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• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K39/00—Medicinal preparations containing antigens or antibodies
  • A61K39/0005—Vertebrate antigens
  • A61K39/001—Preparations to induce tolerance to non-self, e.g. prior to transplantation
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P37/00—Drugs for immunological or allergic disorders
  • A61P37/02—Immunomodulators
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07K—PEPTIDES
  • C07K14/00—Peptides having more than 20 amino acids; Gastrins; Somatostatins; Melanotropins; Derivatives thereof
  • C07K14/435—Peptides having more than 20 amino acids; Gastrins; Somatostatins; Melanotropins; Derivatives thereof from animals; from humans
  • C07K14/705—Receptors; Cell surface antigens; Cell surface determinants
  • C07K14/70546—Integrin superfamily
  • C07K14/70553—Integrin beta2-subunit-containing molecules, e.g. CD11, CD18
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07K—PEPTIDES
  • C07K16/00—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies
  • C07K16/18—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans
  • C07K16/28—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans against receptors, cell surface antigens or cell surface determinants
  • C07K16/2803—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans against receptors, cell surface antigens or cell surface determinants against the immunoglobulin superfamily
  • C07K16/2821—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans against receptors, cell surface antigens or cell surface determinants against the immunoglobulin superfamily against ICAM molecules, e.g. CD50, CD54, CD102
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07K—PEPTIDES
  • C07K16/00—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies
  • C07K16/18—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans
  • C07K16/28—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans against receptors, cell surface antigens or cell surface determinants
  • C07K16/2803—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans against receptors, cell surface antigens or cell surface determinants against the immunoglobulin superfamily
  • C07K16/2833—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans against receptors, cell surface antigens or cell surface determinants against the immunoglobulin superfamily against MHC-molecules, e.g. HLA-molecules
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  • C12N9/00—Enzymes; Proenzymes; Compositions thereof; Processes for preparing, activating, inhibiting, separating or purifying enzymes
  • C12N9/88—Lyases (4.)
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K39/00—Medicinal preparations containing antigens or antibodies
  • A61K2039/57—Medicinal preparations containing antigens or antibodies characterised by the type of response, e.g. Th1, Th2
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07K—PEPTIDES
  • C07K2319/00—Fusion polypeptide

Definitions

• the present invention concerns immune responses initiated by the recognition of a peptide:MHC complex on the surface of antigen presenting cells by T-cells.
• the present invention also concerns immune responses initiated by the binding of a Signal-2 moiety to its complement protein on the surface of an antigen presenting cell. More particularly, the present invention concerns the immune responses initiated by the recognition of the peptide:MHC by the T-cell and by the binding of a Signal-2 moiety to its complement protein. Still more particularly, the present invention concerns the modification of the typical immune response generated by a particular individual in response to this binding.
• the present invention concerns the conjugation of peptides derived from the peptide portion of the peptide:MHC complex to the preferred Signal-2 moiety in order to modify or shift a given immune response from type-1 to type-2 or from type-2 to type-1.
• This may include specific phenotypes of regulatory T-cells including suppressor T-cells.
• TDDM insulin- dependent diabetes mellitus
• MHC major histocompatability complex
• MHC molecules bind fragments (peptides) of proteins from infectious agents, allergens, and self proteins, and this MHC:peptide complex is the structure that T-cells recognize with their receptor (called the T-cell receptor, or TCR).
• TCR T-cell receptor
• the MHC: ⁇ eptide complex is displayed on the surfaces of other cells of the immune system (i.e., B cells, dendritic cells and macrophages) which are called antigen presenting cells (APC).
• B cells i.e., B cells, dendritic cells and macrophages
• APC antigen presenting cells
• the major regulatory cell of the immune system the undifferentiated T-cell, must be presented with small breakdown products (peptides) of the foreign invader. This presentation occurs on the surface of the APC.
• the T-cell must then interact with the APC, and this interaction stimulates the T-cell to divide and differentiate to produce molecules that attack, either directly or indirectly, cells displaying the same or highly similar MHC:peptide complex.
• MHC MHC:peptide complex
• the genes that encode the MHC molecules are extremely variable within the species, and the different MHC alleles prefer to bind some peptides over others.
• the existence of different MHC alleles helps to explain why some members of a species develop conditions such as autoimmune diseases, allergies, asthma, and even certain infectious diseases, while others remain seemingly unaffected, or immune, to the same substances. Other differences arise because cell surface proteins distinct from the peptide:MHC complex must also bind to specific receptors on the T-cell.
• Signal-2 which, along with the signal generated by the TCR recognition of the MHC:peptide complex (known as Signal-1), initiates an immune response.
• a defining stage of the immune response is the differentiation of CD4 + T-cells into either type-1 helper T-cells (T H 1 cells) or type-2 helper T-cells (T H 2 cells) as a result of the two signals.
• T H 1 cells type-1 helper T-cells
• T H 2 cells type-2 helper T-cells
• T H 1 cells type-1 helper T-cells
• T H 2 cells type-2 helper T-cells
• Interleukin-12 a cytokine produced by immune cells known as macrophages and dendritic cells.
• Interleukin-12 induces or stimulates the naive T-cell (CD4 + T-cells) to produce interferon- ⁇ (IFN- ⁇ ) and interleukin-2 (IL-2).
• IFN- ⁇ interferon- ⁇
• IL-2 and IFN- ⁇ are involved in classic cell-mediated functions such as clonal expansion of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs), macrophage activation, and class switching to IgG isotypes that mediate complement lysis of sensitized cells.
• T H 1 immune response is enhanced by the presence of IFN- ⁇ which up- regulates expression of the interleukin- 12 (IL- 12) receptor while inhibiting the development of T H 2 cells.
• T H 2 immunity results from the production of interleukin-4 (IL-4) by the naive
• IL-4 induces T H 2 development and the subsequent production of interleukins-4 (IL- 4), -5 (IL-5), -10 (IL-10), and -13 (IL-13).
• IL-4 also operates to down-regulate expression of the IL-12 receptor on developing cells, thereby inhibiting T H 1 development and helping undifferentiated T-cells to commit to T H 2 cell development.
• IL-4 and IL-5 are known to activate B cells and switch to neutralizing antibody (IgGl in the mouse) and IgE, the initiator of immediate hypersensitivity.
• Signal-1 occurs when the T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) recognizes the peptide:MHC-II complex on the surface of an antigen presenting cell (APC).
• APC antigen presenting cell
• This first signal passes through the T-cell receptor and initiates a cascade of tyrosine phosphorylation/dephosphorylation events mediated by kinases and phosphatases and leads to the activation of Ca ⁇ flux, nuclear factor of activated T cells (NF- AT) and NFKB transcription factors. These factors enter the nucleus of the T-cell and bind to promoters of genes responsible for effector functions.
• Signal-2 arises from the binding of Signal-2 receptors to their ligands on the surface of an APC.
• Signal-2 receptors include CD28 and its ligand B7 as well as LFA-1 and its ligand ICAM-1.
• a series of signaling events occur. These events include serine/threonine phosphorylation/dephosphory-lation and activation of guanine nucleotide exchange factors that activate adapter proteins with GTPase activity. These signaling events activate a separate set of transcription factors.
• the signal delivered through the CD28:B7 complex is distinct from that delivered from the ICAM-1 :LF A- 1 complex, particularly with respect to the differentiation of CD4 + T-cells into T H 1 versus T H 2 effector populations.
• the CD4 + T-cell differentiation favors T H 1 cells which are abundant producers of IL-2 and IFN ⁇ , the preeminent initiators of inflammatory immune responses including delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), immunity to intracellular pathogens, and several autoimmune diseases.
• DTH delayed-type hypersensitivity
• the CD4 + T-cells differentiate into T H 2 cells.
• T H 2 cells In contrast to T H 1 cells, T H 2 cells do not produce abundant IL-2 or IFN ⁇ cytokines, but instead release the mediators of immediate-type hypersensitivity such as allergy and asthma, i.e., IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, and IL-13.
• the ability to manipulate the relative contribution of the complex providing the second signal has a profound effect on the type of immune response that is elicited against a given self-tissue antigen.
• the associations between the TCR and APC occur at a specialized junction or interface between the TCR and the APC called the immunological synapse.
• An immune synapse is depicted schematically in Fig. 1. This immune synapse can be defined as the organized structure of activation molecules that assemble at the interface between the T-cell and the APC. Like a synapse in the nervous system, the immune synapse is a close association between cellular membranes. In order for an immune response to ensue, the major regulatory cell of the immune system, the undifferentiated T-cell must be presented with small breakdown products (peptides) of the foreign invader. In an unactivated T-cell,
• TCR and adhesion molecules are dispersed randomly on the T-cell membrane.
• the formation of the immunological synapse is an active and dynamic mechanism that allows T-cells to distinguish potential antigenic ligands.
• the immunological synapse consists of a central cluster of T-cell receptors surrounded by a ring of adhesion molecules.
• adhesion molecules such as LFA-1 and the peptide-recognition receptor (TCR) to form a doughnut-like structure with the TCR on the inside and LFA-1 on the outside.
• TCR and LFA-1 molecules pass by each other within the T-cell lipid bilayer during the formation of the doughnut- like structure (this process is called translocation).
