US20190142909A1 - Viral vectors comprising rdh12 coding regions and methods of treating retinal dystrophies - Google Patents

Viral vectors comprising rdh12 coding regions and methods of treating retinal dystrophies Download PDF

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US20190142909A1
US20190142909A1 US16/192,382 US201816192382A US2019142909A1 US 20190142909 A1 US20190142909 A1 US 20190142909A1 US 201816192382 A US201816192382 A US 201816192382A US 2019142909 A1 US2019142909 A1 US 2019142909A1
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rdh12
human
retinal
nucleic acid
protein
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Debra A. Thompson
Robin R. Ali
Alexander J. Smith
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University of Michigan System
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    • C12Y101/01105—Retinol dehydrogenase (1.1.1.105)
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    • C12N2750/14143—Use of virus, viral particle or viral elements as a vector viral genome or elements thereof as genetic vector

Definitions

  • the disclosure relates to medical treatment methods, such as methods for treating a human subject with an ophthalmological condition, e.g., Leber congenital amaurosis, due to at least one loss-of-function mutation in the gene encoding the Retinol Dehydrogenase 12 protein (RDH12), the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a nucleic acid comprising an adeno-associated viral vector comprising a human RDH12 complementary DNA (cDNA).
  • an ophthalmological condition e.g., Leber congenital amaurosis
  • RDH12 Retinol Dehydrogenase 12 protein
  • LCA/EOSRD is associated with autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive modes of inheritance, involving the retinal pigment epithelium and the rod and cone photoreceptors as primary targets (Weleber et al. 2013). Approximately 10% of LCA/EOSRD is caused by mutations in the gene encoding RDH12 (Kumaran et al. 2017).
  • RDH12 Given the role of RDH12 in the visual cycle that provides chromophore to the photoreceptor cells (Haeseleer et al. 2002; Chen et al. 2012), and which constitutes a critical therapeutic target, RDH12 is one of the most important LCA genes.
  • the invention provides an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector comprising a coding region for the gene product of the RDH12 gene, a gene encoding a retinol dehydrogenase enzyme.
  • AAV vector comprising RDH12 is useful in treating retinal dystrophy disorders such as Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA) by providing a recombinant construct in which an RDH12 coding region is placed under the control of a regulable, or controllable, promoter, such as a heterologous promoter, to provide complementing retinol dehydrogenase to subjects lacking wild-type levels of RDH12 activity, such as would result from mutations in RDH12.
  • a regulable, or controllable, promoter such as a heterologous promoter
  • Subjects who can be treated by the present methods can include those who have loss of visual function (e.g., impaired response on electroretinogram (ERG) testing), but who retain some photoreceptor cells as determined by optical coherence tomography (OCT).
  • ERG impaired response on electroretinogram
  • OCT optical coherence tomography
  • the disclosure provides a method of treating a human subject who has an ophthalmological condition, such as Leber Congenital Amaurosis, or LCA, or another clinically defined ophthalmological condition due to one or more loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding the Retinol Dehydrogenase 12 (RDH12) protein.
  • an ophthalmological condition such as Leber Congenital Amaurosis, or LCA
  • RDH12 Retinol Dehydrogenase 12
  • one aspect of the disclosure provides a method of treating a human subject who has an ophthalmological condition due to one or more loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding the Retinol Dehydrogenase 12 (RDH12) protein, the method comprising administering to at least one eye of the subject an adeno-associated viral vector comprising a nucleic acid, wherein the nucleic acid comprises human RDH12 DNA, e.g., human RDH12 cDNA, and wherein the RDH12 DNA (e.g., human RDH12 DNA) encodes a protein that is at least 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% identical to the full length of SEQ ID NO:2.
  • RDH12 DNA e.g., human RDH12 DNA
  • the ophthalmological condition is Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA).
  • the RDH12 DNA e.g., RDH12 cDNA
  • the RDH12 DNA is under the expression control of a human rhodopsin kinase 1 (hGRK1) promoter, such as wherein the hGRK1 promoter comprises or consists essentially of SEQ ID NO:3.
