US20120305778A1 - Scintillation crystal including a rare earth halide, and a radiation detection system including the scintillation crystal - Google Patents

Scintillation crystal including a rare earth halide, and a radiation detection system including the scintillation crystal Download PDF

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US20120305778A1
US20120305778A1 US13/488,756 US201213488756A US2012305778A1 US 20120305778 A1 US20120305778 A1 US 20120305778A1 US 201213488756 A US201213488756 A US 201213488756A US 2012305778 A1 US2012305778 A1 US 2012305778A1
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approximately
kev
scintillation crystal
energy
range
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Peter R. Menge
Vladimir Ouspenski
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Luxium Solutions LLC
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Saint Gobain Ceramics and Plastics Inc
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Priority to US13/488,756 priority Critical patent/US20120305778A1/en
Assigned to SAINT-GOBAIN CERAMICS & PLASTICS, INC. reassignment SAINT-GOBAIN CERAMICS & PLASTICS, INC. ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: MENGE, PETER R., OUSPENSKI, VLADIMIR
Publication of US20120305778A1 publication Critical patent/US20120305778A1/en
Priority to US14/966,610 priority patent/US9796922B2/en
Priority to US15/710,509 priority patent/US10053624B2/en
Priority to US16/043,374 priority patent/US10442989B2/en
Priority to US16/560,468 priority patent/US10947452B2/en
Assigned to LUXIUM SOLUTIONS, LLC reassignment LUXIUM SOLUTIONS, LLC ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: SAINT-GOBAIN CERAMICS & PLASTICS, INC.
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    • C30B11/00—Single-crystal growth by normal freezing or freezing under temperature gradient, e.g. Bridgman-Stockbarger method
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    • C30B15/00—Single-crystal growth by pulling from a melt, e.g. Czochralski method
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    • C30B29/10—Inorganic compounds or compositions
    • C30B29/12—Halides
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    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
    • G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
    • G01T1/16—Measuring radiation intensity
    • G01T1/20—Measuring radiation intensity with scintillation detectors
    • G01T1/202—Measuring radiation intensity with scintillation detectors the detector being a crystal
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Definitions

  • the present disclosure is directed to scintillation crystals including rare earth halides and radiation detection systems including such scintillation crystals.
  • Radio detection systems are used in a variety of applications.
  • scintillators can be used for medical imaging and for well logging in the oil and gas industry as well for the environment monitoring, security applications, and for nuclear physics analysis and applications.
  • Scintillation crystals used for radiation detection systems can include rare earth halides. Further improvement of scintillation crystals is desired.
  • FIG. 1 includes an illustration of a radiation detection system in accordance with an embodiment.
  • FIG. 2 includes an illustration of departure from perfect linearity for different compositions of scintillation crystals at gamma ray energies in a range of approximately 200 keV to approximately 2600 keV.
  • FIG. 3 includes an illustration of departure from perfect linearity for different compositions of scintillation crystals at gamma ray energies in a range of approximately 60 keV to approximately 356 keV.
  • FIG. 4 includes a plot of energy resolution as a function of energy for a Sr-doped scintillation crystal, a Zn-doped scintillation crystal, and a standard scintillation crystal
  • FIG. 5 includes a plot of energy resolution ratio as a function of energy for a Sr-doped scintillation crystal, a Zn-doped scintillation crystal, and a standard scintillation crystal
  • FIG. 6 includes an emission spectrum for a Sr-doped scintillation crystal, a Zn-doped scintillation crystal, and a standard scintillation crystal.
  • averaged when referring to a value, is intended to mean an average, a geometric mean, or a median value.
  • corresponding undoped scintillation crystal is intended to mean a particular scintillation crystal that includes the same halogen(s) and rare earth element(s) in substantially the same proportions as a doped scintillation crystal to which such particular scintillation crystal is being compared.
  • a doped scintillation crystal that includes a Sr-doped La 1.9 Ce 0.1 Br 3 has a corresponding undoped scintillating crystal of La 1.9 Ce 0.1 Br 3 .
  • each of the doped and corresponding undoped scintillation crystals have trace levels of detectable impurities; however, the corresponding undoped scintillation crystal does not include a dopant that is added separately when forming the scintillation crystal.
  • the terms “comprises,” “comprising,” “includes,” “including,” “has,” “having,” or any other variation thereof, are intended to cover a non-exclusive inclusion.
  • a process, method, article, or apparatus that comprises a list of features is not necessarily limited only to those features but may include other features not expressly listed or inherent to such process, method, article, or apparatus.
  • “or” refers to an inclusive-or and not to an exclusive-or. For example, a condition A or B is satisfied by any one of the following: A is true (or present) and B is false (or not present), A is false (or not present) and B is true (or present), and both A and B are true (or present).
  • FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a radiation detector system 100 .
  • the radiation detector system can be a medical imaging apparatus, a well logging apparatus, a security inspection apparatus, nuclear physics applications, or the like.