• T H 1 cells and type-1 immunity a program that ultimately activates IL-4 production
• T H 2 cells and type-2 immunity a program that ultimately activates IL-4 production
• the TCR recognizes the peptide:MHC-II complex and sends Signal-1 to the T-cell.
• LFA-1 binds to ICAM-1, and these molecules, along with the peptide:MHC-II complex, translocate to form the end-stage immune synapse.
• CD40 ligand CD 154
• CD40 interaction expressed on the antigen presenting cell
• IL-12 IL-12
• IL-12 binds to its receptor on the undifferentiated T H cell and initiates the T H 1 program, including the up-regulation of the transcription regulators, Stat4 and.Tbet.
• T H 1 dominance against the autoantigen e.g., glutamic acid decarboxylase, GAD65
• GAD65 glutamic acid decarboxylase
• the TCR can recognize the same peptide:MHC-II complex, thereby sending Signal-1.
• a weaker strength of Signal-1 and/or altered or blocked binding between Signal-2 moieties leads to an altered form of the end-stage immune synapse.
• this lower strength of Signal-1 or distinct participation of the LFA-1 second signal leads to this different result, i.e., dominant T H 2 differentiation.
• the altered immune synapse can dictate that the CD40 ligand is not expressed and IL- 12 is therefore not released by the
• IL-4 appears to accumulate, thereby leading to the up-regulation of Stat ⁇ and GATA-3 within the T-cell and hence commitment to a T H 2 pattern of differentiation.
• T H 1- dominant immunity e.g., as seen in autoimmune diseases and transplant rejection
• T H 2 responses against these same tissue antigens In other cases, it would be extremely valuable to replace weak T H 2 immunity with T H 1 dominance leading to strong T-cell proliferation and the effective generation of cytotoxic T-cells (CTL).
• CTL cytotoxic T-cells
• These cases may include chronic viral illnesses, like hepatitis-C and AIDS; and could include certain cancers like melanoma. Accordingly, what is needed in the art is modifiers of these immune responses so that type-2 immunity can be replaced with type-1 immunity or type-1 immunity can be replaced with type-2 immunity, as desired in order to combat different human disease states or health conditions.
• the present invention solves the problems found in the prior art and provides a distinct advance in the state of the art.
• the present invention embraces a peptide which includes a portion of a Signal-1 moiety at one end and a portion of a Signal-2 moiety at the other end. These two ends can be directly connected to each other or connected via a flexible, non-substrate linker.
• This conjugation of the peptide portions directly and via a linker into a continuous peptide chain produces a new class of immunotherapeutic peptides termed bifunctional peptide inhibitors (BPI).
• BPI bifunctional peptide inhibitors
• the present invention provides a method of modulating T- cells and subsequent immunity in a very specified manner such that only specific disease- associated populations of these cells are targeted by the products of the present invention.
• the present invention leaves necessary components of the intact immune system to operate in their nominal protective manner.
• the present invention describes constructing a peptide sequence having a TCR epitope of interest (a Signal-1 moiety) at one end and a peptide derived from the proteimprotein interaction (the Signal-2 moiety) which generates Signal-2.
• TCR epitope of interest a Signal-1 moiety
• the Signal-2 moiety a peptide derived from the proteimprotein interaction
• These two peptide sequences can be connected via a flexible linker which couples the Signal- 1 moiety to the Signal-2 moiety or can be directly linked together.
• the linkage between the two peptides sequences may include flanking residues from each portion.
• the combination of the Signal-1 moiety coupled with the Signal-2 moiety constitutes a BPI. Accordingly, once a TCR epitope of interest is identified and the desired immune response (type-1 or type-2) determined, a BPI according to the present invention, can be generated.
• T H 1 cells Differentiation into T H 1 cells results in predominantly cell-mediated immunity while differentiation into T H 2 cells results in predominantly humoral immunity. Each of these immunity types help to protect the body against different types of invasion. T H 1 cells protect the body against intracellular pathogens such as bacteria, and are also implicated in organ- specific autoimmune diseases. T H 2 cells are important for protection against extracellular parasites as well as allergic reactions. Development of T H 1 cells is driven by a cytokine called interleukin-12, which is produced by immune cells known as macrophages and dendritic cells. Interleukin-12 induces or stimulates the naive T-cell to produce interferon- ⁇ (IFN- ⁇ ) and interleukin-2 (IL-2).
• IFN- ⁇ interferon- ⁇
• IL-2 interleukin-2
• cytokines IL-2 and IFN- ⁇
• CTLs cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
• macrophage activation and class switching to IgG isotypes that mediate complement lysis of sensitized cells.
• Commitment to a T H 1 immune response is enhanced by the presence of IFN- ⁇ which up-regulates expression of the interleukin- 12 (IL- 12) receptor while inhibiting the development of T H 2 cells.
• IFN- ⁇ interleukin- 12 receptor
• T H 2 immunity results from the production of interleukin-4 (EL-4) by the naive T-cell.
• IL-4 induces T H 2 development and the subsequent production of interleukins 4 (IL-4), 5 (E - 5) and 13 (IL-13), through activation of the transcription regulator Stat ⁇ .
• IL-4 also operates to down-regulate expression of the IL-12 receptor on developing cells, thereby inhibiting T H 1 development and helping undifferentiated T-cells to commit to T H 2 cell development.
• IL-4 and IL-5 are known to activate B cells and switch to neutralizing antibody (IgGl in the mouse) and IgE, the initiator of immediate hypersensitivity. Again, a schematic representation of this process is depicted in Fig. 2.
• T-cell antigen receptor TCR
• APC antigen presenting cell
• Signal-2 arises from the binding of a Signal-2 receptor on the T-cell to its protein ligand on the APC.
• Signal-2 receptors include CD28 and its ligand B7 as well as LFA-1 and its ligand ICAM-1.
• a series of signaling events occurs including serine/threonine phosphorylation/dephosphorylation along with actuation of guanine nucleotide exchange factors that activate adapter proteins with GTPase activity. These signaling events activate a separate set of transcription factors.
• the signal delivered through the CD28:B7 complex is distinct from that delivered from the ICAM-1 :LFA-1 complex, particularly with respect to the differentiation of CD4 + T-cells into T H 1 versus T H 2 effector populations.
• a schematic representation of this signaling is provided herein as Fig. 4.
• the CD4 + T-cells differentiate into T H 1 cells.
• the CD4 + T-cells of the T H 1 differentiation state are abundant producers of IL-2 and IFN ⁇ , two cytokines that are the preeminent initiators of inflammatory immune responses, such as delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), immunity to intracellular pathogens, and several autoimmune diseases.
• DTH delayed-type hypersensitivity
• T H 2 cells When the predominant binding occurs between CD28 and B7 (i.e., decreased LFA-1 TCAM-1 signaling), the CD4 + T-cells differentiate into T H 2 cells. In contrast to T H 1 cells, T H 2 cells do not produce IL-2 and IFN ⁇ cytokines, but instead release the mediators of immediate-type hypersensitivity such as allergy and asthma, i.e., EL-4, IL-5, IL-10, and IL-13. Thus, the ability to manipulate the relative contribution of the complex providing Signal-2 has a profound effect on the type of immune response that is elicited against a given self-tissue antigen.
• the associations between the TCR and APC occur at a specialized junction called the immunological synapse (shown in Fig. 1).
• the immunological synapse In order for the immune response to proceed, the undifferentiated T H cell, must be presented with peptides of the foreign invader on the surface of the APC.
• TCR and adhesion molecules In an unactivated T-cell, TCR and adhesion molecules are dispersed randomly on the T-cell membrane.
• the formation of the immunological synapse is an active and dynamic mechanism that allows T-cells to distinguish potential antigenic ligands.
• the immunological synapse consists of a central cluster of T-cell receptors surrounded by a ring of adhesion molecules. This arrangement is depicted schematically in Fig. 1.
• the TCR:peptide:MHC-II complex is in the center of the dark circle which represents the proteimprotein pair constituting the Signal-2 receptor and the Signal-2 ligand.
• adhesion molecules such as LFA-1 and the peptide-recognition receptor (TCR) to form a doughnut-like structure with the TCR on the inside and LFA-1 on the outside.
• TCR and LFA-1 molecules actually translocate past one another within the T-cell lipid bilayer. If these molecules do not translocate within the immune synapse then the T-cell signal is not fully received and a different program of gene activity may occur within the T-cell.
• T helper cell T H
• T H T helper cell
• Fig.2 an interpretation of the BPI mechanism suggests that BPI bind to both the MHC-II and second signal ligands. This effectively tethers the MHC-II:peptide and ICAM-1 moecules thereby preventing the translocation step of immune synapse formation.
• known TCR epitopes are used as the first peptide portion of the BPI.
• minimal peptide sequences that are potent immunogens are utilized.
• These minimal peptide sequences e.g. antigenic peptides
• effectively engage the TCR involved in immune responses of interest i.e. autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, allergies, cancers, etc.
• TCR epitopes of interest e.g. autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, allergies, cancers, etc.
• TCR epitopes of interest are identified so that the first portion of the BPI can be synthesized.
