKa (measured in water at 18°C) of between about 5 and about 4, 3, 2, 1 , 0, -1 , -2, -5, -10 or -15, between about 4 and about 3, 2, 1 , 0, -1 , -2, -5, - 10 or -15, between about 3 and about 2, 1 , 0, -1 , -2, -5, -10 or -15, between about 2 and about 1 , 0, -1 , -2, -5, -10 or -15, between about 1 and about 0, -1 , -2, -5, -10 or -15, between about 0 and about -1 , -2, -5, -10 or -15, between about -1 and -2, -5, -10 or -15, between about -1 and -2, -5, -10 or -15, between about -2 and about -5, -10 or -15, between about -5 and about -10 or -15, between about -5 and about -10 or -15, or between about -10 and -15.
• the acid may have a pKa (measured in water at 18°C) of about 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 , 0, -1 , -2, -5, -10 or -15.
• the acid may be selected from the group consisting of sulfonic acids, sulphuric acids, phosphorous acids and carboxylic acids.
• the acid may be a C C 10 aliphatic acid.
• the acid may be selected from the group consisting of methanesulfonic acid, triflic acid, trifluoroacetic acid and acetic acid.
• the acid may be the- alkenoic acid produced in -step- (a) of- the- process -of-the present- invention.
• the acid used to prepare the palladium catalyst may be present at any suitable concentration relative to the palladium compound and bidentate diphosphine.
• the acid may be present in molar excess relative to the palladium compound (i.e., the molar ratio of the acid to the palladium compound is greater than 1 :1).
• the molar ratio of the acid to the palladium compound may be greater than about 1 (i.e., 1 :1), 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 5000 or 10000.
• the molar ratio of the acid to the palladium compound may be between about 1 and about 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 5000 or 10000, between about 1.5 and about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 5000 or 10000, between about 2 and about 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 5000 or 10000, between about 3 and about 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 5000 or 10000, between about 4 and about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 5000 or
• the molar ratio of the acid to the palladium compound may be about 1 , 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 5000 or 10000.
• Step (b) may be carried out substantially in the absence of oxygen.
• the process according to the present invention may comprise the step of removing oxygen from the water and second catalyst system prior to step (b).
• the process according to the present invention may comprise the step of removing oxygen from any apparatus used in step (b) prior to this step.
• the step of removing oxygen may comprise any suitable means of removing oxygen.
• the step may comprise purging with an inert gas, one or more freeze-pump-thaw cycles or use of an oxygen scavenger.
• Step (b) may be carried out in an inert atmosphere.
• step (b) may be carried out in an argon atmosphere.
• Step (b) may be carried out at any suitable temperature.
• Step (b) may be carried out at a temperature of between about 30°C and about 150°C.
• step (b) may be carried out at a temperature of between about 30°C and about 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, 80°C, 90°C, 100°C, 1 10°C, 120°C, 130°C, 140°C or 150°C, between about 40°C and about 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, 80°C, 90°C, 100°C, 1 10°C, 120°C, 130°C, 140°C or 150°C, between about 50°C and about 60°C, 70°C, 80°C, 90°C, 100°C, 1 10°C, 120°C, 130°C, 140°C or 150°C, between about 60°C and about 70°C, 80°C, 90°C, 100°C, 1 10°C, 120°C, 130°C, 140°C or 150°C,
• Step (b) may be carried out at a temperature of about 30°C, 35°C, 40°C, 45°C, 50°C, 55°C, 60°C, 65°C, 70°C, 75°C, 80°C, 85°C, 90°C, 95°C, 100°C, 105°C, 110°C, 115°C, 120°C, 125°C, 130°C, 135°C, 140°C, 145°C or 150°C.
• Step (b) may be carried out at any suitable pressure.
• Step (b) may be carried out at a pressure of between about 1 bar and about 150 bar.
• step (b) may be carried out at a pressure of between about 1 bar and about 2, 3, 5, 0, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140 or 150 bar, between about 2 bar and about 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140 or 150 bar, between about 3 bar and about 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 1 10, 120, 130, 140 or 150 bar, between about 5 bar and about 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140 or 150 bar, between about 10 bar and about 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 1 0, 120, 130, 140 or 150 bar, between about 20 bar and about 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 1 0, 120, 130,
• Step (b) may be carried out a temperature of about 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145 or 150 bar.
• the second catalyst system and the temperature and pressure of step (b) contribute to determining the percent conversion of alkenoic acid to dicarboxylic acid.
• the second catalyst system, the temperature of step (b) and the pressure of step (b) may be such that the conversion of alkenoic acid to dicarboxylic acid in step (b) is greater than 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 99.5%.