  • the adeno-associated viral vector is AAV-2, serotype-5 (AAV2/5) or AAV-5.
  • the RDH12 DNA, e.g., RDH12 cDNA comprises a sequence that is at least 60% or 70% identical to SEQ ID NO:1.
  • the nucleic acid is administered at a titer of about 2 ⁇ 10 10 viral genomes per milliliter (vg/mL) to about 2 ⁇ 10 12 vg/mL, e.g., a titer of about 2 ⁇ 10 10 viral genomes per milliliter (vg/mL), about 2 ⁇ 10 11 vg/mL, or about 2 ⁇ 10 12 vg/mL.
  • the nucleic acid is administered into the subretinal space.
  • a nucleic acid encoding a human RDH12 DNA, e.g., a human RDH12 cDNA, wherein the human RDH12 DNA encodes a protein that is at least 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% identical to the full length of SEQ ID NO:2, wherein the RDH12 DNA is under the control of a human rhodopsin kinase 1 (hGRK1) promoter.
  • the hGRK1 promoter comprises or consists essentially of SEQ ID NO:3.
  • the human RDH12 DNA, e.g., RDH12 cDNA encodes a protein comprising SEQ ID NO:2.
  • the human RDH12 DNA, e.g., RDH12 cDNA is at least 60% or 70% identical to the full length of SEQ ID NO: 1.
  • nucleic acid as disclosed herein for use in treating a human subject who has an ophthalmological condition due to one or more loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding the Retinol Dehydrogenase 12 (RDH12) protein.
  • the ophthalmological condition is Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA).
  • viral vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding RDH12 as disclosed herein.
  • the viral vector is an adeno-associated viral vector.
  • the adeno-associated viral vector is AAV-2, serotype-5 (AAV2/5) or AAV-5.
  • Another aspect of the disclosure is a viral vector as disclosed herein for use in treating a human subject who has an ophthalmological condition due to one or more loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding the Retinol Dehyrogenase 12 (RDH12) protein.
  • the ophthalmological condition is Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA).
  • Another aspect of the disclosure is directed to an isolated host cell comprising a viral vector as disclosed herein, or a nucleic acid as disclosed herein.
  • the isolated host cell expresses a human RDH12 protein.
  • FIG. 1 RDH activity in the visual cycle and photoreceptor cells.
  • the visual cycle converts vitamin A to 11-cis retinal, the chromophore of the visual pigments, and recycles all-trans retinal released after bleaching.
  • B Retinoid flow shown for a RPE-photoreceptor cell pair.
  • RDH8 in the outer segment can reduce all-trans retinal.
  • RDH12 in the inner segment can reduce all-trans retinal, 11-cis retinal, and other toxic short chain aldehydes.
  • 11cRAL 11-cis retinal
  • 11cROL 11-cis retinol
  • AtRAL all-trans retinal
  • AtROL all-trans retinol
  • RCHO short-chain aldehyde
  • RCHOH short-chain alcohol
  • Rh rhodopsin
  • MRh metarhodopsin.
  • FIG. 2 Expression and localization of recombinant RDH12 in AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 injected mice.
  • A Schematic of the AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 gene-therapy construct in which a human RDH12 cDNA is cloned downstream of a human rhodopsin kinase promoter, between inverted terminal repeat sequences derived from the AAV2 genome.
  • B, C Expression of human RDH12 protein in mouse retinas at 6 weeks following sub-retinal injection of AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 (1.3 ⁇ 10 9 vg) or PBS, evaluated using antibodies specific for mouse Rdh12 or human RDH12.
  • FIG. 1 shows Western analysis of retinal lysates from C57BL/6J mice, PBS injected Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice, and AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12-injected Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice.
  • C Immunohistochemical analysis shows localization of native mouse Rdh12 (dark gray) to the IS, ONL, and OPL of the retina in C57BL/6J mice but not in Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice, whereas recombinant human RDH12 (light gray) resulting from injection of AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 shows similar localization both C57BL/6J and Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice. Phase contrast images (left).