• these dominant TCR epitopes have been so determined by previous art and the sequences are available in the literature.
• the peptide to which a given T-cell response is focused upon, (e.g., the response against the diabetes-associated antigen GAD65) is identified by the fact that most effector T-cells respond to this portion of the antigen and not other portions.
• animals are immunized with the whole protein antigen.
• T-cells are removed after the antigen has primed the immune system. These T-cells are placed separately in cultures with short overlapping peptides of the antigen.
• T-cells are first cloned from patients. These cloned T-cells are placed separately in cultures with overlapping peptides (again, representing individual portions of the antigen involved, e.g., HIV-1, p24 (SEQ ID No. 8)). Again, the peptide to which most T-cell clones respond is the dominant TCR epitope.
• peptides derived from Signal-2 receptors are used to alter interactions between the nominal receptors on T-cells and their complementary ligands on the APC surface.
• Table 3 includes a representative list of some known Signal-2 receptor moieties. Of course, those of ordinary skill in the art will be able to identify other Signal-2 moieties not listed therein, as this list is representative and not all- inclusive.
• Another aspect of the present invention is the linking of the TCR epitope (i.e. the Signal-1 moiety) to a Signal-2 receptor peptide mimic (i.e., the Signal-2 moiety) in order to modify the resultant immune response.
• This linkage can be between the Signal- 1 moiety and the Signal-2 moiety directly, or through flanking residues.
• this linking can be done via a linker which is positioned between the Signal-1 moiety and the Signal-2 moiety.
• the linker could be any amino acid including naturally occurring or chemically synthesized amino acids.
• non-substrate amino acids will be used due to their resistance to protease attack.
• the linker will comprise a non-substrate amino acid alternating with a small or hydrophilic amino acid. Even more preferably, the linker is synthesizable as one continuous sequence along with the Signal-1 and Signal-2 moieties, which flank the linker at each respective end. Still more preferably, the linker has the general formula (A,B) X , wherein A and B are amino acid residues, and the A amino acid residue is individually and respectively selected from the group consisting of aminocaproic acid, aminohexanoic acid, aminododecanoic acid, and ⁇ -alanine, and the B amino acid residue is a small or hydrophilic amino acid. In this formula, X can range from 1 to 100.
• a particularly representative B residue is glycine.
• a linker could potentially have aminocaproic acid (Ac), aminohexanoic acid (Ahx), aminododecanoic acid (Ado), and ⁇ -alanine ( ⁇ A) alternating with glycine residues (G) (e.g., Ac-G-Ahx-G-Ado-G- ⁇ A).
• the choice of the residues used to construct the linker can be based upon the desired length of the linker as well as steric hindrance considerations.
• One preferred linker comprises alternating Ac and G residues. This linker can be lengthened or shortened by the inclusion of the other amino acid residue choices (Ahx, Ado, ⁇ A).
• TCR TCR-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide-specific peptide, a tumor antigens and the myriad of allergenic substances in the environment.
• TCR epitope of a given BPI we direct the immunomodulating capacity of the BPI to a select group of TCR. In other words, the selection of a TCR epitope to incorporate into the BPI targets T-cells that are involved in a particular human disease in a highly specific fashion.
• BPI target autoaggressive T-cells involved in the induction of type-1 diabetes. This targeting to specific TCR allows that T-cells necessary for immunity to infectious agents or cancers will not be significantly compromised.
• BPI offer the possibility to specifically modulate T-cell immunity to one antigen while leaving intact the T-cell repertoire necessary for protective immunity to infectious agents and developing cancers.
• the Signal- 1 moieties of the present invention are preferably derived from TCR epitopes and a list of representative known epitopes is provided in Table 1 wherein these known epitopes are presented as SEQ ID Nos. 1-25.
• the TCR epitope selected will be correlated with a known health condition or disease state.
• the peptides include a sequence having at least about 10% sequence homology with a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 1-25. More preferably, the peptide will have at least 30% sequence homology with a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ
• the peptide will have at least 50% sequence homology with a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 1-25. Even more preferably, the peptide will have at least 70% sequence homology with a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 1-25. Most preferably, the peptide will have at least about 95%o sequence homology with a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 1-25.
• this Signal-1 moiety portion of the BPI can include such peptidomimetics.
• the peptidomimetic will be a mimetic of a peptide selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 1-25.
• the Signal-1 moiety will be a derivative of a TCR epitope or a peptide selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 1-25.
• this first portion of the BPI (or the portion responsible for initiating the first signal) be capable of binding with a major histocompatability complex (MHC) on an antigen presenting cell (APC).
• MHC major histocompatability complex
• APC antigen presenting cell
• this resulting peptide:MHC complex be capable of engaging important TCR and initiating some form of the signal to the T-cell.
• the peptides used on the side of the linker opposite the Signal-1 moiety are preferably derived from Signal-2 receptors.
• This second portion of the BPI is connected to the first portion either directly or via the linker.
• the second portion includes a sequence having at least about 10% sequence homology with a sequence selected from a group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 30-41. More preferably, the second portion peptide has at least about 30% sequence homology with a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 30-41. Still more preferably, the second portion peptide has at least about 50% sequence homology with a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 30-41.
• the second portion peptide has at least about 70% sequence homology with a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos.30-41. Most preferably, the second portion peptide includes a sequence having at least about 95 % sequence homology with a sequence selected from the group of SEQ ID Nos.30-41.
• peptidomimetics can be used in place of all or some of the amino acid residues of the second portion.
• the peptidomimetic of the second portion will be a mimic of a peptide selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 30-41.
• the second portion of the BPI will comprise a derivative of a peptide selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 30-41. Similar to the first portion, it is preferred that the second portion be capable of binding with a complementary ligand (e.g. the Signal-2 ligand) on an antigen presenting cell.
• a complementary ligand e.g. the Signal-2 ligand
• the immune response involves a two signal mechanism and the purpose of the present invention is to modify a given immune response, e.g., from type-1 immunity to type-2 immunity or from type-2 immunity to type-1 immunity. This modification or shifting of immune response phenotype is brought about by BPI according to the present invention.
• BPI may operate via the activation of very specific T-cell phenotypes, e.g., peptide-specific suppressor T-cells. In contrast to the nominal situation where an antigen stimulates the system toward a T H 1 response (depicted in Fig.
• the response generated when a BPI similar to the GAD 65-CD1 laBPI is introduced into the immune synapse is quite different and operates to shift the response from type- 1 to type-2.
• This situation is depicted schematically in Fig.2.
• a BPI comprising a Signal- 1 moiety, a flexible, non-substrate linker, and a Signal-2 moiety is formed and introduced into the immune synapse.
• the TCR recognizes the peptide:MHC complex on the APC and initiates the first signal.
• the second portion of the BPI blocks the typical Signal-2 interaction occurring between LFA- 1/ICAM- 1 , (or for other BPLCTLA-4/B7, or CD40L/CD40, or FasL:Fas) and the translocation of the TCR into the central cluster.
• LFA- 1 /ICAM-1 or CTLA-4/B7 interaction is targeted by the specific BPI construction, perhaps by tethering the MHC-ILpeptide complex to the second signal ligand, the signal will be altered in a different direction of differentiation. For example, when the Signal-2 peptide portion of the BPI is derived from LFA-1, this would favor a decrease in CD40-ligand expression and hence, a lack of IL-12 release.
• IL-4 released during the initial T-cell activation will accumulate to higher levels surrounding the synapse.
• This accumulation of IL-4 leads to Stat ⁇ and GATA-3 up-regulation in the naive T-cell and ultimately to commitment to a type-2 pattern.
• the Signal-2 moiety peptide portion of the BPI is derived from CTLA-4, the normal binding of CTLA-4 and CD- 28 to B7 ligands is affected and thus more CD40 ligand is expressed (i.e., a greater role for high affinity LFA-1 :ICAM-1 is dictated by blocking the B7 receptors); hence, the release of
• IL- 12 increases.
• Interleukin- 12 induces or stimulates the naive T-cell to produce more IFN- ⁇ and IL-2, thus providing a positive feedback toward type- 1 immunity.
• IL-2 and IFN- ⁇ are involved in classic cell-mediated functions such as clonal expansion of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs), macrophage activation, and class switching to IgG isotypes that mediate complement lysis of sensitized cells.
• CTLs cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
• macrophage activation cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
• IgG cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
• Such responses are hallmarks of protective immunity against human viral diseases. It will also operated to link TCR epitopes to the receptor for Fas.
• Fas:FasL interaction governs apoptosis, it will be possible to increase the frequency of specific TCR-bearing cells by blocking the apoptotic event. This will be important for BPI design against HIV, HPV, HCV, and cancers.
• an important aspect of the present invention is that tethering a specific TCR epitope to a Signal-2 receptor peptide mimic leads to alteration of T-cell differentiation involving T-cells bearing only these receptors and/or T-cell populations indirectly linked to these peptide specific subsets.
• the ability to block or alter T-cell responses to a given immunodominant peptide antigen would offer extremely precise treatments for immunopathological conditions.
• a major drawback to current immunotherapies is that broad specificities of T-cells are affected leaving the host more susceptible to infections and cancers.
