US20180183038A1 - Method of activating two-dimensional materials for multivalent/polyatomic-ion intercalation battery electrodes - Google Patents

Method of activating two-dimensional materials for multivalent/polyatomic-ion intercalation battery electrodes Download PDF

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US20180183038A1
US20180183038A1 US15/735,423 US201615735423A US2018183038A1 US 20180183038 A1 US20180183038 A1 US 20180183038A1 US 201615735423 A US201615735423 A US 201615735423A US 2018183038 A1 US2018183038 A1 US 2018183038A1
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host material
electrode
pillaring
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metal
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Yan Yao
Hyun Deog Yoo
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University of Houston System
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/04—Processes of manufacture in general
    • H01M4/0438—Processes of manufacture in general by electrochemical processing
    • H01M4/044—Activating, forming or electrochemical attack of the supporting material
    • H01M4/0445—Forming after manufacture of the electrode, e.g. first charge, cycling
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/054—Accumulators with insertion or intercalation of metals other than lithium, e.g. with magnesium or aluminium
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
    • H01M4/136—Electrodes based on inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
    • H01M4/139—Processes of manufacture
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
    • H01M4/139—Processes of manufacture
    • H01M4/1397—Processes of manufacture of electrodes based on inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
    • H01M4/581—Chalcogenides or intercalation compounds thereof
    • H01M4/5815—Sulfides
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
    • Y02E60/10—Energy storage using batteries

Definitions

  • This invention relates to multivalent/polyatomic-ion batteries. More particularly, to a method for activating two-dimensional materials as high-capacity and high-rate intercalation electrodes in such batteries.
  • the first rechargeable magnesium battery was proposed in as early as 2000, which delivered an energy density only comparable to Ni—Cd batteries. Surprisingly, this material still represents one of the most successful cathode materials for rechargeable magnesium batteries after more than ten years of R&D in this field. For aluminum, only V 2 O 5 and TiO 2 have been attempted as cathodes, neither of which exhibited practical energy density. These results reflect the intrinsic difficulty of electrochemical storage of multivalent cations in insertion compounds. Compared to monovalent cations, multivalent metal cations are characterized by small ion radii and high charge number.
  • a method for activating two-dimensional host materials for a multivalent/polyatomic ion battery may include adding a pillaring salt in electrolyte. This process may be followed by in-situ electrochemically intercalating the pillaring ions, solvent molecules and multivalent/polyatomic ions into the van der Waals gap of host materials. After the activation process, the host material is transformed into an interlayer-expanded 2D material with significantly enhanced specific capacity and rate performance for multivalent/polyatomic ion intercalation. Using this method, the interlayer spacing of 2D material relative to a pristine sample may be 50% larger or more. In comparison, pervious methods only increase the spacing less than 10%.
  • an electrode for a multivalent/polyatomic ion battery may be formed from two-dimensional host materials that have been activated.
  • the van der Waals gap of the host material may be intercalated with pillaring ions and multivalent/polyatomic ions.
  • van der Waals gaps of the host material may be substantially filled with the pillaring ions and multivalent/polyatomic ions.
  • the multivalent/polyatomic ions are de-intercalated from the host material, but the pillaring ions may remain. Further, an interlayer spacing of the host material does not change during a charged stage and discharged stage.
  • polyatomic MgCl + is identified as the Mg storage carrier, which allows for a significantly reduced diffusion barrier (in comparison to Mg 2+ ) to realize high specific capacity and charge-discharge rates.
  • FIG. 1 shows an illustrative structure of a multivalent/polyatomic-ion battery.
  • FIG. 2 shows the in-situ activation process of layered materials at various state of charge.
  • FIG. 3 shows the cyclic voltammograms of APC electrolytes with or without PY14Cl.
  • FIG. 4 shows in operando XRD characterization and corresponding galvanostatic voltage profile.
  • FIG. 5 shows the galvanostatic voltage profile of an expanded TiS 2 electrode with a current density of 24 mA/g.
  • FIG. 6 shows another set of in operando XRD patterns to check the structural irreversibility of each stage 1 , 2 , and 3 .
  • FIG. 7 shows SEM images of expanded TiS 2 at different stages ( 0 - 5 ) on the discharge curve in FIG. 5 .
  • FIG. 8 shows EDS spectra for stage 1 to 4 and XPS spectra of MG2s, Cl2p and N1s for stage 0 to 5 .