  • ITR inverted terminal repeat
  • hGRK human rhodopsin kinase promoter
  • SD/SA Simian virus 40 splice donor/splice acceptor site
  • hRDH12 human RDH12 cDNA
  • polyA Simian virus 40 polyadenylation signal
  • RPE retinal pigment epithelium
  • OS outer segments
  • IS inner segments
  • ONL outer nuclear layer
  • OPL outer plexiform layer
  • INL inner nuclear layer
  • IPL inner plexiform layer
  • GCL ganglion cell layer.
  • FIG. 3 AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 gene-replacement therapy restores RDH12 function in Rdh12-deficent mice.
  • A HPLC analysis of retinal reductase activity in retinas from C57BL/6J and Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice injected with AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 (1.3 ⁇ 10 9 vg) or PBS, or non-injected. At 6 weeks post-injection, all-trans retinol formation was quantitated in assays with all-trans retinal as a substrate. Each data point represents the mean ⁇ standard error for a minimum of 5 independent experiments where retinas from 3 to 5 mice were pooled and assayed in triplicate.
  • FIG. 4 AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 gene-replacement therapy reduces light-damage in albino Rdh12-deficent mice.
  • ERG analysis was performed, one week before and one week after exposure to 5,000 lux for 2 hours, on mice that were injected in one eye with AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 and were uninjected in the contralateral eye.
  • Scotopic (rod-isolated and combined rod-cone) responses were quantified for groups of 10-13 mice, and the percentage of the initial ERG response remaining after light damage was calculated. Averaged outcomes with standard errors are shown, as well as the significance of the differences between injected and uninjected eyes calculated using two-tailed paired t-test analysis.
  • FIG. 5 AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 does not significantly affect steady-state levels of 11-cis retinal in the retina.
  • Mice received AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 (1.3 ⁇ 10 9 vg) or PBS via sub-retinal injection, or were non-injected. Following overnight dark adaptation, retinoids were extracted under dim-red light, and quantified by HPLC analysis.
  • A Representative chromatograms from each treatment condition; peaks for syn-11-cis retinal oxime, anti-11-cis retinal oxime, and syn-all-trans retinal oxime are indicated.
  • FIG. 6 Retinal function is not adversely affected by AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12. Scotopic (rod-isolated and combined rod-cone) and photopic (cone-mediated) electroretinogram (ERG) responses recorded at 6 weeks post treatment from C57BL/6J, non-injected; Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ , non-injected; and Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 injected mice (up to 2 ⁇ 10 9 vg). ERGs from a representative animal in each treatment group measured at 6 weeks post-injection are shown.
  • FIG. 7 Visual pigment localization is not perturbed by AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12. Immunohistochemical localization of rhodopsin and cone opsin in non-injected and injected (1.3 ⁇ 10 9 vg) Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice evaluated at 16 weeks post treatment. Human RDH12 protein expression in IS and ONL (light gray). Rhodopsin and red/green opsin (dark gray) in AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 injected eyes. Abbreviations are as described for FIG. 2 .
  • FIG. 8 Retinal structure is not damaged by long-term expression of AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12.
  • OCT optical coherence tomography
  • FIG. 9 Infiltrating CD68+ macrophages and RDH12 expression in AAV2/8-hGRK1p.hRDH12 injected retinas.
  • Abbreviations are as described for FIG. 2 .
  • Inherited retinal degeneration is a rare cause of profound vision loss that is a focus of current efforts to develop targeted gene-therapy.
  • Viral vector-mediated somatic gene therapy has shown great promise in treating animal models of human retinal degenerative disease.
  • AAV adeno-associated virus
  • RPE retinal pigment epithelium
  • photoreceptors have been the primary targets for transgene expression.
  • phase I clinical trials involving gene therapy for patients with Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA) targeting the RPE (Bainbridge et al. 2008; Cideciyan et al. 2008; Maguire et al. 2008) and more recently choroideremia (Maclaren et al. 2014) have already met with some success.