• the second catalyst system, the temperature of step (b) and the pressure of step (b) may be such that the conversion of alkenoic acid to dicarboxylic acid in step (b) is between about 10% and about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100%, between about 20% and about 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%!
• the second catalyst system, the temperature of step (b) and the pressure of step (b) may be such that the conversion of alkenoic acid to dicarboxyiic acid in step (b) is about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.1 %, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9% or 100%.
• step (b) produces a reaction composition of the alkenoic acid and unreacted lactone
• the reaction composition produced in step (b) may comprise part or substantially all of the unreacted lactone from step (a).
• the process of the present invention may further comprise a step (b1), subsequent to step (b), of separating part or substantially all the unreacted lactone from one the dicarboxyiic acid present in the reaction composition.
• Step (b1) may also comprise separating part or substantially all the unreacted lactone from the second catalyst system and/or any other components present in the reaction composition, such as unreacted alkenoic acid.
• the separation of the unreacted lactone in step (b1) may be achieved by any suitable means.
• the separation in step (b1) may be achieved using a flashing unit, normal distillation unit or vacuum distillation unit.
• step (b1) the process may comprise a further step (b2), subsequent to step (b1), of recycling the separate unreacted lactone to step (a) and/or step (b).
• step (b) may produce a reaction composition comprising unreacted alkenoic acid.
• the process of the present invention may further comprise a step (b3), subsequent to step (b); of separating part or substantially all-the-unreaeted alkenoic acid ⁇ - from the dicarboxylic acid.
• Step (b3) may also comprise separating part or substantially all the unreacted alkenoic acid from the second catalyst system and/or any other components present in the reaction composition, such as unreacted lactone.
• the separation of the unreacted alkenoic acid in step (b3) may be achieved by any suitable means.
• the separation in step (b3) may be achieved using a flashing unit, normal distillation unit or vacuum distillation unit.
• step (b3) the process may comprise a further step (b4), subsequent to step (b1), of recycling the separated unreacted alkenoic acid to step (a) and/or step (b).
• the process according to the present invention may further comprise the step (c), subsequent to step (b), of separating the dicarboxylic acid from the remainder of the reaction composition to produce a first portion comprising the dicarboxylic acid and a second portion comprising the second catalyst system.
• the first portion, comprising the dicarboxylic acid may comprise substantially none of the second catalyst system.
• the process according to the invention may further comprise the step of washing the first portion.
• Step (b) may be carried out in a solvent.
• the solvent may be such that the dicarboxylic acid separates from the unreacted alkenoic acid in step (c) by crystallisation.
• the solvent may be such that the dicarboxylic acid can be separated from the unreacted alkenoic acid in step (c) by reducing the temperature of the reaction composition, thereby causing the dicarboxylic acid to crystallise.
• the solvent may, for example, be unreacted lactone from step (a), additional lactone of the type used in step (a) or some other solvent in which the dicarboxylic acid is less soluble than the alkenoic acid under certain conditions, for example bis(2-methoxyethyl) ether (diglyme).
• Step (c) may comprise reducing the temperature of the reaction composition, by any suitable means, such that the dicarboxylic acid crystallises.
• the process of the present invention comprises step (c)
• the process may further comprise the step (d) of recycling the second portion, comprising the second catalyst system, to step (b).
• the process according to the present invention may be used for preparing adipic acid.
• the process according to the invention may comprise the steps of: (a) heating y-valerolactone in the presence of an acidic catalyst to produce a mixture of pentenoic acid isomers and (b) carbonylation of the mixture of pentenoic acid isomers to adipie acid in the presence of a palladium -catalyst and .water to- generate adipie acid with high selectivity (Scheme 2).
• the high selectivity to adipie acid may be attributed to rapid equilibration between pentenoic acid isomers and the slow carbonylation of internal olefinic carbons relative to the terminal olefinic carbon, i.e. k 6 » ki > k 2 , k 3 , k4, and k 5 (Scheme 3).
• the process according to the invention may further comprise the step of preparing the ⁇ -valerolactone by hydrogenation of levulinic acid.
• the process according to the invention may further comprise the step of preparing the levulinic acid by acid catalysed hydrolysis of cellulose.
• the process according to the invention may further comprise the step of preparing the cellulose by cracking lignocellulose (Scheme 4). Scheme 4:
• a suitable process according to the invention may comprise the following steps (Fig. 1):
• step (a2) optionally recycling the separated unreacted ⁇ -valerolactone from step (a1) to step (a); .