  • FIG. 9 shows XPS spectra of MG2s, Cl2p and N1s for stage 0 to 5 .
  • FIG. 10 shows NMR spectra of samples after sonication and heating in DMSO-d 6 solutions.
  • FIGS. 11 a -11 b show impedance analysis of TiS 2 electrode at different stages of electrochemical activation, more particularly (a) a capacitance vs frequency plot and (b) Nyquist plot.
  • FIG. 12 a -12 f show electrochemical performances of electrochemically activated TiS 2 .
  • FIG. 13 shows a cyclic voltammogram of expanded TiS 2 at varied scan rates from 0.1 to 10 mV s ⁇ 1 .
  • the vertical axis shows current normalized by scan rate.
  • FIGS. 14 a -14 b respectively show (a) cycling stability of activated TiS 2
  • FIGS. 15 a -15 d respectively show voltage profiles of layered TiS 2 cathode (dotted) and Mg anode (solid) measured simultaneously in a three-electrode cell vs a Mg/Mg 2+ reference electrode at the 2 nd , 13 rd , 80 th and 137 th cycle.
  • FIG. 16 shows a voltage profile of electrochemical activation of MoS 2 in 0.2 M PY14Cl+APC electrolyte at 17 mA g ⁇ 1 .
  • electrodes based on light-weight multivalent metals with densities of 1.7-2.7 g/cm 3 such as magnesium and aluminum offer up to seven times higher volumetric specific capacity than lithium-ion battery anodes.
  • their redox potentials are 0.7-1.4 V higher than lithium, implying potentially better safety; but not too high (e.g. the redox potential of aluminum is lower than the popular anode Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 ) so that the theoretically achievable working potential is not compromised.
  • studies on the electrochemical deposition of magnesium showed that magnesium can be plated in a uniform dendrite-free manner and will serve as a safe anode material. Rechargeable magnesium batteries are therefore regarded as a potentially low-cost, ultra-high energy, and safe technology for energy storage.
  • Mg-intercalation cathodes have proved particularly challenging because of the relatively higher energy barrier for Mg 2+ migration in host materials, typically larger than 0.7 eV. For this reason, most Mg-ion cathodes studied so far show poor performance.
  • layered titanium disulphide TiS 2
  • TiS 2 a classic Li-ion intercalation host with 220 mAh g ⁇ 1 of reversible capacity
  • the difference in terms of capacity can be understood when comparing the migration energy barriers for two diffusion species, 1.2 eV for Mg 2+ (ref. 24) vs. 0.38 eV for Li + (ref. 25).
  • Two general approaches were developed in the past to reduce the barrier: nanosizing cathode particles and introducing dipole molecules (e.g., H 2 O) in cathode or electrolyte.
  • Mg-ion intercalating cathodes are also hindered by the Mg desolvation and intercalation process at the electrolyte-cathode interface.
  • Mg-depositing electrolytes such as the dichloro complex (DCC), all-phenyl complex (APC), and magnesium aluminium chloride complex (MACC)
  • DCC dichloro complex
  • API all-phenyl complex
  • MMC magnesium aluminium chloride complex
  • the consensus is that the monovalent Mg x Cl y + .nTHF specie is the electro-active component.
  • MRB that is based on a monovalent MgCl + storage mechanism that would enable very low migration energy barrier, no need to break Mg—Cl bond at the cathode, and maintain the dendrite-free Mg-metal deposition at the anode can be provided.
  • the cathode involves MgCl + intercalation or coordination
  • the electrolyte contains MgCl + species
  • the anode magnesium deposition and stripping involves MgCl + .
  • a MgCl + based intercalation cathode has never been reported previously because the size of MgCl + is so large that the conventional intercalation approach is inefficient.
  • two-dimensional TiS 2 is expanded to an unusually large value of 1.86 nm (327% as large as the pristine form) to accommodate the intercalation of large MgCl + .
  • MgCl + ions are intercalated into a cathode while being simultaneously regenerated at the Mg anode enabled by the dynamic equilibrium among electroactive species in Mg electrolyte. It was demonstrated that a MRB with a high reversible capacity of 270 mAh g ⁇ 1 and an excellent cycling stability for 500 cycles with 80% capacity retention can be produced.
  • the new storage mechanism can be extended to a wide range of multivalent/polyatomic ion batteries (e.g.
  • FIG. 1 illustrates an arrangement for a multivalent/polyatomic ion battery (MIB) 100 .