  • LCA Leber Congenital Amaurosis
  • Maclaren et al. 2014 have already met with some success.
  • RDH12 retinol dehydrogenase 12
  • LCA Leber congenital amaurosis
  • EOSRD early-onset severe retinal dystrophy
  • Visual pigment inactivation involves release of all-trans retinal, its reduction to all-trans retinol and return to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) for regeneration of the 11-cis retinal chromophore ( FIG. 1A ).
  • RPE retinal pigment epithelium
  • FIG. 1A When these recycling reactions are inefficient or disrupted, e.g., by aging or inherited disease, retinaldehydes and retinaldehyde-condensation products accumulate in the photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium, resulting in profound damage to the outer retina (Ben-Shabat et al. 2001; Thompson et al. 2003; Sparrow, 2010; Chen et al. 2012).
  • RDH12 is a member of the family of short-chain dehydrogenases/reductases that uses NADPH to reduce a broad range of substrates, including cis- and trans-retinaldehydes (Haeseleer et al. 2002), C9 aldehydes generated as a result of lipid photo-oxidation (Belyaeva et al. 2005; Lee et al. 2008; Marchette et al. 2010), and steroid substrates (Keller et al. 2007).
  • RDH12 localizes to the inner segments of rod and cone photoreceptor cells (Haeseleer et al. 2002; Maeda et al. 2006) where it protects against light-induced damage caused, at least in part, by reactive retinaldehydes (Maeda et al. 2006).
  • the full-length human RDH12 protein sequence is provided in SEQ ID NO:2.
  • Rhodopsin Kinase Promoter hGRK1p
  • a replacement gene construct in which a human RDH12 cDNA as described herein is placed under the control of a human rhodopsin kinase (hGRK1) promoter.
  • the hGRK1 promoter is approximately 200 base pairs (bp) in length containing a short promoter derived from the rhodopsin kinase (RK) hGRK1 gene, which has been shown to drive cell-specific expression in rods and cones (Khani et al. 2007; Sun et al. 2010; Young et al. 2003).
  • An exemplary hGRK1 promoter sequence contains nucleotides ⁇ 112 to +87 of SEQ ID NO:3 (Khani et al. 2007).
  • the abbreviated human RDH12 cDNA as described above, is packaged into a delivery vector, e.g., an AAV5 or AAV2/5 vector.
  • Replacement genes can be administered in any effective carrier, e.g., any formulation or composition capable of effectively delivering the component gene to cells in vivo.
  • Approaches include insertion of the gene into non-pathogenic, non-replicating viral vectors, including recombinant retroviruses, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, lentivirus, and herpes simplex virus-1, or recombinant bacterial or eukaryotic plasmids.
  • Viral vectors transfect cells directly; plasmid DNA can be delivered naked or with the help of, for example, cationic liposomes (lipofectamine) or derivatized (e.g., antibody conjugated), poly lysine conjugates, gramacidin S, artificial viral envelopes or other such intracellular carriers, as well as direct injection of the gene construct or Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 precipitation carried out in vivo.
  • a preferred approach for in vivo introduction of nucleic acid into a cell is by use of a viral vector containing nucleic acid, e.g., a cDNA.
  • Infection of cells with a viral vector has the advantage that a large proportion of the targeted cells can receive the nucleic acid.
  • molecules encoded within the viral vector, e.g., by a cDNA contained in the viral vector are expressed efficiently in cells that have taken up viral vector nucleic acid.
  • Retrovirus vectors and adenovirus derived vectors can be used as a recombinant gene delivery system for the transfer of exogenous genes in vivo, particularly into humans, in a number of cell types. However, they do not transduce the photoreceptor cells with sufficient efficiency to make them useful for this application.