  • the radiation detection system can be used for gamma ray analysis, such as a Single Positron Emission Computer Tomography (SPECT) or Positron Emission Tomography (PET) analysis.
  • SPECT Single Positron Emission Computer Tomography
  • PET Positron Emission Tomography
  • the radiation detection system 100 includes a photosensor 101 , an optical interface 103 , and a scintillation device 105 .
  • the photosensor 101 , the optical interface 103 , and the scintillation device 105 are illustrated separate from each other, skilled artisans will appreciate that photosensor 101 and the scintillation device 105 can be coupled to the optical interface 103 , with the optical interface 103 disposed between the photosensor 101 and the scintillation device 105 .
  • the scintillation device 105 and the photosensor 101 can be optically coupled to the optical interface 103 with other known coupling methods, such as the use of an optical gel or bonding agent, or directly through molecular adhesion of optically coupled elements.
  • the photosensor 101 may be a photomultiplier tube (PMT), a semiconductor-based photomultiplier, or a hybrid photosensor.
  • the photosensor 101 can receive photons emitted by the scintillation device 105 , via an input window 116 , and produce electrical pulses based on numbers of photons that it receives.
  • the photosensor 101 is electrically coupled to an electronics module 130 .
  • the electrical pulses can be shaped, digitized, analyzed, or any combination thereof by the electronics module 130 to provide a count of the photons received at the photosensor 101 or other information.
  • the electronics module 130 can include an amplifier, a pre-amplifier, a discriminator, an analog-to-digital signal converter, a photon counter, another electronic component, or any combination thereof.
  • the photosensor 101 can be housed within a tube or housing made of a material capable of protecting the photosensor 101 , the electronics module 130 , or a combination thereof, such as a metal, metal alloy, other material, or
  • the scintillation device 105 includes a scintillation crystal 107 .
  • the composition of the scintillation crystal 107 will be described in more detail later in this specification.
  • the scintillation crystal 107 is substantially surrounded by a reflector 109 .
  • the reflector 109 can include polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), another material adapted to reflect light emitted by the scintillation crystal 107 , or a combination thereof.
  • the reflector 109 can be substantially surrounded by a shock absorbing member 111 .
  • the scintillation crystal 107 , the reflector 109 , and the shock absorbing member 111 can be housed within a casing 113 .
  • the scintillation device 105 includes at least one stabilization mechanism adapted to reduce relative movement between the scintillation crystal 107 and other elements of the radiation detection system 100 , such as the optical interface 103 , the casing 113 , the shock absorbing member 111 , the reflector 109 , or any combination thereof.
  • the stabilization mechanism may include a spring 119 , an elastomer, another suitable stabilization mechanism, or a combination thereof.
  • the stabilization mechanism can be adapted to apply lateral forces, horizontal forces, or a combination thereof, to the scintillation crystal 107 to stabilize its position relative to one or more other elements of the radiation detection system 100 .
  • the optical interface 103 is adapted to be coupled between the photosensor 101 and the scintillation device 105 .
  • the optical interface 103 is also adapted to facilitate optical coupling between the photosensor 101 and the scintillation device 105 .
  • the optical interface 103 can include a polymer, such as a silicone rubber, that is polarized to align the reflective indices of the scintillation crystal 107 and the input window 116 .
  • the optical interface 103 can include gels or colloids that include polymers and additional elements.
  • the scintillation crystal 107 can include a rare earth halide.
  • rare earth elements include Y, Sc, and the Lanthanide series elements.
  • the scintillation crystal 107 can include one or more other rare earth elements.
  • the scintillation crystal 107 can have chemical formula as set forth below.
  • Ln represents a rare earth element
  • RE represents a different rare earth element
  • y has a value in a range of 0 to 1 formula unit (“f.u.”);
  • X represents a halogen
  • Ln can include La, Gd, Lu, or any mixture thereof; and RE can include Ce, Eu, Pr, Tb, Nd, or any mixture thereof.
  • the scintillation crystal 107 can be La( 1-y )Ce y Br 3 .
  • LaBr 3 and CeBr 3 are within the scope of compositions described.
  • y can be 0 f.u., at least approximately 0.0001 f.u., at least 0.001 f.u., or at least approximately 0.05 f.u.
  • y may be 1 f.u., no greater than approximately 0.2 f.u., no greater than approximately 0.1 f.u., no greater than approximately 0.05 f.u, or no greater than approximately 0.01 f.u.
  • y is in a range of approximately 0.01 f.u. to approximately 0.1 f.u.
  • X can include a single halogen or any mixture of halogens.
  • X can include Br, I, or any mixture thereof.
  • the rare earth halide can further include Sr, Ba, or any mixture thereof.
  • the content of Sr, Ba, or any mixture thereof in the scintillation crystal can be at least approximately 0.0002 wt. %, at least approximately 0.0005 wt. %, or at least approximately 0.001 wt. %.
  • the content of Sr, Ba, or any mixture thereof in the scintillation crystal may be no greater than approximately 0.05 wt. %, no greater than approximately 0.03 wt. %, no greater than 0.02 wt. %, or no greater than approximately 0.009 wt. %.