  • the MIB 100 may provide positive 110 and negative 120 electrodes in an electrolyte 130 .
  • the electrode(s) may be formed of a layered electrode material that allows for intercalation.
  • the positive electrode 110 may be formed from any layered-structure materials. In some embodiments, the layered-structure materials may be selected from those listed in table 2.
  • the negative electrode 120 may be Mg, Ca, or Al metal.
  • the electrolyte 130 may be any suitable nonaqueous electrolyte with the proposed pillaring salt discussed herein.
  • suitable nonaqueous electrolytes may include phenyl complex (APC), MgCl 2 —AlCl 3 /diglyme, MgCl 2 —Mg(TFSI) 2 /DME, or Mg(CB 11 H 12 ) 2 /tetraglyme.
  • the chemical formula for pillaring salt is LX.
  • the pillaring salt may be selected from chemically stable options and may also be soluble in an electrolyte form pillaring ions, such as L + or X ⁇ . Whether L + or X ⁇ is utilized as the pillaring ion will depend on the host material to be intercalated.
  • the pillaring ions L + or X ⁇ have a size suitable to expand layers of the host material to a desirable level.
  • Nonlimiting examples of the pillaring ion L + may include imidazolium, pyridinium, ferrocenium, alkyl-ammonium, pyrrolidinium, and/or piperridinium.
  • an active ion for charging/discharging stages may be a multivalent ion or polyatomic ion.
  • the multivalent ions or the polyatomic ions comprise a multivalent metal.
  • the multivalent metal may be a metal with a high gravimetric/volumetric capacity, such as, but not limited to 120 mAh/g or greater.
  • the suitable multivalent ion includes Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , Zn 2+ , or Al 3+ .
  • suitable polyatomic ions may be formed from the multivalent ions, such as, but not limited to, MgCl + , Mg 2 Cl 3 + , Mg 2 Cl 2 2+ , and AlCl 4 ⁇ .
  • the host material or layered material may be selected from elementals, metals, chalcogenides, metal oxides, oxy-halides, hydroxides, titanates, metal phosphates, phosphonates, or the like.
  • suitable elementals include graphite and black-phosphorous.
  • suitable hydroxides may include Ni(OH) 2 or Mn(OH) 2 .
  • suitable titanates may include K 2 Ti 4 O 9 or KTiNbO 5 .
  • suitable phosphonates may include any phosphonates satisfying the formula Zr(O 3 PR 2 ) 2 (where R ⁇ H, Ph, or Me).
  • LX The chemical formula for pillaring salt is LX.
  • L + may include imidazolium, pyridinium, ferrocenium, alkyl-ammonium, pyrrolidinium, and/or piperridinium.
  • X ⁇ could include Cl ⁇ , TFSI ⁇ , BF 4 ⁇ , and/or AlCI x A 4-x ⁇ .
  • Methods for activating two-dimensional host materials may include adding a pillaring salt in electrolyte, which may be selected from the various options discussed previously. In some embodiments, this process may be followed by chemically or electrochemically intercalating the pillaring ions, solvent molecules and multivalent/polyatomic ions into the van der Waals gap of host materials in-situ or ex-situ.
  • the intercalating process may include placing the host material in the pillaring salt and the electrolyte mixture.
  • Optional considerations for selecting pillaring salts include, but are not limited to, the size of the pillaring ion that can expand the layer to a desirable distance, the degree of chemical stability, and the compatibility with the host material and the electrolyte mixture.
  • the intercalation may occur chemically, such as by exposing the host material to a solution with the pillaring salts.
  • the intercalation may occur electrochemically by applying current to the host material in electrolyte mixtures or by combinations of both chemical and electrochemical routes.
  • the intercalation process may progress through multiple stages as the separation distance between layers grows. In a first stage, pillaring ions and/or solvent molecules may expand the van der Waals gap of the host materials.
  • reversible intercalation of multivalent/polyatomic ions may occur in stage 1 to a certain level.
  • a second stage as the pillaring ions and/or solvent molecules continue to expand the gap or separation distance between the layers, eventually the gap becomes large enough that multivalent/polyatomic ions begin to fill the van der Waals gap of the host materials as well. Reversible intercalation of multivalent/polyatomic ions may occur or continue to occur in stage 2 to a certain level.
  • the process continues until activation is considered complete, such as when a maximum amount of multivalent/polyatomic ions fill the gaps of the host material.