  • Adeno-associated virus is a naturally occurring defective virus that requires another virus, such as an adenovirus or a herpes virus, as a helper virus for efficient replication and a productive life cycle (Muzyczka et al. 1992). It is also one of the few viruses that may integrate its DNA into non-dividing cells, and exhibits a high frequency of stable integration (see, for example, Flotte et al. 1992; Samulski et al. 1989; and McLaughlin et al. 1988). Vectors containing as little as 300 base pairs of AAV can be packaged and can integrate. Space for exogenous DNA is limited to about 4.5 kb.
  • An AAV vector such as that described in Tratschin et al., 1985 can be used to introduce DNA into cells.
  • a variety of nucleic acids have been introduced into different cell types using AAV vectors (see, for example, Hermonat et al. 1984; Tratschin et al. 1984a; Tratschin et al. 1984b; Wondisford et al. 1988; and Flotte et al. 1993).
  • the viral delivery vector is a recombinant AAV2/5 virus.
  • the final product Prior to administration, the final product can undergo a series of ultrapurification steps to meet clinical grade criteria.
  • Subjects who are candidates for the present methods of treatment include those who have a diagnosis of LCA caused by mutations in the gene encoding RDH12.
  • Subjects suffering from other ophthalmological clinically-defined conditions caused by mutations in the gene encoding RDH12, e.g., early-onset retinitis pigmentosa, can also be treated using the methods described herein.
  • a diagnosis of LCA or another ophthalmological condition caused by mutations in the gene encoding RDH12 can be made using methods known in the art.
  • the methods described herein can include identifying a subject, e.g., a child, adolescent, or young adult subject, who has LCA or another ophthalmological condition caused by one or more mutations in the gene encoding RDH12, or who is suspected of having LCA or another ophthalmological condition caused by one or more mutations in the gene encoding RDH12 (e.g., based on the presence of symptoms of the condition and no other obvious cause), and obtaining a sample comprising genomic DNA from the subject, detecting the presence of mutations in RDH12 using known molecular biological methods, and selecting a patient who has mutations in both RDH12 alleles that cause LCA or another condition.
  • Symptoms of the condition include macular atrophy, foveal thinning and disruption of laminar architecture, resulting in early central vision loss and progression to LP vision. Visual fields are constricted at the earliest age measured, and ERG responses become unrecordable by early adulthood.
  • Detecting mutations in RDH12 can include sequencing all or part of the RDH12 gene in a subject, and comparing the sequence to a reference sequence (e.g., GenBank Accession No. NG_008321.1) to detect a mutation.
  • Frameshift mutations, truncation mutations, mutations that alter a conserved amino acid, mutations that affect transcript splicing, or mutations that affect a regulatory (e.g., promoter) region are considered to be mutations that can cause LCA or another ophthalmological condition as described herein; an alteration in function can be confirmed by expressing the mutant in vitro (e.g., in cultured cells), and assaying, e.g., enzymatic function.
  • Exemplary mutations in the homozygous state include: Glu127X, Gln189X, Tyr226Cys, Ala269GlyfsX1, and Leu274Pro (all position references refer to the RDH12 protein sequence of SEQ ID NO:2).
  • Exemplary mutations in the compound heterozygous state include: Thr49Met/Arg62X; Arg65X/Ala269GlyfsX1; His151D/Thr155Ile; His151D/Arg269GlyfsX1 (Janecke et al. 2004; Schuster et al. 2007). (Positions refer to the protein sequence of SEQ ID NO:2.)
  • Patients with LCA or another ophthalmological condition due to at least one RDH12 mutation that can be treated using a method described herein preferably retain some photoreceptors and visual function, e.g., as measured by standard visual function or field tests and/or Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT, e.g., Spectral Domain-OCT (SD-OCT)).
  • OCT Optical Coherence Tomography
  • the methods described herein can include identifying subjects who have been diagnosed with LCA or another ophthalmological condition due to at least one RDH12 mutation, who have at least one confirmed mutation in RDH12 that causes their condition, and testing their visual ability and detecting the presence of residual central photoreceptors.
  • Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice The generation and analysis of Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice have been described previously (Kurth et al. 2007).