  • the content of Sr, Ba, or any mixture thereof is in a range approximately 0.005 wt. % to approximately 0.02 wt. %
  • the starting materials can include metal halides of the same halogen or different halogens.
  • a rare earth bromide and SrBr 2 can be used.
  • some of the bromide-containing compounds may be replaced with iodide-containing compounds.
  • the starting materials may be selected such that a principal rare earth halide and another metal halide for the scintillation crystal have melting points with approximately 90° C. of each other.
  • LaBr 3 has a melting point of approximately 785° C.
  • SrBr 2 has a melting point of approximately 640° C. When the melting points are closer to each other, more of the dopant may be incorporated into the scintillation crystal, if needed or desired.
  • BaBr 2 or any mixture of SrBr 2 and BaBr 2 can be used.
  • the scintillation crystal can be formed using a conventional technique from a melt.
  • the method can include the Bridgman method or Czochralski crystal growth method.
  • Scintillation crystals that include a Sr-doped, Ba-doped, or Sr and Ba co-doped rare earth halide provide unexpected results as compared to other rare earth halide scintillation crystals. More particularly, the Sr-doped, Ba-doped, or Sr and Ba co-doped scintillation crystals have unusually good linearity, an unusually good energy resolution, and a lower bandgap energy.
  • Linearity refers to how well a scintillation crystal approaches perfect linear proportionality between gamma ray energy and light output.
  • the linearity can be measured as a departure from perfect linearity.
  • a scintillation crystal having perfect linearity would always create the same number of photons per unit energy absorbed, regardless of the energy of the gamma ray. Thus, its departure from perfect linearity is zero.
  • the departure from perfect linearity between different rare earth halides is more significant at lower energies than it is for higher energies.
  • a higher energy gamma ray (for example, greater than 2000 keV) may hit the scintillation crystal, which in turn, may generate lower energy gamma rays (for example, less than 300 keV).
  • the scintillation crystal If the scintillation crystal generates less scintillating light for lower energy gamma rays, the scintillation crystal has poor linearity. Thus, the response of the scintillation crystal to gamma rays at lower energies, such as less than 300 keV, can be more significant to linearity than the response at higher gamma ray energies.
  • Departure from perfect linearity can be determined as follows. Data for responses to different gamma ray energies are collected over a range of gamma ray energies.
  • the range of gamma ray energies can be from 60 keV to 6130 keV.
  • the range may be narrower, for example, 60 keV to 2600 keV.
  • the lower limit on the range may be different from 60 keV.
  • the lower limit for the range may be less than 60 keV (for example 20 keV or 40 keV) or higher than 60 keV (for example 100 or 200 keV).
  • E calc is the calculated energy
  • PH is the pulse height (light output).
  • n is the slope of the line (fit coefficient).
  • the line passes through the point (0,0) corresponding to a pulse height of zero (no light output) when the energy is zero.
  • DFPL deviation from perfect linearity
  • E actual is the actual gamma ray energy corresponding to light output and E calc is calculated using the light output.
  • an averaged value For a set of DFPL data points, an averaged value, a largest positive deviation, a largest negative deviation, a maximum deviation, an absolute value of any of the foregoing, or any combination thereof can be obtained.
  • the averaged value can be an average, a median, or a geometric mean.
  • the average DFPL can be determined using an integral in accordance with Equation 3 below.
  • DFPL(Ei) is DFPL at energy E i ;
  • E upper is the upper limit of the energy range
  • E lower is the lower limit of the energy range.
  • the rare earth halide scintillator crystal can have an averaged value for a departure from perfect linearity of no less than approximately ⁇ 0.35%, no less than approximately ⁇ 0.30%, or no less than approximately ⁇ 0.25%, no less than approximately ⁇ 0.20%, or no less than approximately ⁇ 0.16%.
  • the averaged value for a departure from perfect linearity may be based on absolute values because the departure from perfect linearity may cross 0.00% within the radiation energy ranges.
  • the rare earth scintillation crystal has an averaged value for a departure from perfect linearity, based on absolute values of no greater than approximately 0.07%, no greater than approximately 0.05%, or no greater than approximately 0.03%.
  • the averaged values can be DFPL average (Equation 3) as described above.
  • the rare earth halide scintillation crystal has an absolute value for a furthest departure from perfect linearity of no greater than approximately 0.70%, no greater than approximately 0.65%, no greater than approximately 0.65% no greater than approximately 0.60% no greater than approximately 0.55%, or no greater than approximately 0.50%.
  • the scintillation crystal can also have unexpectedly good energy resolution properties, such as energy resolution, energy resolution ratio, and potentially other related properties. In the paragraphs below, energy resolution and energy resolution ratio are addressed in more detail.