  • these processes are followed by a significant change in the structure (for example, but not limited to, structural expansion or disordering) or the chemical composition (e.g., but not limited to, ratio of solvent to pillaring molecules) of host materials.
  • the fourth stage represents a charging process where the multivalent/polyatomic ions are deintercalated from the gap to leave the pillaring ions and/or solvent molecules. Notably, once expanded, the interlayer distance does not decrease during the transition from the third stage to the fourth stage. During charging and discharging, the host material cycles between stages three and four.
  • the pillaring ions, solvent molecules, and/or multivalent/polyatomic ions may be formed chemically without electrical stimulation from mixing the pillaring salt, electrolyte, and/or metal material(s).
  • the host material is utilized as the working electrode during electrochemical activation and a counter and/or reference electrodes may also be place in the electrolyte mixture.
  • the counter and/or reference electrode(s) may be formed from a metal constituent that is part of the multivalent ion that intercalates the host material. The application of a voltage differential to the working and counter electrodes may cause or accelerate formation of the pillaring ions, solvent molecules, and/or multivalent ions.
  • the application of the voltage differential may also cause or aid acceleration of the pillaring ions, solvent molecules, and/or multivalent ions into the host materials.
  • the host material is transformed into an interlayer-expanded 2D material with significantly enhanced specific capacity and rate performance for multivalent/polyatomic ion intercalation.
  • the host material retains the increase separation distance between the layers, even when cycling between charge/discharge states.
  • An electrode for a multivalent/polyatomic ion battery may be formed from two-dimensional host materials that have been activated, such as by the methods discussed.
  • the van der Waals gap of the host material may be intercalated with pillaring ions, solvent molecules and polyatomic or multivalent ions.
  • van der Waals gaps of the host material may be substantially filled with the pillaring ions, solvent molecules and polyatomic or multivalent ions.
  • a charged stage e.g. fourth stage
  • the polyatomic or multivalent ions are denintercalated from the host material, but the pillaring ions and solvent molecules may remain. Further, an interlayer spacing of the host material does not change during a charged stage and discharged stage.
  • FIG. 2 shows an illustrative example of the in-situ activation process of layered materials at various states of activation. While TiS 2 is used as a nonlimiting model compound of the host material to illustrate the structural change during activation due to its high electronic conductivity, it shall be understood that similar structural changes may occur in the other embodiments discussed previously.
  • Stage 0 is the host material (e.g. TiS 2 ) in its pristine form.
  • a pillaring salt (e.g. PY14Cl) and electrolyte (e.g. APC) may be mixed.
  • stage 1 when current is applied to the host material that is exposed to the pillaring salt and electrolyte mixture, both pillaring ions (e.g.
  • PY14 + ) and/or solvents may be intercalated into the van der Waals gap, expanding the interlayer spacing of the host.
  • layered materials of stage 1 may be subjected to activation at low current density for a predetermined amount of time corresponding to the first stage change.
  • the current density may be 5 mA/g or less.
  • the polyatomic or multivalent ions in the electrolyte e.g. MgCl +
  • the polyatomic or multivalent ions in the electrolyte e.g. MgCl +
  • the polyatomic or multivalent ions in the electrolyte e.g. MgCl +
  • the polyatomic or multivalent ions in the electrolyte e.g. MgCl +
  • layered materials of stage 2 may be subjected to activation at low current density for a predetermined amount of time corresponding to the second stage change.
  • the current density may be 5 mA/g or less.
  • more pillaring ions and/or polyatomic or multivalent ions in the electrolyte e.g. MgCl +
  • SEI solid-electrolyte interphase
  • layered materials of stage 3 may be subjected to activation at low current density for a predetermined amount of time corresponding to the third stage change.
  • the current density may be 5 mA/g or less.
  • stage 3 the activation process may be considered to be completed.
  • the transition from stage 3 to stage 4 is the regular charging process, MgCl + are deintercalated from the gap leaving the pillaring ions remained in the gap. However, the interlayer distance would not decrease.
  • stage 4 goes back to stage 3 . It is preferable to have the step from stage 2 to stage 3 , which enables a stable transformation of the layered structure into high capacity electrode. Without this step, the specific capacity of the electrode is less than 100 mAh/g.
  • the electrodes may demonstrate a specific capacity of 120 mAh/g or greater. In some embodiments, the electrodes may demonstrate a specific capacity of 150 mAh/g or greater. In some embodiments, the electrodes may demonstrate a specific capacity of 200 mAh/g or greater. In some embodiments, the electrodes may demonstrate a specific capacity of 250 mAh/g or greater.