• the BPI of the present invention should block and/or alter only the desired T-cell population and subsequent responses that depend on these initial T-cells. Also, BPI will target a specific TCR-bearing population for activation toward a desired effector function.
• the relative strength of signal generated by the T-cell- APC interaction has an affect on whether the ultimate immune response is a type-1 or a type-2 response.
• the teachings of Murray in How the MHC Selects T H 1/T H 2 Immunity, 19 Immunology Today 157-163 (1998) are hereby incorporated by reference.
• an immune response is modified by contacting an APC with a peptide capable of binding to an MHC and to a Signal-2 ligand on the APC and causing an altered signal to be transmitted to the T-cell.
• the immune response is deviated from the immune response generally associated with the immunogenic peptide and its corresponding antigen (i.e., infectious agent, self protein, or allergen).
• a peptide having the general formula AXB is provided.
• the A, X, and B represent a chain of amino acid residues wherein the A chain has at least about five residues and at least about 10% sequence homology with a TCR epitope, the B chain has at least four residues and at least about 10% sequence homology with a peptide derived from a Signal-2 moiety, and the X chain is a linker.
• the linker could be any amino acid including naturally occurring or chemically synthesized amino acids.
• the X chain has at least one residue.
• link A to B directly without X it is possible to link A to B directly without X as well, although a linker of some size is preferred in order to span the distance between the MHC-II and second signal ligands on the APC surface.
• non-substrate amino acids will be used due to their resistance to protease attack.
• the linker will comprise a non-substrate amino acid alternating with a small or hydrophilic amino acid.
• the linker is synthesizable as one continuous sequence along with the Signal-1 and Signal-2 moieties, which flank the linker at each respective end.
• the linker has the general formula (A,B) X , wherein A and B are amino acid residues, and the A amino acid residue is individually and respectively selected from the group consisting of aminocaproic acid, aminohexanoic acid, aminododecanoic acid, and ⁇ -alanine, and the B amino acid residue is a small or hydrophilic amino acid.
• X can range from 1 to 100.
• a particularly representative B residue is glycine.
• a linker could potentially have aminocaproic acid (Ac), aminohexanoic acid (Ahx), aminododecanoic acid (Ado), and ⁇ -alanine ( ⁇ A) alternating with glycine residues (G) (e.g., Ac-G-Ahx-G-Ado-G- ⁇ A).
• the choice of the residues used to construct the linker can be based upon the desired length of the linker as well as steric hindrance considerations, hydrophobicity, charge, etc.
• One preferred linker comprises alternating Ac and G residues. This linker can be lengthened or shortened by the inclusion of the other amino acid residue choices (Ahx, Ado, ⁇ A).
• the X chain is positioned between the A chain and the B chain and the entire peptide can be synthesized as one continuous sequence.
• Some preferred sequences will have an A chain having at least about 10%) sequence homology with any one of SEQ ID Nos. 1-25, an X chain having at least about 2% sequence homology with any one of SEQ ID Nos. 26-29, and a B chain having at least about 10% sequence homology with any one of SEQ ID Nos. 30-41.
• the peptide is capable of shifting a type-1 response to a type-2 response, or vice versa.
• peptidomimetics may be synthesized to mimic any part of the BPI, including the linker.
• the A chain binds to the MHC on an APC to form a peptide:MHC complex.
• This complex is capable of engaging the TCR on critical T-cell populations.
• the B chain is capable of binding to a Signal-2 ligand on the APC at the same time as the formation of the peptide:MHC complex. This combined binding to the APC should be capable of altering the signal delivered to the T-cell.
• the combination of the first signal and the second signal are capable of fully activating a T-cell and by selecting the peptide used for the A chain and the peptide used for the B chain, the immune response can be deviated from its normal progression.
• the response can be altered to give a type-2 response leading to the up-regulation of T H 2 cells.
• the response can be altered to give a type-1 response leading to the up-regulation of T H 1 cells.
• the A chain can be chosen based on the health condition normally associated with the sequence (for example, see Table 4).
• a method for preparing a peptide for modulating immune responses comprises the steps of selecting a first peptide sequence which has at least about 10% sequence homology with a sequence derived from a TCR epitope, selecting a second peptide sequence which has at least about 10% sequence homology with a sequence derived from a Signal-2 receptor moiety, selecting a third peptide sequence which is a flexible, non-substrate linker, and synthesizing the peptides as a continuous peptide chain.
• the linker is flanked on one end with the peptide derived from the TCR epitope and flanked on the other end with the peptide derived from the Signal-2 moiety.
• the first peptide sequence should be associated with a known health condition and be capable of binding with an MHC on an APC.
• the second peptide sequence be capable of binding with a Signal-2 ligand moiety on the APC.
• the method can further comprise the step of contacting the nominal peptide immunogen with the TCR, thereby binding the first peptide sequence to the MHC and the second peptide sequence to the Signal-2 ligand, thereby generating APC bearing potent first and altered/blocked second signal ligands which activate a desired immune response.
• Inherent in the BPI design is the antigen-specific moiety that a given T-cell population is activated to respond against (i.e., the TCR epitope), ultimately leading to the cascade of immune reactions that generate protective or in some cases pathologic immune responses.
• TCR epitope major histocompatibility complex
• APC antigen presenting cell
• T-cell clones to possible peptide epitopes were generated and tested for binding to the immunodominant TCR of a response and specifically stimulate T-cell functions in vitro by the ELISPOT assay. Because modifications in the peptide residues that actually contact the TCR are part of the BPI development, it is also preferable that known crystallographic structures of the epitope bound to MHC molecules are available. This allows for precise three-dimensional predictions of how a particular amino acid substitution or mimetic will affect the actual structure encountered by the developing T-cells. However, in the absence of known crystal structures, it is possible to predict the shape of a hypothetical peptide:MHC structure based upon the available coordinates of other peptide:MHC structures.
• TCR contact positions It is important to identify (or at least predict) these TCR contact positions. It is well-known that certain alterations to TCR-contact positions can change the functional differentiation of T-cells into the T H 1 or T H 2 types that can determine the course of immunity (see Murray, et al., Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Class II Molecules Direct TCR-Specificity for Opposite Ends of the Same Immunogenic Peptide in T H 1 or T H 2 responses (unpublished manuscript, 2000); and Murray; 19 Immunology Today 157-163 (1998), the teachings of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Specifically, it was verified that the peptide binds to MHC molecules on live APC.
• MHC Major Histocompatibility Complex
• spleen cell density-gradient fractions from mice, or PBL, or APC lines (from humans) were incubated in round bottom 96-well plates with increasing concentrations of individual biotinylated peptides at 37 °C, 5% CO 2 for 16 hours.
• Avidin-FITC was incubated with the cells on ice for 30 minutes, followed by biotinylated anti-Avidin for 1 hour, then again with Avidin-FITC.
• increasing concentrations (0.1-100 ⁇ M) of the biotinylated derivatives in sterile 0.5% BSA- PBS were incubated with the APC for 16 hours as above. As shown in Fig.
• the GAD 65 BPI binds preferentially to NOD APC as predicted.
• the LFA-1 moiety or the GAD 65 moiety did not display this increased binding to the diabetes strain's APC.
• Three-color analyses used Cy-Chrome or PE-conjugated antibodies to known surface markers of APC that were commercially available. Avidin-FITC and biotinylated anti-Avidin detection of the bound peptide was as previously described in Murray et al., 24 Eur. J. Immunol. 2337- 2344 (1994); Murray; 19 Immunology Today 157-163; and Schountz et al., 157 The Journal of Immunology 3893-3901 (1996).
• T-cell clones were generated for determination of TCR epitopes for later use in BPI. These experiments utilized CD4+ or CD8+ T-cell clones from humans or mice immunized against predicted TCR epitopes using previously described methods (Murray et al., 24 Eur. J. Immunol. 2337-2344 (1994); Murray; 19 Immunology Today 157-163; and Schountz et al., 157 The Journal of Immunology 3893-3901 (1996)). These clones were maintained by biweekly restimulation with irradiated histocompatible lymphocytes, the peptide, and recombinant IL2.
• an ELISPOT assay was used.
• BPI that have been substituted at predicted TCR- contact positions will be used to determine which of these BPI variants are most effective in the inhibition of proliferation and cytokine release from individual clones as analyzed above. Predicted positions will be scanned with different amino acids or mimetics to alter the interaction with the TCR in the structures generated by molecular modeling.
• MDEM Molecular Dynamics/Energy Minimizations
• the second stage in the BPI process is selection of peptide mimics of established second signal receptor molecules involved in the functional differentiation of T-cells.
• crystallographic structures and available models of the second signal receptors bound to their physiological ligands will be used to predict the regions of the receptors that make contact with the ligand. This approach was used to design the EGAD-BPI which can be depicted as
• the Signal-1 moiety i.e., the disease-associated TCR epitope
• the Signal-2 receptor mimic peptide i.e., a second signal receptor thought to be involved in T H 1/T H 2 differentiation.
• These synthetic peptides were generated by conventional methods of peptide synthesis.
• BPI are tested for binding to isolated MHC and second signal ligands, and NMR, molecular modeling and crystallography are used to determine their exact 3D structures.
• ELISPOT see Figs.