• step (b2) optionally recycling the separated unreacted ⁇ -valeroiactone to step (a) and/or step (b);
• step (a) and/or step (b) optionally recycling the separated unreacted pentenoic acid to step (a) and/or step (b); (c) optionally " separating the adipic acid from the -remainder of the reaction composition to produce a first portion comprising the adipic acid and a second portion comprising the second catalyst system; and
• step (d) optionally recycling the second portion, comprising the second catalyst system, to step (b).
• the process according to the invention illustrated in Fig. 1 may further comprise the step of washing the first portion obtained in step (c).
• the adipic acid produced by the process according to the invention may be used as a monomer in a process for the preparation of a polymer.
• the adipic acid may be used in the preparation of Nylon 6-6, having the formula:
• the adipic acid may be used in a process comprising copolymerising the adipic acid with hexamethylenediamine to form Nylon 6-6.
• Example 1 Preparation of pentenoic acid isomers via catalytic distillation of v- valerolactone
• Example 2 The method of Example 2 was repeated and 45 ml of distillate was collected. GC- analysis showed that the distillate contained 14.8% ⁇ -valerolactone, 32.2% 2-pentenoic acid, 35.4% 3-pentenoic acid, 17.1% 4-pentenoic acid and 0.5% other impurities.
• Example 5 Carbonylation of an isomeric mixture of pentenoic acids to adipic acid
• a stainless steel 300 ml Parr reactor was charged with degassed diglyme (40 ml), degassed deionised water (5.0 ml, 228 mmol), and degassed distillate prepared by the method described in Example 1 (13.6 ml, 61.6 mmol pentenoic acid isomers: distillate composition by GC-analysis: 12% 2-pentenoic acid, 20% 3-pentenoic acid, 14% 4- pentenoic acid and 54% ⁇ -valerolactone) under a stream of argon gas.
• the Parr reactor was evacuated and refilled with CO (2 bar).
• a yellow solution of catalyst (0.2 mol% Pd relative to total pentenoic acid isomers) consisting of palladium acetate (30.5 mg, 0.14 mmol), 1 ,2-bis[di(f-butyl)phosphinomethyl]ben2ene (108.2 mg, 0.27 mmol), and methane sulfonic acid (0.1 mL, 1.5 mmol) in diglyme (10 ml) was injected into the reactor under a stream of CO gas. The Parr reactor was then pressurised with CO (60 bar). The reaction mixture was stirred at 1000 rpm. The Parr reactor was heated at 105°C for 5h. After 5h, the reactor was cooled, vented and opened to air.
• catalyst 0.2 mol% Pd relative to total pentenoic acid isomers
• Example 6 Carbonylation of an isomeric mixture of pentenoic acids to adipic acid
• a stainless steel 300 ml Parr reactor was charged with degassed diglyme (40 ml), degassed deionised water (5.0 ml, 228 mmol), and degassed distillate prepared by the method described in Example 1 (15.0 ml, 84.2 mmol-pentenoic acid- isomers: distillate composition by 1 H NMR: 9% 2-pentenoic acid, 29% 3-pentenoic acid, 19% 4-pentenoic acid and 43%; ⁇ -valerolactone) under a stream of argon gas.
• a yellow solution of catalyst (0.2 mol% Pd relative to total pentenoic acid isomers) consisting of palladium acetate (39.9 mg, 0.18 mmol), 1 ,2-bis[di(i-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene (133.0 mg, 0.34 mmol), and methane sulfonic acid (0.1 ml, 1 :5 mmol) in diglyme (14 ml) was then injected into the reactor under a stream of argon gas. The Parr reactor was then pressurised with CO (60 bar). The reaction mixture was stirred at 1000 rpm. The Pan- reactor was heated at 105°C for 5 h. After 5h, the reactor was cooled, vented and opened to air.
• catalyst 0.2 mol% Pd relative to total pentenoic acid isomers
• a yellow reaction mixture was obtained, from which white adipic acid crystals were separated and washed with acetonitrile.
• the yellow mother liquor was placed in a refrigerator to further crystallise out the remaining adipic acid.
• the crude adipic acid was filtered and washed with acetonitrile.
• the combined adipic acid fractions were dried under vacuum at 60 °C to give 5.855 g of adipic acid crystals (40.1 mmol, m.p. 151.5°C-155.8°C).
• Analysis of the crude reaction mixture by 3 C NMR showed adipic acid as the only product, with unreacted ⁇ -valerolactone from the distillate also present.
• Example 6 The method of Example 6 was repeated using degassed 2-pentenoic acid (15.0 ml, 148 mmol) instead of the mixture of pentenoic acid isomers.