  • the interlayer spacing of 2D material relative to a pristine sample may be 50% larger or more. In some embodiments, the interlayer spacing of 2D material relative to a pristine sample may be 100% larger or more. In some embodiments, the interlayer spacing of 2D material relative to a pristine sample may be 150% to 250% larger or more.
  • the interlayer spacing of 2D material relative to a pristine sample may be 200% larger or more. In comparison, pervious methods only increase the interlayer spacing less than 10%.
  • a TiS 2 electrode was activated with 1-butyl-1methylpyrrolidinium chloride (PY14Cl) added all phenyl complex (APC) electrolyte electrochemically. After activation, the electrode demonstrated 270 mAh/g specific capacity with excellent rate performance.
  • a MoS 2 electrode was activated in the same procedure and demonstrated 280 mAh/g.
  • MgCl + is identified as the Mg storage carrier, which allows for a significantly reduced diffusion barrier to realize high specific capacity and charge-discharge rates.
  • a platinum wire and magnesium foil were used as the working and counter electrodes, respectively. Voltage was scanned with the speed of 25 mV s ⁇ 1 .
  • the APC electrolytes with or PY14Cl small increase in overpotential for Mg deposition from 155 to 266 mV and a slight drop in Coulombic efficiency from 100% to 95.2%.
  • an electrochemical activation step is required to expand the interlayer spacing of two-dimensional TiS 2 assisted by PY14 + ions.
  • the activation process was completed in the first discharge at low current density of 5 mA g ⁇ 1 for ⁇ 100 hours.
  • the MRB shows a reversible capacity as high as 270 mAh g ⁇ 1 at 24 mA g ⁇ 1 ( FIG. 4 , stage 3 to 5 ), which is 1350% as large as the capacity of pristine TiS 2 (20 mAh g 1 ).
  • this activation step is a kinetically sluggish process.
  • FIG. 5 shows the galvanostatic voltage profile of an expanded TiS 2 electrode without the activation process at 0 V. Incomplete activation leads to low reversible capacity of 60 mAh g ⁇ 1 ).
  • in-operando X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurement The configuration of an in-operando cell is shown in FIG. 4 .
  • An Mg metal anode was placed on the Be window to avoid electrochemical dissolution of Be metal. Centre of Mg metal was punched out to enhance the intensity of X-ray that reaches to and returns from TiS 2 .
  • FIG. 6 shows another set of in operando XRD patterns to check the structural irreversibility of each stage 1 , 2 , and 3 .
  • the discharge cut-off voltage was controlled to 1.0, 0.2, and 0.0 V followed by charging back to 2.0 V to confirm the structural irreversibility of each stage 1 , 2 , and 3 .
  • complete 4.74° peak was detected in the diffraction pattern of stage 2 for this measurement. From stage 2 to 3 , we could not identify any peak shift; instead, peak intensity is attenuated, suggesting structural disorder developed during the long voltage plateau.
  • the TiS 2 layers retain its interlayer distance upon charge/discharge, and the electrodes remain compact without exfoliating into single layers. The calculated interlayer spacing for each stage is shown in Table 4.
  • EDS energy dispersive spectroscopy
  • XPS X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
  • NEXAFS near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure
  • ICP-OES inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy
  • EELS electron energy loss spectroscopy
  • 1 H-NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
  • FIG. 10 shows NMR spectra of samples after sonication and heating in DMSO-d 6 solutions.
  • Chemical shifts at boxes A, B, C, D, and E represent the proton of PY14 + ion, while those at boxes F and G represent the proton of THF solvent.
  • Chemical shift at 2.5 ppm and 3.4 ppm correspond to DMSO-d 6 and H 2 O, respectively.
  • Stage 0 shows negligible amount of PY14 + and THF. Note that the sample at stage 0 was deliberately dipped in PY14 + containing Mg-ion electrolyte and then rinsed with the same washing condition as the samples at stages 1 - 4 .
  • the PY14 + and THF signal at stages 1 - 4 does not come from the trace amount of salt or solvents that can be possibly remained after washing.
  • THF molecules ⁇ 0.5-0.6 per one MgCl + ion
  • Such small amount of THF is much lower than the three THF molecules observed in tetra-coordinated solvation (MgCl + .3THF), therefore excluding the solvation effect as the dominant performance enhancement factor.