  • Energy resolution is the energy range at full-width of half maximum (“FWHM”) divided by the energy corresponding to the peak, expressed as a percent. A lower number for energy resolution means that the peak can be resolved more readily. Values for energy resolution may depend on the sample, the metrology equipment, and the measurement techniques. In an embodiment, measurements for energy resolution may be performed on scintillation crystals that are right circular cylinders with diameter of approximately 64 mm (2.5 inches) and length of approximately 75 mm (3 inches). In a particular embodiment, the sides and one circular face may be roughened to a root-mean-square roughness of 0.85 microns, and in another particular embodiment, the other circular face of each crystal may be polished and serve as the optical exit for scintillation light.
  • FWHM full-width of half maximum
  • the crystals can be wrapped with a reflector on the sides and one end.
  • the reflector may be a specular reflector or a diffuse reflector.
  • the reflector may include an aluminum foil, aluminized polyester (e.g. aluminized MylarTM-brand polyester), or a polytetrafluoroethylene (“PTFE”) sheet reflector.
  • the scintillation crystal can be placed in a housing where scintillating light passes through a sapphire or quartz window.
  • the energy spectra of each isotope and each crystal can be obtained from a multi-channel analyzer that performs bi-polar shaping at a 0.25 micro-s shaping time.
  • An exemplary multichannel analyzer can be obtained from Canberra Industries Inc. of Meriden Conn., model Aptec S5008 that has bi-polar shaping, 0.25 micro-s shaping time, and 11-bit digitization.
  • the energy resolution is no greater than approximately 6.40%, no greater than approximately 6.35%, no greater than approximately 6.30%, no greater than approximately 6.20%, no greater than approximately 6.10%. In a particular embodiment, at 122 keV, the energy resolution is no greater than approximately 6.00%. At 662 keV, the energy resolution is no greater than approximately 2.90%, no greater than approximately 2.85%, no greater than approximately 2.80%, no greater than approximately 2.75%, or no greater than approximately 2.70%. In a particular embodiment, at 662 keV, the energy resolution is no greater than approximately 2.65%.
  • the energy resolution is no greater than approximately 1.90%, no greater than approximately 1.85%, no greater than approximately 1.80%, no greater than approximately 1.75%, or no greater than approximately 1.70%. In a particular embodiment, at 2615 keV, the energy resolution is no greater than approximately 1.65%.
  • ER Ratio Energy resolution ratio
  • ER Ratio Energy resolution ratio
  • ER Ratio may be used to compare the energy resolutions of different compositions of materials for a particular energy or range of energies.
  • ER Ratio can allow for a better comparison as opposed to energy resolution because ER Ratios can be obtained using substantially the same crystal size and metrology equipment and techniques. Thus, variations based on sample size and metrology equipment and techniques can be substantially eliminated.
  • the ER Ratio is the energy resolution of a particular crystal at a particular energy or range of energies divided by the energy resolution of another crystal at substantially the same energy or range of energies, wherein the crystals have approximately the same size, and the energy spectra for the crystals are obtained using the same or substantially identical metrology equipment and techniques.
  • the ER Ratio is unexpected lower, which allows for more accurate detection of energy peaks.
  • the ER Ratio may be no greater than approximately 0.970 for energies in a range of 60 keV to 729 keV, no greater than approximately 0.950 for energies in a range of 122 keV to 2615 keV, no greater than approximately 0.920 for energies in a range of 583 keV to 2615 keV, no greater than approximately 0.900 for energies in a range of 662 keV to 2615 keV, or any combination thereof.
  • the ER Ratio may be no greater than approximately 0.985 for an energy of 60 keV, no greater than approximately 0.980 for an energy of 122 keV, no greater than approximately 0.980 for an energy of 239 keV, no greater than approximately 0.970 for an energy of 511 keV, no greater than approximately 0.970 for an energy of 583 keV, no greater than approximately 0.970 for an energy of 662 keV, no greater than approximately 0.970 for an energy of 729 keV, or no greater than approximately 0.950 for an energy of 2615 keV, or any combination thereof.
  • ER Ratios can be obtained for Sr-doped, Ba-doped, Mg-doped, Zn-doped, and undoped Ln( 1-y )RE y X 3 scintillation crystals.
  • the ER Ratios for Sr-doped and Zn-doped scintillation crystals (Sr/Zn) and for Sr-doped and undoped scintillation crystals (Sr/undoped) can meet any or all of the ER Ratio values for the particular energies and energy ranges previously described.
  • the ER Ratios for the Zn-doped and standard scintillation crystals do not meet any of the previously described ER Ratio values for the particular energies and energy ranges.
  • each of the Mg-doped and Zn-doped scintillation crystals has an ER Ratio less than one, when compared to the undoped scintillation crystal, the ER Ratio is just slightly less than 1.
  • the Mg-doped and Zn-doped scintillation crystals have only an insignificant improvement regarding improved energy resolution as compared to the undoped scintillation crystal.
  • the scintillation crystal can have a fluorescent peak at a wavelength that is at least approximately 20 nm greater than a wavelength corresponding to a fluorescent peak of a corresponding undoped scintillation crystal.