• the yellow solution of catalyst (0.2 mol% Pd relative to 2-pentenoic acid) consisting of palladium acetate (66.7 mg, 0.30 mmol), 1 ,2-bis[di(f-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene (234.8 mg, 0.60 mmol), and methane sulfonic acid (0.1 mL, 1.5 mmol) in diglyme (18 ml) was injected into the reactor under a stream of argon gas. After 5h, the reactor was cooled, vented and opened to air.
• a yellow reaction mixture was obtained, from which white adipic acid crystals were separated and washed with acetonitrile.
• the yellow mother liquor was placed in a refrigerator to further crystallise out the remaining adipic acid.
• the crude adipic acid was filtered and washed with acetonitrile.
• the combined adipic acid fractions were dried under vacuum at 60°C to give 12.16 g of adipic acid crystals (85.5 mmol).
• Analysis of the crude reaction mixture by 13 C NMR showed the presence of unreacted 2-pentenoic acid as well as adipic acid.
• Example 8 Carbonylation of 3-pentenoic acid to adipic acid
• Example 6 The method of Example 6 was repeated using degassed 3-pentenoic acid (15.0 ml, 148 mmol) instead of the mixture of pentenoic acid isomers.
• the yellow solution of catalyst (0.2 mol% Pd relative to 3-pentenoic acid) consisting of palladium acetate (58.6 mg, 0.26 mmol), 1 ,2-bis[di(f-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene (198:9 mgr0:50-mmol) r and methane sulfonic acid (0.1 mL, 1.5 mmol) in diglyme (18 ml) was injected into the reactor under a stream of CO gas. After 5h, the reactor was cooled, vented and opened to air.
• Example 6 The method of Example 6 was repeated using degassed 4-pentenoic acid (14.0 ml, 137 mmol) instead of the mixture of pentenoic acid isomers.
• the yellow solution of catalyst (0.2 mol% Pd relative to 4-pentenoic acid) consisting of palladium acetate (62.1 mg, 0.28 mmol), 1 ,2-bis[di(i-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene (216.9 mg, 0.55 mmol), and methane sulfonic acid (0.1 mL, 1.5 mmol) in diglyme (15 ml) was injected into the reactor under a stream of argon gas. After 5h, the reactor was cooled, vented and opened to air.
• a Hastelloy 300 ml Parr reactor was charged with degassed diglyme (50 ml), degassed deionised water (5.0 ml, 228 mmol), and degassed 3-pentenoic acid (15.0 ml, 148 mmol) under a stream of argon gas.
• a yellow solution of catalyst (0.2 mol% Pd relative to 3-pentenoic acid) consisting of palladium acetate (69.9 mg, 0.31 mmol), 1 ,2- bis[di(i-butyl)phosphinomethyl]benzene (236.6 mg, 0.60 mmol) and methane sulfonic acid (0.1 mL, 1.5 mmol) in diglyme (18 ml) was then injected into the reactor under a stream of argon gas. The Parr reactor was then pressurised with CO (60 bar). The reaction mixture was stirred at 1000 rpm. The Parr reactor was heated at 105°C for 5h.
• the reactor was cooled and vented and the mother liquor was transferred into a Schienk flask using a cannula under a stream of argon gas.
• the yellow mother liquor was placed in a refrigerator to further crystallise out the adipic acid.
• the reactor vessel was then opened to air.
• the obtained adipic acid was filtered, washed with acetonitrile and dried under vacuum at 60°C to give 10.061 g of white adipic acid crystals (68.9 mmol).
• Analysis of the crude reaction " mixture by e ⁇ NM ⁇ showed the presence of 2- pentenoic acid and other by-products in addition to adipic acid.
• Example 11 Carbonylation of recycled crude reaction mixture to adipic acid
• a Hastelloy ® 300 ml Parr reactor was charged with degassed 3-pentenoic acid (15.0 ml, 148 mmol), and the mother liquor from Example 10 under a stream of argon gas. The Parr reactor was then pressurised with CO (60 bar). The reaction mixture was stirred at 1000 rpm. The Parr reactor was heated at 105°C for 5h. After 5h, the reactor was cooled and vented and the mother liquor was transferred into a Schienk flask using a cannula under a stream of argon gas. The yellow mother liquor was placed in a refrigerator to further crystallise out the adipic acid. The reactor vessel was then opened to air.
• adipic acid was filtered, washed with acetonitrile and dried under vacuum at 60°C to give 1 1.243 g of white adipic acid crystals (76.9 mmol).
• Analysis of the crude reaction mixture by GC and NMR showed the presence of pentenoic acid isomers and ⁇ -valerolactone in addition to adipic acid.

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