  • FIGS. 11 a -11 b show impedance analysis of TiS 2 electrode at different stages of electrochemical activation. Impedance was measured by 3-electrode cell at fixed potential of 1.8 V vs Mg/Mg 2+ with 0.2 M PY14Cl in APC electrolyte.
  • FIG. 11 a shows a capacitance vs frequency plot. The increase in capacitance as stage 3 corresponds to large interfacial area than stage 1 and 2 .
  • FIG. 11 b shows a Nyquist plot.
  • the impedance results show that the charge transfer impedance greatly reduced during the electrochemical activation step. Following the discharging step, PY14 + will stay inside the van der Waals gap, while highly mobile MgCl + can intercalate reversibly during electrochemical cycling.
  • FIG. 12 a shows excellent rate performance with high reversible capacity of 272 mAh g ⁇ 1 at 0.1C (24 mA g ⁇ 1 ), 194 mAh g ⁇ 1 at 1C (240 mA g ⁇ 1 ), and 162 mAh g ⁇ 1 at 2C (480 mA g ⁇ 1 ), which correspond to 1.14, 0.81 and 0.68 MgCl + intercalation per formula of TiS 2 , respectively. More than one MgCl + intercalation per TiS 2 formula unit is due to the creation of additional accessible sites by expanding TiS 2 gallery.
  • the typical discharging voltage profiles possess a sloping profile, which is related to the one phase reaction of forming MgCl x (TiS 2 ).
  • This sloping shape of the voltage profile coincides with the theoretical calculation for Mg 2+ intercalation into layered TiS 2 , but with lower voltage than expected.
  • the decreased voltage is related with the weaker interaction between MgCl + ion and expanded TiS 2 that leads to smaller formation energy.
  • FIG. 13 shows cyclic voltammogram of expanded TiS 2 at varied scan rates from 0.1 to 10 mV s ⁇ 1 .
  • the vertical axis shows current normalized by scan rate.
  • FIG. 12 b shows the linear relationship between peak current versus v 1/2 , indicating the diffusion-limited intercalation mechanism rather than a capacitance effect.
  • Galvanostatic intermittent titration technique GITT was also used to determine ion diffusivity as a function of depth-of-discharge and the composition-dependent electrode kinetics.
  • GITT Galvanostatic intermittent titration technique
  • FIG. 12 shows galvanostatic intermittent titration curve of an activated TiS 2 electrode.
  • the CV and GITT studies were carried out with a three-electrode coin cell.
  • FIG. 13 shows a schematic of a three-electrode coin cell. Ring-shaped Mg metal foil was used as a reference electrode without blocking the working and counter electrodes. The reference electrode was connected out of the coin cell by polypropylene-coated stainless steel foil (50 ⁇ m and 350 ⁇ m thick before and after coating, respectively). Vacuum grease was applied on the joint for hermetic sealing of the cell. The three-electrode arrangement was used because a two-electrode configuration could obscure the true cathode potential due to the overpotential of Mg at the anode.
  • FIG. 13 shows a schematic of a three-electrode coin cell. Ring-shaped Mg metal foil was used as a reference electrode without blocking the working and counter electrodes. The reference electrode was connected out of the coin cell by polypropylene-coated
  • 12 c shows the average diffusivity of 10 ⁇ 9 cm 2 s ⁇ 1 for the activated TiS 2 .
  • the Mg diffusivity is initially high at the level of 2 ⁇ 10 ⁇ 8 cm 2 s ⁇ 1 but decreases with increasing Mg concentration, and then stays constant as 10 ⁇ 10 cm 2 s ⁇ 1 towards the end of process.
  • pristine TiS 2 , pristine MoS 2 , and PEO-expanded MoS 2 exhibit average Mg diffusivity of 10 ⁇ 12 to 10 ⁇ 13 cm 2 s ⁇ 1 , which is two to three orders of magnitude lower than the Mg diffusivity in activated TiS 2 .
  • FIG. 12 d shows outstanding specific capacity and rate capability of activated TiS 2 compared to other Mg-ion storage materials in the full cells with Mg metal anode at 25° C.
  • the activated TiS 2 electrode exhibits 80% capacity retention after 500 cycles at 1C-rate (240 mA g 1 ).
  • the Coulombic efficiency is consistently higher than 98%.