  • the Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice used in this study were bred from sibling mating among nullizygous males and females maintained in our institutional animal facility.
  • WT mice used in the study were C57BL/6 from The Jackson Laboratory (Wilmington, Mass.).
  • mice of the following genotypes were used for the studies disclosed herein: Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice on C57BL/6J background homozygous for the Rpe65-Met450 (M/M) variant (Kurth, 2007), and albino Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice on BALB/c background homozygous for the Rpe65-Leu450 (L/L) variant (Chrispell, 2009), that were obtained by breeding. Mice were reared in a 12-hour (light)/12-hour (dark) cycle and were euthanized by CO 2 inhalation followed by bilateral pneumothorax.
  • Human RDH12 cDNA were amplified from human retinal cDNA by PCR using primers designed to encompass the entire RDH12 coding region, cloned, and sequenced to verify fidelity, as described previously (Janecke et al. 2004).
  • AAV vectors RDH12 cDNAs were inserted into the multiple cloning site of the parental pAAV-hGRK1-hrGFP vector. The resulting pAAV-hGRK1-Rdh12 vector was packaged into AAV.
  • AAV2/5 and AAV2/8 pseudotyped vectors were generated by bipartite transfection: (1) AAV vector plasmid encoding the gene of interest, (2) AAV helper plasmid encoding AAV Rep proteins from serotype 2 and Cap proteins from either serotype 5 or serotype 8, and adenovirus helper functions into 293T cells.
  • the transfection and purification were performed using a protocol as published (Nishiguchi et al 2015). Two days after transfection, cells were lysed by repeated freeze and thaw cycles. After initial clearing of cell debris, the nucleic acid component of the virus producer cells was removed by Benzonase treatment.
  • the recombinant AAV vector particles were purified by affinity chromatography using a AVB matrix, washed in 1 ⁇ PBS and concentrated to a volume of 100-150 ml using Vivaspin 4 (10 kDa) concentrators. Vectors were titered by qPCR amplification.
  • mice at approximately 4 weeks of age were placed under general anesthesia with an intraperitoneal injection of ketamine (90 mg/kg)/xylazine (9 mg/kg).
  • a 0.5% proparacaine solution was applied to the cornea as a topical anesthetic.
  • Pupils were dilated with topical application of tropicamide (0.5%).
  • a small incision was made through the cornea adjacent to the limbus using a 30-gauge needle.
  • a 34-gauge blunt needle fitted to a Hamilton syringe was inserted through the incision behind the lens and pushed through the retina. All injections were made subretinally in a location within the nasal quadrant of the retina.
  • RDH12-encoding vector was administered separately to one eye of each mouse receiving treatment, and the contralateral eyes were uninjected. Fundus examination following the injection found more than 30% of the retina detached in most cases, confirming successful subretinal delivery.
  • CSP rabbit anti-Rdh12 polyclonal antibody
  • 2C9 mouse anti-RDH12 monoclonal antibody
  • 2D4 mouse anti-RHO monoclonal antibody
  • Proteins in retina homogenates were separated by SDS-PAGE, transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes that were then blocked, incubated with primary antibody overnight, washed, incubated with alkaline phosphatase-conjugated secondary antibody, and developed using 5-bromo-4-chloro-3′-indolylphosphate p-toluidine and nitro-blue tetrazolium chloride.
  • mice were euthanized, eyes scored for orientation, then enucleated.
  • lens and anterior segments were removed, eyes briefly fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, washed with PBS, transitioned to sucrose/OCT, flash-frozen, and sectioned at a thickness of 10 ⁇ m.
  • whole eyes were flash-frozen in dry-ice-cooled isopentane for 30 seconds, and then transferred to dry-ice-cooled methanol containing 3% glacial acetic acid. Eyes were incubated at 80° C. for 48 hours, then overnight at ⁇ 20° C., embedded in paraffin, and sectioned at a thickness of 6 ⁇ m.