  • the Sr-doped, Ba-doped, or Sr and Ba co-doped scintillation crystal has a fluorescent peak at a wavelength that is a range of approximately 25 nm to approximately 50 nm greater than a wavelength corresponding to the fluorescent peak of the corresponding undoped scintillation crystal.
  • the Sr-doped, Ba-doped, or Sr and Ba co-doped scintillation crystals can have a fluorescent peak at a wavelength in a range of approximately 375 nm to approximately 380 nm, as compared to a corresponding undoped scintillation crystal (that is, a scintillation crystal consisting essentially of the same halogen(s) and rare earth element(s) as the Sr-doped, Ba-doped, or Sr and Ba co-doped scintillation crystal) that has a fluorescent peak at a wavelength in a range of approximately 355 nm to approximately 360 nm.
  • a corresponding undoped scintillation crystal that is, a scintillation crystal consisting essentially of the same halogen(s) and rare earth element(s) as the Sr-doped, Ba-doped, or Sr and Ba co-doped scintillation crystal
  • a photosensor may be more sensitive to blue light or green light, and thus, such a photosensor can have a higher quantum efficiency for the Sr-doped, Ba-doped, or Sr and Ba co-doped scintillation crystal as compared to the undoped scintillation crystal.
  • the scintillation crystal can have an energy bandgap that is at least approximately 0.05 eV less than a bandgap energy of a corresponding undoped scintillation crystal.
  • the scintillation crystal can have an energy bandgap that is at least approximately 0.10 eV, at least approximately 0.15 eV, or at least 0.20 eV less than the bandgap energy of the corresponding undoped scintillation crystal.
  • the Sr-doped scintillation crystal has a bandgap energy of in a range of approximately 3.26 eV to approximately 3.31 eV, and the corresponding undoped scintillation crystal has a bandgap energy of in a range of approximately 3.44 eV to approximately 3.49 eV.
  • a scintillation crystal with a lower bandgap energy allows more scintillating light to be produced as compared to a scintillation crystal with higher bandgap energy for gamma rays of the same energy.
  • a scintillation crystal can include Ln( 1-y )RE y X 3 :Me 2+ , wherein Ln represents a rare earth element, Me 2+ represents Sr, Ba, or any mixture thereof has a concentration of at least approximately 0.0002 wt. %, RE represents a different rare earth element, y has a value in a range of 0 to 1, and X represents a halogen.
  • a radiation detection system can include a scintillation crystal including Ln( 1-y )RE y X 3 :Me +2 , wherein Ln represents a rare earth element, Me +2 represents Sr, Ba, or any mixture thereof and has a concentration of at least approximately 0.0002 wt. %, RE represents a different rare earth element, y has a value in a range of 0 to 1, and X represents a halogen.
  • the radiation detection system can further include a photosensor optically coupled to the scintillation crystal.
  • a scintillation crystal can include Ln( 1-y )RE y X 3 :Me 2+ , wherein Ln represents a rare earth element, RE represents a different rare earth element, y has a value in a range of 0 to 1, X represents a halogen, and Sr has a concentration of at least approximately 0.0002 wt. %.
  • a radiation detection system can include a scintillation crystal and a photosensor optically coupled to the scintillation crystal.
  • the scintillation crystal can include Ln( 1-y )RE y X 3 :Sr, wherein Ln represents a rare earth element; RE represents a different rare earth element; y has a value in a range of 0 to 1;X represents a halogen; and Sr has a concentration of at least approximately 0.0002 wt. %.
  • a scintillation crystal can include Ln( 1-y )RE y X 3 , wherein Ln represents a rare earth element, RE represents a different rare earth element, y has a value in a range of 0 to 1, and X represents a halogen.
  • the scintillation crystal can have a property including, for a radiation energy range of 60 keV to 356 keV, the scintillation crystal has an averaged value for a departure from perfect linearity of no less than approximately ⁇ 0.35%; for a radiation energy range of 2000 keV to 2600 keV, the scintillation crystal has an averaged value for a departure from perfect linearity of no less than approximately 0.07%; for a radiation energy range of 60 keV to 356 keV, the scintillation crystal has an absolute value for a furthest departure from perfect linearity of no greater than approximately 0.7%; an energy resolution of no greater than approximately 6.35% at 122 keV; an energy resolution of no greater than approximately 2.90% at 662 keV; an energy resolution of no greater than approximately 1.90% at 2615 keV; or any combination thereof.
  • a scintillation crystal can include Ln( 1-y )RE y X 3 , wherein, Ln represents a rare earth element, RE represents a different rare earth element, y has a value in a range of 0 to 1, and X represents a halogen.
  • An energy resolution ratio is an energy resolution of the scintillation crystal divided by a different energy resolution of a different scintillation crystal having a different composition.