• cytokine assays will be well known to those of ordinary skill in the art and can be used in place of ELISPOT.
• NOD.Scid model i.e., human Scid, transgenic knockout strains, etc.
• modifications necessary for each disease being examined as a more stringent test of BPI efficacy.
• human-Scid mice are used for the adoptive transfer experiments.
• T-cells from patients will first be cloned by conventional methods and stimulated with the BPI in vitro. Next, these cells will be transferred into the human-Scid mice and analyzed as with the EGAD-BPI in the NOD.Scid adoptive transfer experiment. Results from these experiments are given in Figs. 11-13.
• Fmoc chemistry on chlorotrityl resins was used. Protected amino acids were double coupled at 8-fold excess for 1 hour. Resins were DMF and MeOH washed and cleaved in Reagent R: TFA, EDTA, Thioanisole, Anisole. The TFA mixture containing the peptide in solution was precipitated in ether and washed extensively. Preparative HPLC of peptides was accomplished by a gradient of 0-80% acetonitrile in 0.1% TFA. Lyophilization of the various fractions and verification by MALDI-TOF using a
• Voyager mass spec (PerSeptive, Foster City, CA) yielded the synthetic peptide as a TFA salt. Modeling, crystallography and binding studies, as described above, were used to generate the predicted BPI complex structure.
• T-cells 15 million disease-linked lymphocytes (i.e., patient T-cells, or T-cell populations linked to the disease process) were injected with or without T-cells that received the BPI compound (in vivo or in vitro) and were expanded for 24 hours in recombinant IL-2.
• Some experiments will deplete specific subsets of the T-cells using mAb to CD154, CD25, CD62L, CD152, etc. and magnetic particles prior to adoptive transfer.
• T-cells (from mice or humans) treated with the individual moieties of the BPI will be used as negative controls along with CD4+ cells from mice treated with saline alone (Fig. 9).
• mice For blocking spontaneous diabetes, five groups of ten female NOD mice (12 weeks of age) were used and monitored for nondiabetic blood glucose levels with a standard glucometer (AccuChek-complete, Roche Diagnostic). Each mouse was labeled and individually monitored for blood glucose levels weekly for the course of the experiment.
• the five groups received either (a) intravenous (i.v.) injection of the BPI (100 ⁇ g in 100 ⁇ l endotoxin-free saline/injection) at 8 weeks of age, (b) same dose
• GAD65 (208-217) epitope alone, (c) same dose CDl la (237-247) peptide alone, or (d) saline alone.
• similar treatment groups involving the different Signal-1 and Signal-2 peptides and BPI will be used. Mice will be tested by challenging with the appropriate infectious agent or antigen depending upon the particular BPI in question. To evaluate the disease process by immunohistology (see, e.g., Fig.
• spleen, pancreas, or other target organs e.g., the CNS for the MBP peptide BPI, or lung for the RSV peptide BPI
• target organs e.g., the CNS for the MBP peptide BPI, or lung for the RSV peptide BPI
• biotinylated mAb to various cell surface antigens will be incubated individually with the Cryostat sections (2 hours), followed by avidin-alkaline phosphatase (Vector laboratories).
• cell subsets will be phenotyped by standard flow cytometry methods as described in Murray et al., 24 Eur. J. Immunol. 2337-2344 (1994); Murray; 19 Immunology Today 157-163; and Schountz et al., 157 The Journal of
• a few representative assembled BPI consisting of a Signal-1 moiety and a Signal-2 receptor moiety joined together via a linker are provided in Table 4 as SEQ ID Nos. 42-46. These representative BPI are operable for shifting specific immune responses from a type- 1 to a type-2 response and vice-versa.
• other immune responses to other antigenic peptides will be preferably unaffected.
• Figure 1 is a schematic representation of an immune synapse between a T cell and an APC illustrating the doughnut structure of the TCR:peptide:MHC location
• Fig. 2 is a schematic representation of how a representative BPI blocks differentiation leading to a T H 1 dominated immune response and shifts immunity to T H 2 dominated immune response;
• Fig. 3 is a schematic representation of nominal activation of a type-1 immune response through the interactions between cell surface proteins within the immune synapse;
• Fig.4 is a simplified schematic representation of the two signal mechanism of T-cell activation;
• Fig. 5a is a graph representing the results of a flow cytometry analysis comparing the binding of a representative BPI to different mouse strains
• Fig. 5b is a graph representing the results of a flow cytometry analysis comparing the binding of a representative BPI portion to different mouse strains
• Fig. 5c is a graph representing the results of a flow cytometry analysis comparing the binding of a representative BPI portion to different mouse strains
• Fig. 6a is a graph illustrating the results of a flow cytometry analysis of a representative BPI binding to the APC of a mouse strain, without antibodies to MHC-II or ICAM-1
• Fig. 6b is a graph illustrating the results of a flow cytometry analysis of a representative BPI binding to the APC of a mouse strain, when antibodies to ICAM-1 are present;
• Fig. 6c is a graph illustrating the results of a flow cytometry analysis of a representative BPI binding to the APC of a mouse strain, when antibodies to MHC-II are present;
• Fig. 7 is a color photograph representing the results of a fluorescent microscopy analysis of a representative BPI simultaneously binding to MHC-II and ICAM-1 structures on the NOD APC by co-capping with antibodies to MHC-II, the top panels are from mice APC treated with a representative BPI and the bottom panels are treated with just the saline vehicle;
• Fig. 8 is a color photograph of the molecular model of a representative BPI binding to the NOD mouse's MHC-II (I-A g7 ) and the Dl domain of ICAM-1, MHC-II is shown in pink, ICAM-1 is in light blue, the BPI is shown by atom with the carbon in green, oxygen in red, and nitrogen in blue;
• Fig. 9a is a graph representing the ELISPOT analysis of IL-4 cytokine release by T- cells taken from NOD mice treated with the EGAD-BPI or the saline control;
• Fig. 9b is a graph representing the ELISPOT analysis of IFN- ⁇ cytokine release by T-cells taken from NOD mice treated with the EGAD-BPI or the saline control
• Fig. 9c is a graph representing the ELISPOT analysis of IL-4 cytokine release by T- cells taken from NOD mice treated with the AGAD-BPI or the saline control;
• Fig. 9d is a graph representing the ELISPOT analysis of IFN- ⁇ cytokine release by T-cells taken from NOD mice treated with the AGAD-BPI or the saline control;
• Fig. 10 are representative photographs of the raw data of the ELISPOT analysis used for the graphs in Figs. 9a-9d;
• Fig. 11 is a graph of the severity of islet infiltration as an indicator of the inhibition of insulitis by the EGAD-BPI, separate portions of the EGAD-BPI, and saline;
• Fig. 12a is a representative color photograph of the histological analysis of pancreata infiltration by mononuclear cells in NOD mice treated with the saline control
• Fig. 12b is a representative color photograph of the histological analysis of pancreata infiltration by mononuclear cells in NOD mice treated with the GAD peptide
• Fig. 12c is a representative color photograph of the histological analysis of pancreata infiltration by mononuclear cells in NOD mice treated with the EGAD-BPI;
• Sequence Identity refers to a relationship between two or more polypeptide sequences or two or more polynucleotide sequences, namely a reference sequence and a given sequence to be compared with the reference sequence. Sequence identity is determined by comparing the given sequence to the reference sequence after the sequences have been optimally aligned to produce the highest degree of sequence similarity, as determined by the match between strings of such sequences.
• sequence identity is ascertained on a position-by-position basis, e.g., the sequences are "identical” at a particular position if at that position, the nucleotides or amino acid residues are identical. The total number of such position identities is then divided by the total number of nucleotides or residues in the reference sequence to give % sequence identity. Sequence identity can be readily calculated by known methods, including but not limited to, those described in Computational Molecular Biology, Lesk, A.
• Examples of such programs include, but are not limited to, the GCG program package (Devereux, J., et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 12(1):387 (1984)), BLASTP, BLASTN and FASTA (Altschul, S. F. et al., J. Molec. Biol., 215:403-410 (1990).
• the BLASTX program is publicly available from NCBI and other sources (BLAST Manual, Altschul, S. et al., NCVI NLM NIH Bethesda, MD 20894, Altschul, S. F. et al, J. Molec. Biol., 215:403-410 (1990), the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference).
• sequence identity As an illustration, by a polynucleotide having a nucleotide sequence having at least, for example, 95% "sequence identity" to a reference nucleotide sequence, it is intended that the nucleotide sequence of the given polynucleotide is identical to the reference sequence except that the given polynucleotide sequence may include up to 5 point mutations per each 100 nucleotides of the reference nucleotide sequence.
• a polynucleotide having a nucleotide sequence having at least 95% identity relative to the reference nucleotide sequence up to 5% of the nucleotides in the reference sequence may be deleted or substituted with another nucleotide, or a number of nucleotides up to 5% of the total nucleotides in the reference sequence may be inserted into the reference sequence.
• These mutations of the reference sequence may occur at the 5' or 3' terminal positions of the reference nucleotide sequence or anywhere between those terminal positions, interspersed either individually among nucleotides in the reference sequence or in one or more contiguous groups within the reference sequence.