  • Paraffin sections were de-paraffinized and antigens retrieved by incubating in 1 mM EDTA, 0.05% Tween 20, pH8.0, at 90° C. for 30 minutes prior to immune labeling as follows. Briefly, retinal cross sections were washed with PBS and permeabilized with PBS-T (0.3% Triton X-100); blocked with 1% bovine serum albumin, 10% normal goat serum, and 0.3% Triton X-100; and incubated with primary antibodies overnight at 4° C., washed, then incubated with fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibodies for 1 hour at room temperature. Sections were cover-slipped using ProLong Gold gel mount containing 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI; Invitrogen), and imaged using a Leica DM6000 fluorescence microscope.
  • DAPI ProLong Gold gel mount containing 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole
  • ERGs were performed as described previously (Thompson, 2012) using the Espion e2 recording system (Diagnosys, Lowell, Mass.). Briefly, mice were dark-adapted overnight and anesthetized with an intra-peritoneal injection of Ketamine (93 mg/kg) and Xylazine (8 mg/kg). Pupils were dilated with topical tropicamide (0.5%). Body temperature was maintained at 37° C. with a heating pad. Corneal ERGs were recorded from both eyes using gold wire loops with 0.5% tetracaine topical anesthesia and a drop of 2% methylcellulose for corneal hydration. A gold wire loop placed in the mouth was used as reference, and a ground electrode was on the tail.
  • the ERG protocol consisted of recording dark-adapted (scotopic) responses to brief white flashes ( ⁇ 2.31 log cd ⁇ s ⁇ m ⁇ 2 for rod isolated B-waves; 1.09 log cd ⁇ s ⁇ m ⁇ 2 for rod-cone combined A- and B-waves).
  • Light-adapted (photopic) ERGs were recorded after 10 minutes of adaptation to a white 32 cd ⁇ m ⁇ 2 rod-suppressing background in response to 1.09 log cd ⁇ s ⁇ m ⁇ 2 intensity flashes (for cone isolated B-waves).
  • Responses were amplified at 1,000 gain at 1.25 to 1000 Hz, and digitized at a rate of 2000 Hz.
  • a notch filter was used to remove 60 Hz line noise.
  • Responses were computer-averaged and recorded at 3- to 60-second intervals depending upon the stimulus intensity. For statistical analysis, paired t-tests were used to determine if ERG amplitudes in treated eyes were significantly different from untreated eyes.
  • mice Albino Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice were injected in one eye with AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 (1.3 ⁇ 10 9 vg), or with an equal volume of PBS, and contralateral eyes were uninjected.
  • ERG analysis was performed and scotopic responses were quantified as described above.
  • mice were dark-adapted overnight, their pupils were dilated with tropicamide (0.5%), and then were placed in a light-box in individual clear trays. The mice were exposed to 5,000 lux for 2 hours, and then were returned to vivarium housing (12-hour dark/12-hour light ( ⁇ 20 lux)) for 7 days, after which ERG analysis was repeated.
  • OCT optical coherence tomography
  • mice All-trans retinal and 11-cis retinal in mouse eyes were extracted using a modification of a previously described method (Bligh and Dyer, 1959).
  • Six-week, post-injection mice were dark-adapted overnight, then under dim-red light, euthanized via CO 2 overdose, and eyes enucleated and frozen in liquid N 2 .
  • each eye Under dim red light and on ice, each eye was homogenized in 1 mL chloroform:methanol:hydroxylamine (2 M) (3:6:1) and incubated at room temperature for 2 minutes. Next, 200 ⁇ L chloroform and 240 ⁇ L water were added, and each sample was vortexed and centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 5 minutes.
  • Quantitative analysis was done by comparison of peak areas at 347 and 351 nm for syn- and anti-11-cis retinal oxime, respectively, and at 357 and 361 nm for syn- and anti-all-trans retinal oxime, respectively (Kurth et al. 2007).