  • the energy resolution ratio can be no greater than approximately 0.970 for energies in a range of 60 to 729 keV, no greater than approximately 0.950 for energies in a range of 122 keV to 2615 keV, no greater than approximately 0.920 for energies in a range of 583 keV to 2615 keV, no greater than approximately 0.900 for energies in a range of 662 keV to 2615 keV, no greater than approximately 0.985 for an energy of 60 keV, no greater than approximately 0.980 for an energy of 122 keV, no greater than approximately 0.980 for an energy of 239 keV, no greater than approximately 0.970 for an energy of 511 keV, no greater than approximately 0.970 for an energy of 583 keV. no greater than approximately 0.970 for an energy of 662 keV, or no greater than approximately 0.970 for an energy of 729 keV, no greater than approximately 0.950 for an energy of 2615 keV, or any combination thereof.
  • the scintillation crystal has an energy resolution ratio of no greater than approximately 0.985, no greater than approximately 0.975, or no greater than approximately 0.965 for an energy of 60 keV; no greater than approximately 0.980, no greater than approximately 0.950, or no greater than approximately 0.920 for an energy of 122 keV; no greater than approximately 0.990, no greater than approximately 0.960, or no greater than approximately 0.940 for an energy of 239 keV; no greater than approximately 0.970, no greater than approximately 0.930, or no greater than approximately 0.900 for an energy of 511 keV; no greater than approximately 0.980, no greater than approximately 0.940, or no greater than approximately 0.920 for an energy of 583 keV; no greater than approximately 0.970, no greater than approximately 0.910, or no greater than approximately 0.880 for an energy of 662 keV; no greater than approximately 0.970, no greater than approximately 0.910, or no greater than approximately 0.880 for an energy of 662 keV; no greater than approximately 0.970, no greater
  • an energy resolution for the scintillation crystal can determined from an energy spectrum obtained using the scintillation crystal, a photomultiplier tube, a window disposed between the scintillation crystal and the photomultiplier tube, and a multi-channel analyzer coupled to the photomultiplier tube.
  • the scintillation crystal has a shape of a right circular cylinder with diameter of approximately 64 mm and length of approximately 75 mm, and the scintillation crystal is wrapped with a reflector on the sides and one end, the window includes sapphire or quartz, the photomultiplier tube includes a linearly focused, non-saturated photomultiplier, and the multi-channel analyzer is configured to perform bi-polar shaping at a 0.25 micro-s shaping time.
  • the energy resolution is no greater than approximately 6.40% at 122 keV, no greater than approximately 2.90% at 662 keV, no greater than approximately 1.90% at 2615 keV, or any combination thereof.
  • the energy resolution is no greater than approximately 6.40%, no greater than approximately 6.30%, or no greater than approximately 6.20%, no greater than approximately 6.10%, or no greater than approximately 6.00% at 122 keV. In another more particular embodiment, the energy resolution is no greater than approximately 2.90%, no greater than approximately 2.85%, no greater than approximately 2.80%, no greater than approximately 2.75%, no greater than approximately 2.70% at 662 keV, or no greater than approximately 2.65% at 662 keV.
  • the energy resolution is no greater than approximately 1.90%, no greater than approximately 1.85%, no greater than approximately 1.80%, no greater than approximately 1.75%, no greater than approximately 1.70% at 2615 keV, or no greater than approximately 1.65% at 2615 keV.
  • the scintillation crystal has a property including, for a radiation energy range of 60 keV to 356 keV, the scintillation crystal has an averaged value for a departure from perfect linearity of no less than approximately ⁇ 0.35%; for a radiation energy range of 2000 keV to 2600 keV, the scintillation crystal has an averaged value for a departure from perfect linearity, based on absolute values, of no less than approximately 0.07%; or for a radiation energy range of 60 keV to 356 keV, the scintillation crystal has an absolute value for a furthest departure from perfect linearity of no greater than approximately 0.7%; an energy resolution of no greater than approximately 6.35% at 122 keV; an energy resolution of no greater than approximately 2.90% at 662 keV; an energy resolution of no greater than approximately 1.90% at 2615 keV; or any combination thereof.
  • the scintillation crystal has a property including, for a radiation energy range of 60 keV to 356 keV, the scintillation crystal has an averaged value for a departure from perfect linearity of no less than approximately ⁇ 0.35%; for a radiation energy range of 2000 keV to 2600 keV, the scintillation crystal has an averaged value for a departure from perfect linearity, based on absolute values, of no less than approximately 0.07%; for a radiation energy range of 60 keV to 356 keV, the scintillation crystal has an absolute value for a furthest departure from perfect linearity of no greater than approximately 0.7%; an energy resolution of no greater than approximately 6.35% at 122 keV; an energy resolution of no greater than approximately 2.90% at 662 keV; an energy resolution of no greater than approximately 1.90% at 2615 keV; or any combination thereof.
  • the scintillation crystal has the averaged value for the departure from perfect linearity is no less than approximately ⁇ 0.35%, no less than approximately ⁇ 0.30%, or no less than approximately ⁇ 0.25%, no less than approximately ⁇ 0.20%, or no less than approximately ⁇ 0.16%.