• a polypeptide having a given amino acid sequence having at least, for example, 95% sequence identity to a reference amino acid sequence it is intended that the given amino acid sequence of the polypeptide is identical to the reference sequence except that the given polypeptide sequence may include up to 5 amino acid alterations per each 100 amino acids of the reference amino acid sequence.
• up to 5% of the amino acid residues in the reference sequence may be deleted or substituted with another amino acid, or a number of amino acids up to 5% of the total number of amino acid residues in the reference sequence may be inserted into the reference sequence.
• sequence homology also refers to a method of determining the relatedness of two sequences. To determine sequence homology, two or more sequences are optimally aligned as described above, and gaps are introduced if necessary. However, in contrast to "sequence identity", conservative amino acid substitutions are counted as a match when determining sequence homology.
• 95% of the amino acid residues or nucleotides in the reference sequence must match or comprise a conservative substitution with another amino acid or nucleotide, or a number of amino acids or nucleotides up to 5% of the total amino acid residues or nucleotides, not including conservative substitutions, in the reference sequence may be inserted into the reference sequence.
• a “conservative substitution” refers to the substitution of an amino acid residue or nucleotide with another amino acid residue or nucleotide having similar characteristics or properties including size, charge, hydrophobicity, etc., such that the overall functionality does not change significantly.
• isolated means altered “by the hand of man” from its natural state., i.e., if it occurs in nature, it has been changed or removed from its original environment, or both.
• a polynucleotide or polypeptide naturally present in a living organism is not “isolated,” but the same polynucleotide or polypeptide separated from the coexisting materials of its natural state is “isolated", as the term is employed herein.
• Sequences including or having a sequence which has at least about 10% sequence identity with any one of SEQ ID Nos. 1-46 and which exhibit similar binding properties to APC or linking properties between two peptide sequences are within the scope of the present invention.
• sequences will have at least about 30% sequence identity with any one of SEQ ID Nos. 1-46, still more preferably at least about 50% sequence identity, even more preferably, at least about 70% sequence identity, and most preferably at least about 95%o sequence identity.
• sequences including or having a sequence which has at least about 10% sequence homology with any one of SEQ ID Nos. 1-46 and which exhibit similar binding properties to APC or linking properties between the two adjacent peptide sequences are embraced in the present invention.
• sequences will have at least about 30% sequence homology with any one of SEQ ID Nos. 1-46, still more preferably at least about 50% sequence homology, even more preferably at least about 70% sequence homology, and most preferably at least about 95% sequence homology.
• sequences which differ from any one of SEQ ID Nos. 1-46 due to a mutation event, a series of mutation events, or chemical derivatization but which still exhibit desired properties are also embraced in the present invention.
• Such mutation events or derivatizations include but are not limited to point mutations, deletions, insertions, rearrangements, peptidomimetics, and other chemical modifications.
• a “linker” is defined as any amino acid including naturally occurring or chemically synthesized amino acids.
• a “linker” is a flexible, non-substrate sequence of amino acid residues resistant to proteolytic degradation which can be used to conjugate and/or couple a Signal-1 moiety to a Signal-2 moiety.
• a “Signal-1 moiety” is defined as a peptide epitope, i.e., the peptide portion of an antigen and/or mimetics of these antigenic peptides to which important TCRs bind.
• a “Signal-2 moiety” or a “Signal-2 receptor moiety” is defined as a peptide portion of a second signal receptor known to bind to and/or affect binding of the receptor to its complimentary ligand on the APC. This can include peptide mimics and mimetics of the receptor/ligand structure of interest.
• a “Signal-2 ligand” is the complementary protein of the Signal-2 receptor moiety on the APC to which the receptor portion and/or the Signal-2 receptor moiety has significant affinity and binds.
• derivative refers to changes produced by amino acid addition, deletion, replacement, substitution, and/or modification; mutants produced by recombinant and/or DNA shuffling; and salts, solvates, and other chemically synthesized/modified forms of the peptide that retain in part the activity of the isolated native peptide.
• BPI were generated using automated peptide synthesis by a robotic multiple peptide synthesizer employing Fmoc amino acid chemistry by standard methods. Wang resin (p- benzyloxybenzyl alcohol polystyrene) was used as the solid support. Peptides were characterized by reversed-phase HPLC andelectrospraymass-spectrometry.
• This synthesis utilizes traditional organic chemical reactions carried out on a solid material so that the peptide chain is lengthened while attached to the support structure.
• the peptides will be cleaved from the resin using TFA, and purified by reverse-phase HPLC and analyzed by mass spectroscopy. Alternatively, these reactions can be carried out in solution when larger amounts of the peptides are desired.
• the peptides of the invention may be synthesized or prepared by a number of techniques which are well known in the art. See, for example, Creighton, 1983, Proteins: Structures and Molecular Principles, W. H. Freeman and Co., New York, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
• Short peptides for example, can be synthesized on a solid support or in solution. Longer peptides may be made using recombinant DNA techniques.
• the nucleotide sequences encoding the peptides of the invention may be synthesized, and/or cloned, and expressed according to techniques well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. See, for example, Sambrook, et al., 1989, Molecular Cloning, A is Laboratory Manual, Vols. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Press, New York.
• the peptides of the invention maybe synthesized such that one or more of the bonds which link the amino acid residues of the peptides are non-peptide bonds.
• non-peptide bonds may be formed by utilizing reactions well known to those in the art, and may include, but are not limited to amino, ester, hydrazide, semicarbazide, and azo bonds, to name but a few.
• peptides comprising the sequences described above may be synthesized with additional chemical groups present at their amino and/or carboxy termini, such that, for example, the stability, bioavailability, and/or inhibitory activity of the peptides is enhanced.
• hydrophobic groups such as carbobenzoxyl, dansyl, or t-butyloxycarbonyl groups, may be added to the peptides' amino termini.
• an acetyl group or a 9- fluorenylmethoxy-carbonyl group may be placed at the peptides' amino termini.
• the hydrophobic group, t-butyloxycarbonyl, or an amido group may be added to the peptides' carboxy termini. Purchasing preformed peptides provides another alternative source of peptides having 25 amino acids or less as these are easily purchased from commercial peptide synthesis laboratories.
• peptide mimetic compounds may be synthesized in place of the peptide moieties and linked by the same chemistry. The design of peptidomimetics is an established technique and known correlates of key amino acids of the peptide can be synthesized by previously published methods.
• peptidomimetics may be developed which have the same modulation properties as the preferred peptides detailed herein. As these peptidomimetics require no more than routine skill in the art to produce, such peptidomimetics are embraced within the present application.
• the side chains of these peptidomimetics will be very similar in structure to the side chains of the preferred peptides herein, however, their peptide backbone may be very different or even entirely dissimilar. If resistance to degradation in vivo or greater conformational stability were desired, the peptides of the present invention could be cyclized by any well known method.
• Pen Penicillamine
• Cys cysteine residues
• the portion of the BPI which spans between the Signal-1 moiety and the Signal-2 moiety is referred to as a linker.
• the linker is not essential in forming a BPI.
• the linker can be any naturally occurring or chemically synthesized amino acid.
• the linker is a non-substrate amino acid residue chain which helps to prevent protease attack.
• a particularly preferred linker is a repeating chain of the non-natural amino acid, aminocaproic acid (Ac), and the amino acid glycine (G) (e.g. Ac-G-Ac-G-Ac). If a shorter length was needed for the linker, beta-alanine residues ( ⁇ Ala) could be substituted for one or more of the Ac residues.
• This example describes the methods used to generate the BPI.
• the peptides produced in this example are provided in Table 1 and are also listed as SEQ ID Nos. 1- 46. These peptides include the Signal-1 moiety, the Signal-2 moiety and the non-substrate linker between the two moieties.
• any Signal- 1 moiety could be linked with any Signal-2 moiety via any linker using the peptide synthesis described above.
• the BPI are generated as one continuous peptide chain comprising a Signal- 1 peptide sequence followed by a linker sequence followed by a Signal- 2 peptide sequence. Additionally, some representative BPI were generated for later use in the experiments. These BPI are included herein in Table 4. However, it is important to note that these BPI are representative (as are each of the BPI portions listed in Tables 1-4) and not all inclusive.
• the entire BPI can be synthesized using the above-described methods.
• BPI can be designed using the peptide sequences themselves, peptidomimetics, or combinations of the two. Construction of appropriate peptidomimetics is detailed by Falcioni, et al, 17 Nature Biotechnology, 562-567
• Fig. 8 illustrates the structure of the GAD65 (208-217), TCR epitope linked to the
• CD11 a (237-247) second signal moiety produced by the present methods. It is shown bound to the groove of I-A 8? and the Dl domain of ICAM-1.
• I-A 8? the Dl domain of ICAM-1.
• ICAM-1 the Dl domain of ICAM-1.
• For modeling the I-A g7 :GAD65 peptide structure docking studies were performed on a Silicon Graphic Ocatane work station using InSight II software (MSI/Biosym). The LFA-1 peptide :IC AM- 1 domain structure is based on the docking model of Edwards, C.P. et al. J. Biol. Chem. 273:28937 (1998), the teachings and disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein.