  • mice were euthanized, and each retina was homogenized individually in 125 ⁇ L of 0.25 M sucrose, 25 mM Tris-acetate, pH 7, 1 mM dithiothreitol. The homogenates were centrifuged at 1000 ⁇ g for 5 minutes to remove unbroken cells, and then the supernates were sonicated with a microtip probe (30 times for 1 second each) on ice. Protein concentrations were determined by a modification of the Lowry procedure (Peterson et al.
  • RDH12-replacement therapy A variety of vectors for RDH12-replacement therapy were developed and tested.
  • the optimal RDH12 vector construct is shown in FIG. 2A . It comprises the human RDH12 cDNA under control of a human Rhodopsin Kinase (GRK1) promoter fragment.
  • the construct is packaged in an AAV2/5 serotype.
  • the AAV serotype 5 capsid has been shown to mediate photoreceptor transduction, but with slower kinetics and less robust expression compared to the AAV8 capsid (Yang et al. 2002; Lotery et al. 2003; Allocca et al. 2007; Lebherz et al. 2008).
  • Human RDH12 protein expression in mouse retinas 6 weeks following sub-retinal injection of AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 was evaluated using antibodies specific for the mouse Rdh12 or the human RDH12 proteins.
  • Vector-delivered levels of human RDH12 appear to be roughly comparable to the amount of mouse Rdh12 ( FIG. 2B ).
  • Indirect immunofluorescence imaging on retinal sections was used to evaluate native mouse Rdh12 and recombinant human RDH12, using species-specific antibodies. Localization of endogenous and recombinant RDH12 appears to be identical, indicating that the protein is being processed normally ( FIG. 2C ).
  • retinas of Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice The capacity of retinas of Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice to reduce exogenous retinaldehydes is significantly reduced compared to wild-type mice (Chrispell et al. 2009).
  • AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 The effect of AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 on susceptibility to light-induced damage was evaluated in albino Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice that were injected in one eye with 1.3 ⁇ 10 9 vg or an equal volume of PBS, and received no treatment in the contralateral eye.
  • ERG analysis of scotopic retinal activity was performed 1 week before, and 1 week after, subjecting the mice to light levels that cause significant retinal damage in albino animals (5,000 lux for 2 hours). The percent retinal activity remaining in vector-treated eyes was significantly greater than that remaining in untreated eyes (p ⁇ 0.0168) ( FIG. 4 ).
  • Toxicity of the vector was assessed through the direct effect of human RDH12 activity on retinoid metabolism, and for indirect effects on retinal structure and retinal function, as described in the following passage.
  • FIG. 5A A representative chromatogram shows various controls with elution times for various retinoids indicated. Total retinal levels of 11-cis retinal and all-trans retinal represent average values ⁇ standard error for a minimum of 5 independent experiments ( FIG. 5B ,C).
  • ERG responses of retinal activity were measured in C57BL/6J and Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice that received 1.3 ⁇ 10 9 vg of AAV2/5-hGRK1p.hRDH12 and were maintained in vivarium housing (12-hour dark/12-hour light ( ⁇ 20 lux)).
  • Scotopic rod-isolated ⁇ 2.3 log cd ⁇ sm ⁇ 2 stimulus
  • combined rod-cone (1.09 log cd ⁇ s ⁇ m ⁇ 2 stimulus)
  • photopic cone-mediated responses, 1.09 log cd ⁇ s ⁇ m ⁇ 2 stimulus
  • ERGs from a representative animal in each treatment group measured at 6 weeks post-injection showed no significant effect of human RDH12 expression on retinal function ( FIG. 6 ).
  • OCT optical coherence tomography
  • a capsid derived from AAV serotype 8 has been shown to mediate efficient and robust transduction of photoreceptor cells (Allocca et al. 2007; Natkunarajah et al. 2008; Vandenberghe et al. 2011; Vandenberghe et al. 2013).
  • Initial studies were performed with a AAV2/8 serotype carrying the vector construct described above.
  • Rdh12 ⁇ / ⁇ mice treated by subretinal injection of AAV2/8-hGRK1p.hRDH12 at doses of 10 8 -10 9 viral genomes (vg) resulted in robust expression of recombinant human RDH12 protein.

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