  • the scintillation crystal has the averaged value for the departure from perfect linearity, based on absolute values, is no greater than approximately 0.07%, no greater than no greater than approximately 0.05%, or no greater than approximately 0.03%.
  • the averaged value for the departure from perfect linearity is determined by:
  • DFPL average ⁇ E lower E upper ⁇ DFPL ⁇ ( E i ) ⁇ ⁇ E i E upper - E lower
  • DFPL(Ei) is DFPL at energy E i ;
  • E upper is the upper limit of the energy range
  • E lower is the lower limit of the energy range.
  • the scintillation crystal has an absolute value for a furthest departure from perfect linearity of no greater than approximately 0.70%, no greater than approximately 0.65%, or no greater than approximately 0.60%, or no greater than approximately 0.55%, or no greater than approximately 0.50%.
  • Ln includes La, Gd, Lu, or any combination thereof.
  • RE includes Ce, Eu, Pr, Tb, Nd, or any combination thereof.
  • y is no greater than approximately 0.5, no greater than approximately 0.2, or no greater than approximately 0.09. In a further particular embodiment, y is at least approximately 0.005, at least approximately 0.01, or at least approximately 0.02.
  • Ln is La, RE is Ce, and X is Br. In a particular embodiment y is 0.2 f.u.
  • the scintillation crystal is capable of emitting a first fluorescent peak at a first wavelength and a second fluorescent peak at a second wavelength, wherein the second wavelength is at least approximately 15 nm greater than the first wavelength.
  • the second wavelength is a range of approximately 20 nm to approximately 40 nm greater than the first wavelength.
  • the scintillation crystal has an energy bandgap that is at least approximately 0.05 eV, at least approximately 0.10 eV, at least approximately 0.15eV, or at least 0.20 eV less than a bandgap energy of a corresponding undoped scintillation crystal.
  • Scintillator crystals were formed from an open crucible using LaBr 3 , CeBr 3 , and if doped, SrBr 2 , BaBr 2 , MgBr 2 , or ZnBr 2 . Because ZnBr 2 sublimes at approximately at approximately 700° C. at the approximately atmospheric pressure, incorporating the Zn into the crystal was difficult as the molten composition for the scintillating crystal was maintained at a temperature above the sublimation point of ZnBr 2 during the slow growth stage of the REBr 3 crystal, in order to form the scintillation crystal without too many crystal defects.
  • the scintillation crystals had the following compositions as set forth in Table 1.
  • the scintillation crystals were analyzed for linearity, energy resolution, and band gap energy. Linearity and energy resolution were obtained in part from energy spectral data.
  • the scintillation crystals were right circular cylinders with diameter of approximately 64 mm (2.5 inches) and length of approximately 75 mm (3 inches). The sides and one circular face were roughened to enhance collection of the scintillation light. The surfaces were characterized to a root-mean-square roughness of 0.85 microns. The other circular face of each crystal was polished and served as the optical exit for scintillation light. The crystals were then wrapped with approximately 0.5 mm (0.02 inches) of Teflon sheet reflector on the sides and one end.
  • the optical exit was interfaced to an approximate 1.5 mm (0.06 inch) thickness of transparent silicone rubber.
  • the wrapped and interfaced crystal was inserted into a titanium housing with a sapphire window. The housing was welded closed and was hermetic. This crystal package was interfaced to a photomultiplier tube (ET Enterprises Ltd. of Uxbridge, U.K., model 9305 run at 900 V). The crystals response to several gamma ray emitting isotopes was measured.
  • isotopes included 241 Am, 133 Ba, 57 Co, 137 Cs, and 228 Th, which produce gamma ray photopeaks at 60, 81, 122, 239, 356, 662, 583, 727, 861, 2104, and 2615 keV.
  • the isotopes were placed one at a time at a distance of approximately 150 mm (6 inches) from each crystal package's midplane.
  • the energy spectra of each isotope and each crystal was taken using a multi-channel analyzer (Canberra Industries Inc. of Meriden CT, model Aptec S5008, bi-polar shaping, 0.25 micro-s shaping time, 11-bit digitization).
  • FIGS. 2 and 3 include plots of departures from perfect linearity as a function of gamma ray energy for the scintillation crystals having compositions described in Table 1.
  • the DPFL values are determined using the methodology previously described.
  • the Sr-doped scintillation crystal has significantly less departure from perfect linearity as compared to the Zn-doped and standard scintillation crystals.
  • FIG. 2 illustrates the departure from perfect linearity for gamma ray energies in a range of approximately 200 keV to approximately 2600 keV.
  • the Sr-doped scintillation crystal has a lower DFPL average as compared to each of the Zn-doped and standard scintillation crystals.
  • the standard scintillation crystal has a DFPL average of +0.091%
  • the Zn-doped scintillation crystal has a DFPL average of +0.073%.
  • the Sr-doped scintillation crystal has the lowest DFPL average of +0.030%, and therefore, the Sr-doped scintillation crystal is significantly better than the standard and Zn-doped scintillation crystals for the gamma ray energies of 2000 keV to 2600 keV.