• the alpha carbon ribbon of I-A 7 is shown in pink; Dl of ICAM-1 is in light-blue; the BPI is shown by atom, carbon in green, oxygen in red, and nitrogen in blue.
• This structure can be denominated as GAD65 (208-217) - [Ac-G-Ac-G-Ac] - CD1 la (237-247).
• the length of the linker may be modified as needed or as indicated by any experimental data obtained in order to span between the Signal-1 and Signal-2 moieties at an optimum length.
• one or more aminocaproic acid (Ac) resides can be substituted with aminododecanoic acid.
• beta-2 alanine can be used as a substitute for aminocaproic acid.
• EXAMPLE 2 This example uses biotinylated BPI to test for competitive inhibition of BPI binding by unlabeled peptides or monoclonal antibodies to MHC-II and ICAM-1 on live APC, and to verify antigenic peptide binding to live APC. Additionally, it was shown that monoclonal antibodies to MHC-II or ICAM-1 effectively block binding of the diabetes BPI (GAD65).
• the experimental wells contained various unlabeled peptides (e.g., antigenic peptides or LFA-1 peptides), and/or monoclonal antibody (e.g., anti-MHC-II or anti-ICAM-1 mAb) inhibitors.
• unlabeled peptides e.g., antigenic peptides or LFA-1 peptides
• monoclonal antibody e.g., anti-MHC-II or anti-ICAM-1 mAb
• Negative selection methods with monoclonal antibodies conjugated to magnetic particles were used to enrich the spleen cell fractions for B cells, macrophages, or dendritic cells as well as to examine differences in BPI binding to these different populations. These methods are detailed in Schountz et al., 157 The Journal of Immunology 3893-3901 (1996), the teachings and content of which were incorporated by reference above.
• initial EGAD-BPI were screened for selective binding to NOD (I-A g7 ) APC and assayed for simultaneous binding using monoclonal antibodies against either MHC-II or ICAM- 1 by flow cytometry methods using live APC (Murray et al., 24 Eur. J. Immunol. 2337-2344 (1994); Murray; 19 Immunology Today 157-163; and Schountz et al., 157 The Journal of Immunology 3893-3901 (1996)).
• biotinylated-BPI, -CD l la(237-247) or -GAD65(208-217) peptide were incubated overnight with spleenocytes from each inbred strain. Bound peptide was detected with amplification of avidin-FITC fluorescence by the use of a biotinylated anti-avidin reagent, followed by a second round of avidin-FITC binding. Biotinylated peptide was incubated with 10 6 viable cells at a peptide concentrations of 50 ⁇ M. Boundpeptide was detected with avidin-FITC/biotinylated anti-avidin-FITC.
• CELLQuestTM program (Becton-Dickinson) and are displayed in each panel along with the median channel fluorescence (MCF) of the M2 population (all data are the direct output of the CELLQuestTM program running on an Apple G3 computer).
• MCF median channel fluorescence
• NOD spleen cells bind the diabetes BPI (EGAD-BPI) at a higher density than spleenocytes identically purified from B ALB/c, A.SW, or A.BY.
• EGAD-BPI diabetes BPI
• Previous data has shown that B cells are the major antigenic peptide binding cells in these spleen cell preparations isolated by lymphocyte separation media
• FIG. 5b illustrates direct binding of biotinylated LFA-1 (CDl la 237-247) peptide to the same spleenocyte preparations as those shown in Fig. 5 a. Note that this Signal-2 moiety bound similarly to all strain spleenocytes.
• Fig. 5c illustrates direct binding of biotinylated GAD65 (208-217) peptide to the same spleenocyte preparations as those depicted in Figs. 5a and 5b.
• biotinylated monoclonal antibody to MHC-H (10-3.62) is incubated with freshly- isolated APC from NOD mice previously treated by intravenous (i.v.) injection of a given BPI variant or saline.
• Antibody-bound cells are then incubated with streptavidin (37 C x 15 min.) to cap the MHC-H molecules on the APC surface.
• streptavidin 37 C x 15 min.
• the cells were transferred to ice and labeled with a fluorescent (PE) monoclonal antibody to ICAM-1 (3E2).
• PE fluorescent
• T-depleted spleenocytes from mice treated 16 hours previously with EGAD-BPI i.v.
• T-depleted spleenocytes from mice treated 16 hours previously with saline only did not exhibit co-capping.
• the results for these experiments are given in Fig. 7.
• Fig. 7 illustrate the results from the T-depleted spleenocytes from mice treated 16 hours previously with EGAD-BPI (i.v.), wherein ICAM-1 was co-capped with MHC-H in the presence of bio-10-3.62/streptavidin.
• the bottom panels of Fig. 7 illustrate the results from the mice treated with saline only wherein co-capping is not exhibited. This is evidenced by having ICAM- 1 remain dispersed on the B-cell membranes.
• BPI have the capacity to bind simultaneously to MHC-H and ICAM- 1 structures on the surface of live APC and therefore may provide signal alterations involving pathways necessary for T deliberately1/T H 2 differentiation.
• T-cells from mice injected with EGAD- BPI were examined for cytokine analysis.
• EXAMPLE 4 This example used an ELISPOT to determine T H 1/T H 2 frequency as altered by BPI injection.
• mice Groups of 3-5 NOD mice were immunized subcutaneously (s.c.) with the GAD 65 peptide in CFA (40 nanomoles/mouse) at the tail base.
• Different groups received either the EGAD-BPI, its single TCR epitope (Signal-1 moiety), or its CDl la peptide (Signal-2 moiety) i.v. (all 40 nanomoles/mouse).
• the EGAD-BPI its single TCR epitope
• CDl la peptide Signal-2 moiety
• lymph nodes draining the site of the s.c. injection were made into single cell suspensions for culture. Identical primary cultures were incubated for 96 hours; then, viable T-cells were recovered by density gradient centrifugation.
• mice were combined in nitrocellulose-bottomed 96-well plates (Millititer-HA, Millipore, Bedford, MA), previously coated (50 ⁇ l/well) with mAb to either mouse IFN ⁇ (clone R4-6A2), or mouse IL-4 (clone BVD4-1D11) at a concentration of 10 ⁇ g/ml in PBS .
• mice IFN ⁇ mouse IFN ⁇
• mouse IL-4 mouse BVD4-1D11
• Groups of triplicate cultures were incubated with either Concanavalin- A (2 ⁇ g/ml), or the Signal-1 peptide moiety plus 20 U/ml recombinant IL2 (R&D Systems).
• biotinylated anti-IFN ⁇ (clone XMG1.2) or biotinylated anti-IL-4 (clone BVD6-24G2) at a concentration of 1 ⁇ g/ml and incubated for
• Cytokine-producing cells were enumerated by development of the membrane with BCIP/NBT substrate kit (BioRad Labs, Richmond, CA), followed by image capture and analysis using a standard stereomicroscope connected with a digital camera and N1H image software (Murray et al., 24 Ewr. J. Immunol. 2337-2344 (1994); Murray; 19 Immunology Today 157-163; and Schountz et al., 157 The Journal of Immunology 3893-3901 (1996)).
• CD4+ T-cell clones from NOD mice immunized with the GAD65(208-217) peptide by our previously described methods can be used in the same assay.
• the clones were generated using the methods described in Murray et al., 24 ⁇ ur. J. Immunol. 2337-2344 (1994), the teachings of which are hereby incorporated by reference. These clones will be maintained by biweekly restimulation with irradiated NOD lymphocytes, the GAD peptide, and recombinant IL-2.
• BPI that have been substituted at predicted TCR-contact positions will be used to determine which of these BPI variants are most effective in the inhibition of proliferation and cytokine release from individual clones as analyzed above.
• Predicted positions that will be scanned with all amino acids except cysteine are amino acids 208, 213, and 216. These residues point toward the
• this example shows the ability of a given BPI to modulate a functional immune response. It can be seen that mice treated with the BPI produce abundant IL-4, whereas the control mice did not produce this cytokine (illustrated in Figs. 9a and 9c ). Since IL-4 is the signature cytokine of type-2 immunity, this example shows that the BPI have the capacity to switch dominant type- 1 immunity toward T H 2 differentiation and a type- 2 response. Moreover, we have developed this in vivo assay system to provide a relatively quick examination of a given BPI's immunoregulatory efficacy. Once T H 1/T H 2 modulation is confirmed as in the present example, studies can then move on to the more stringent tests of BPI efficacy using adoptive transfer experiments as described below.
• IL-4 production increases by approximately 10-fold when T-cells are from the BPI treated animals stimulated in vitro with mitogen.
• IFN- ⁇ production also increased, although to a lesser extent (see Figs. 9b and 9d).
• EXAMPLE 5 This example tested the capacity of the BPI to inhibit lymphocytic infiltration of pancreatic islets in NOD mice. Lymphocytic infiltration is a hallmark of insulitis and the development of type-1 diabetes.
• pancreata were removed to 10%> PBS-buffered formalin, embedded in paraffin, and five-micron serial sections were examined histologically for mononuclear cell infiltration as previously described by Yoon, et al., Control of Autoimmune Diabetes in NOD Mice by GAD Expression or Suppression in ⁇ Cells, 284 Science 1183-1187 (1999), the entirety of which is hereby incorporated by reference.