  • the cell retains 89% of initial capacity after 50 cycles; and the reversible capacity increases from 200 mAh g ⁇ 1 to 270 mAh g ⁇ 1 during initial 10 cycles due to the activation progresses.
  • Equation 1 describes the intercalation of MgCl + into the activated TiS 2 in the cathode.
  • Equation 2 describes the simultaneous generation of MgCl + at the Mg anode by converting from MgCl 2 species in APC electrolyte due to the dynamic equilibrium among those species (Equation 4). Therefore, MgCl 2 are consumed form or replenished into the electrolyte during the electrochemical cycling (Equation 3).
  • Equation 3 describes the energy density of the present cell.
  • the solubility of MgCl 2 in THF It has been previously demonstrated the solubility of MgCl 2 can increase dramatically if the Cr acceptors are present in solution.
  • the MgCl-ion storage mechanism can be generalized to other two-dimensional materials.
  • molybdenum disulphide (MoS 2 ) also demonstrated ⁇ 270 mAh g ⁇ 1 after 10 cycles in the APC-PY14Cl mixed electrolyte.
  • FIG. 16 shows voltage profile of electrochemical activation of MoS 2 in 0.2 M PY14Cl+APC electrolyte at 17 mA g ⁇ 1 . The reversible capacity increases with cycling and reaches the maximum value of 270 mAh g ⁇ 1 after 10 cycles.
  • a novel MRB enabled by a monovalent MgCl + storage mechanism.
  • a class of two-dimensional host materials that are electrochemically activated to expand the interlayer spacing significantly over its pristine value to accommodate the large MgCl + .
  • the activated cathode With the activated cathode, the reversible capacity and rate performance of a multivalent/polyatomic-ion battery surpass the state-of-the-art MRB.
  • a new direction is identified towards overcoming the challenge of high migration energy barrier in multivalent/polyatomic-ion batteries. This work has general implications for multivalent cathode design, as well as the unique advantage of adapting two-dimensional materials for advanced energy storage.
  • Layered TiS 2 (99.8%, Strem Chemical Inc.) was used as purchased. TiS 2 powders have an average particle size of 10 ⁇ m. A slurry of active material (70 wt. %), Super-P carbon (20 wt. %), and polyvinylidene fluoride (10 wt. %) dispersed in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone was spread on a piece of stainless steel mesh (400 mesh, 0.8 cm 2 ) and dried as the working electrode with active material mass loading of 0.5-1.0 mg cm ⁇ 2 . To prepare samples for analysis, we prepared electrode by cold pressing 7 mg of TiS 2 powders onto stainless steel mesh at 10 MPa without using binder or conductive agent.
  • Freshly polished magnesium foil (50 ⁇ m thick, 99.95%, GalliumSource, LLC) was used as both the counter and reference electrodes in 2- or 3-electrode cell test.
  • Standard all-phenyl complex (APC) electrolyte a solution of 0.25 M [Mg 2 Cl 3 ] + [AlPh 2 Cl 2 ] ⁇ in tetrahydrofuran (THF, Acros Co.), was prepared following D. Aurbach et al. as the Mg-ion electrolyte.
  • 0.2 M 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium chloride (PY14Cl, >98.0%, TCI America Co.) was mixed in the APC electrolyte.
  • 2-Electrode coin cells and 3-electrode tube cells were fabricated in an Ar-filled glove box for electrochemical characterizations.
  • the sequence is following: a magnesium foil anode, a glass fibre separator (210 ⁇ m thick, grade 691, VWR Co.), a tri-layer polypropylene/polyethylene/polypropylene (PP/PE/PP) separator (25 ⁇ m thick, Celgard 2325, Celgard LLC.), and a cathode.
  • a ring-shaped magnesium foil was used as the reference electrode connected out of the coin cell by polypropylene coated stainless steel foil.
  • the electrochemical characterizations were conducted using a potentiostat (VMP-3, Bio-Logic Co.) and battery cyclers (CT2001A, Lanhe Co.) using the mixture electrolyte conducted at room temperature.
  • Embodiments described herein are included to demonstrate particular aspects of the present disclosure. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the embodiments described herein merely represent exemplary embodiments of the disclosure. Those of ordinary skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments described and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure. From the foregoing description, one of ordinary skill in the art can easily ascertain the essential characteristics of this disclosure, and without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changes and modifications to adapt the disclosure to various usages and conditions. The embodiments described hereinabove are meant to be illustrative only and should not be taken as limiting of the scope of the disclosure.

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