• Fig. 11 represents the cumulative data of this analysis wherein the severity of islet infiltration is scored and plotted as the percentage of islets examined. Over 100 islets from each group in greater than 5 tissue sections were analyzed by three independent observers. As shown in Fig. 11, there was a clear inhibitory effect of the EGAD-BPI treatment on mononuclear cell infiltration (insulitis). Over 95%> of the islets from the BPI treated animals were intact and did not show infiltration (i.e., grade-0 islets). All of the other groups showed some signs of insulitis even at this early stage of the disease.
• the GAD peptide treated animals showed the most insulitis (grade-0 islets reduced to 62% and 37.5%> of islets scored grade 2 or above. This compared with 66.1% normal islets in the CD1 la peptide treated group and 11.4% normal islets in PBS treated animals.
• EGAD-BPI treatment provided an 84% inhibition of insulitis [calc. as: % islets @grade 1-4 (PBS Rx) minus % islets @grade 1 -4 (EGAD-BPI Rx) divided by % islets @grade 1 -4 (PBS Rx) multiplied by 100]. Representative islets from each group of the experiment are shown below in Figs.
• EXAMPLE 6 This example tested BPI blocking of diabetes development in the well described intact immune system of immuno logically reconstituted NOD.Scid mice to study diabetes progression.
• NOD.Scid adoptive transfer model wherein CD25- depleted NOD spleen cells have been observed to induce diabetes as early as 2-4 weeks post adoptive transfer was used for this purpose.
• NOD.Scid adoptive transfers were performed by a modification of a protocol described by Solomon et al. in B7/CD28 Costimulation is Essential for the Homeostasis of the CD4 + CD25 Immunoregulatory T-cells That Control Autoimmune Diabetes, 12 Immunity 431 -440 (2000), the content of which is incorporated herein by reference.
• NOD spleen cells from 8 week (non-diabetic) females were used to enrich a CD25-/CTLA4-depleted population by treatment with purified monoclonal antibody (mAb 7D4, PharMingen) followed by low-tox rabbit complement (Cedarlane) (80% depletion of CTLA4+ cells by flow analysis with PE-labeled UC10-4F10-11 mAb; not shown).
• mAb 7D4, PharMingen purified monoclonal antibody
• Cedarlane low-tox rabbit complement
• inducer cells 15 x 10 6 per mouse were injected (i.v.) into 6 week NOD.Scid females (Jackson Labs) together with 3 x IO 6 CD4+ T-cells from mice either treated with the EGAD-BPI or treated identically except with PBS in place of the EGAD-BPI.
• In vitro clonal expansion was with either recombinant IL-2 (R&D systems), or ConA, as described for the ELISPOT experiments. All manipulations of animals and cells were performed in laminar flow hoods, and animals were maintained continuously behind laminar flow barriers on autoclaved food and water in microisolator cages.
• CD4+ cells from mice treated with the individual moieties of the BPI can be used as negative controls along with CD4+ cells from mice treated with saline alone.
• Co-transfer of CD4+ T-cells enriched from matched NOD mice treated with a given BPI demonstrates that BPI treatment leads to regulatory T-cells capable of delaying the onset of diabetes.
• other diseases listed in Table 1 can be tested in this same manner (i.e., by adoptive transfer of regulatory T-cells).
• mice which received the vehicle, (PBS) developed hyperglycemia and diabetes.
• PBS vehicle
• EGAD-BPI hyperglycemia and progression to diabetes. Therefore, these data demonstrate the blocking of diabetes progression as mediated by the BPI treatment. Further modifications to the BPI structure may enhance their effectiveness in this model and in the treatment of type-1 diabetes.
• T-cells capable of suppressing diabetes development were generated in the presence of the BPI and operated in vivo to inhibit diabetes progression within the intact system of the NOD.Scid mouse. Thus we would anticipate similar regulatory T-cells to become activated by BPI containing TCR epitopes of other disease associated antigens.
• collagen-H peptide epitopes may initiate suppressor T-cells involved in rheumatoid arthritis.
• regulatory T-cells that would expand T H 1 populations may be generated by BPI containing CTLA4 second signal moieties and these could be used in diseases such as HIVl infection or other chronic viral diseases.
• Extrapolation of this example to clinical trial should be straightforward, as the NOD model is recognized as a significant representation of the human disease. (See e.g., Atkinson and Leiter, The NOD Mouse Model of Type-1 Diabetes: As Good as it Gets?, 5 Nature Medicine, 601-604 (1999).
• BPI for other autoimmune diseases
• BPI containing immunodominant TCR epitopes for collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and myelin basic protein-induced experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) will be discussed.
• CD40L peptide mimic is predicted to favor T H 2 immunity, as blocking the CD40 signal would be expected to decrease IL12 production
• the minimal immunodominant collagen-H epitope is listed above, and modifications to the BPI will be based upon the x-ray structure of this complex (Dessen et al., 7 Immunity 473 -481 (1997).
• EAE the disease is induced by the method of Murray et al., 24 Eur. J. Immunol. 2337-2344 (1994).
• MBP myelin basic protein
• This example describes predicted BPI for infectious diseases and certain cancers. Specifically, a general protocol for the testing of a given BPI containing immunodominant
• TCR epitopes of a specific human pathogen will be described using the example of HIV-1 p24 epitope ( Harcourt, et. al., HIV-1 Variation Diminishes CD4 T Lymphocyte Recognition,
• PBMCs peripheral blood mononuclear cells
• CD8+ cells removed by the negative selection protocol with magnetic particles.
• These cells are grown in tissue culture medium at 4 x IO 6 cells in 1 ml for 6 days in the presence of 20 ⁇ M of the p24 peptide, and blast cells isolated by density gradient centrifugation. Secondary cultures of these cells contained recombinant human IL-2 (20 U/ml) and are continued for a maximum of 10-14 days.
• Clones were prepared by limiting dilution cloning in fresh plates containing irradiated APC, peptide and IL-2 (50 U/ml) (Murray et al., 24 Ewr. J. Immunol. 2337-2344 (1994); Murray; 19 Immunology Today 157-163; and Schountz et al., 157 The Journal of Immunology 3893-3901 (1996)).
• BPI will be tested for their ability to inhibit the proliferation and cytokine release of these established lines of human T-cells by our detailed methods described in Schountz et al., Unique T Cell Antagonist Properties of the Exact Self-Correlate of a Peptide Antigen Revealed by Self-Substitution of Non-Self- Positions in the Peptide Sequence, 168 Cellular Immunology 193-200 (1996).
• peptides changed by amino acid substitutions at key TCR-contact residues alter the proliferation and cytokine release of cloned T-cells. If a given BPI significantly inhibits or alters cytokine release to p24 peptide-specific clones, this will target the BPI for more stringent testing in vivo.
• mice can be used to test candidate BPI for infectious diseases. These studies will be performed as described for the GAD65 BPI with the substitution of immunodominant peptides of the infectious agents for the GAD65 TCR epitope peptide. Positive results in these in vivo studies would substantiate animal studies with live pathogens.
• the Scid-human mouse model in which human tissues are adoptively transferred to the Scid mouse could be used to examine protective immunity to HIV ( Jenkins, et al., Blood (1998) 8:2672, hepatitis-C virus (HCV) (Bronowicki, J., et al. Hepatology (1998)28:211), human pappiloma virus (HPV) ( Tewari, et al. Gynecol. Oncol. (2000)77:137, and respiratory syncitial virus (RSV) ( Nadal, et al. Clin. ⁇ xp. Immunol.85:358) infections. Results:
• BPI with the peptide mimic of the FasL which is from the Y218 loop of FasL, predicted to interact with Fas at the T-cell: APC interface, will be used to favor T H 1 activation and CTL responses against chronic T H 2- dominated diseases.
• EXAMPLE 9 Here we describe several possible BPI that contain the TCR epitopes of described allergen sequences synthetically linked to the predicted CD28/CTLA4 peptide mimic and/or the predicted FasL peptide mimic.
• BPI for a given allergen have been identified by this relatively short-term experiment, we will test these BPI for the alteration of CD4 T-cell response using cloned lines from atopic patients. Briefly, CD4 T-cell clones will be established from patient peripheral blood lymphocytes as described under Example 8. We will test the capacity of a given BPI to inhibit or alter cytokine release by these cells using the ELISPOT as described previously. Finally, we will move the examination of a given BPI toward clinical testing using identically described procedures with these specific allergens in human MHC (HLA) transgenic mice (Svetlana, P. et al. J. Immunol. (1998)161:2032). These mice offer the advantage of having the human MHC molecules and thus, BPI binding will be very similar in this model as in the human allergic condition. If a given BPI blocks T H 2 activation in these mice against the native allergen, then adoptive transfer studies with human Scid mice
• Blocking the CTLA4/CD28 pathway in preference for LFA-1 signaling will favor T H 1 differentiation against these allergens in the presence of the BPI.
• BPI with the FasL moiety should favor type-1 immunity. It has been a long-held practice to "desensitize" atopic patients with allergens given by inj ection and desensitization is thought to operate via a shift toward T H 1 responses to the specific allergens (Holt, et al., Nature (1999) 402:6760 suppl:B12-17).

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