  • the standard scintillation crystal has a departure from perfect linearity that becomes significantly worse as the gamma ray energies become smaller.
  • the Zn-doped scintillation crystal likewise has a significant departure but the significant departure occurs at approximately 300 keV.
  • the Sr-doped scintillation crystal has a departure from perfect linearity that is significantly closer to zero as compared to the Zn-doped and standard scintillation crystals.
  • FIG. 3 includes data collected for the scintillation crystals when exposed to gamma ray energies in a range of approximately 60 keV to approximately 356 keV.
  • the DFPL average is determined using Equation 3.
  • the standard scintillation crystal has a DFPL average of ⁇ 0.64% and the furthest DFPL is ⁇ 1.11% (absolute value of 1.11%) that occurs at 60 keV.
  • the Zn-doped scintillation crystal has a DFPL average of ⁇ 0.39% and the furthest DFPL is ⁇ 0.73% (absolute value of 0.73%) that occurs at 60 keV.
  • the Sr doped scintillation crystal has a DFPL average of ⁇ 0.16% and the furthest DFPL is ⁇ 0.47% (absolute value of 0.47%) that occurs at 60 keV. Accordingly, the Sr-doped scintillation crystal is significantly better and has less departure from perfect linearity as compared to each of the standard and Zn-doped scintillation crystals.
  • the energy resolution (“ER”) is obtained from the data collected using the samples and equipment as previously described.
  • the energy resolution ratio (“ER Ratio) is, for a particular energy or range of energies, the ratio of the energy resolution of a particular sample divided by the energy resolution of another sample.
  • Table 3 includes the energy resolution data for undoped, Sr-doped, and Zn-doped crystals
  • Table 4 includes the energy resolution data for undoped, Ba-doped, and Mg-doped crystals.
  • Sr-doped and Ba-doped scintillation crystals have significantly improved energy resolution compared to the undoped, Mg-doped, and Zn-doped scintillation crystals.
  • Sr, Ba, and any mixture of Sr and Ba are well suited as dopants to improve the energy resolution of rare earth halides.
  • FIG. 4 includes a plot of energy resolution as a function of energies in a range of 60 to 729 keV for the Sr-doped scintillation crystal, the Zn-doped scintillation crystal, and the standard scintillation crystal.
  • the Sr-doped scintillation crystal clearly has superior energy resolution as compared to the Zn-doped and undoped scintillation crystals.
  • the improvement in energy resolution for the Sr-doped scintillation crystal over the standard scintillation crystal is at least four times more than the difference between the Zn-doped scintillation crystal and the standard scintillation crystal.
  • the energy resolution of the Sr-doped scintillation crystal is 0.63% less than the energy resolution of the standard scintillation crystal, whereas, the energy resolution of the Zn-doped scintillation crystal is only 0.10% less than the energy resolution of the standard scintillation crystal.
  • the energy resolution of the Sr-doped scintillation crystal is 0.36% less than the energy resolution of the standard scintillation crystal, whereas, the energy resolution of the Zn-doped scintillation crystal is only 0.06% less than the energy resolution of the standard scintillation crystal.
  • the energy resolution of the Sr-doped scintillation crystal is 0.40% less than the energy resolution of the standard scintillation crystal, whereas, the energy resolution of the Zn-doped scintillation crystal is only 0.09% less than the energy resolution of the standard scintillation crystal.
  • the Sr-doped scintillation crystal has a lower energy resolution as compared to the Zn-doped scintillation crystal and the standard scintillation crystal.
  • the improved energy resolution means that a peak can be resolved more quickly and accurately, and can make the difference between detecting a peak and not detecting a peak, due to background noise.
  • Table 3 and FIG. 5 include information related to the ER Ratios when comparing the Sr-doped scintillation crystal, the Zn-doped scintillation crystal, and the standard scintillation crystal. Particular comparisons are between the Sr-doped scintillation crystal and the Zn-doped scintillation crystal, Sr-doped scintillation crystal and the standard scintillation crystal, and the Zn-doped scintillation crystal and the standard scintillation crystal.
  • a scintillation crystal of a particular type will have better energy resolution as compared to the other scintillation crystal.
  • the comparison between two different scintillation crystals should have less dependence on the energy, as opposed to using only the energy resolution.
  • the ER ratio for Zn/Std is nearly 1 at 239 keV and, for energies in a range of 60 to 729 keV, only reaches 0.972 at 511 keV. At even high energy, such at 2615 keV, the ER ratio for Zn/Std is reaches of low of 0.960.
  • the Sr-doped scintillation crystal has a peak emission intensity at a wavelength in a range of 375 to 380 nm and does not have a significant peak at a shorter wavelength.
  • the Zn-doped and standard scintillation crystals have peak emission intensities at 350 to 360 nm.
  • Many photosensors have higher quantum efficiencies for blue and green light, as compared to ultraviolet radiation.
  • the Sr-doped scintillation crystal is better suited for many radiation detectors as compared to Zn-doped and standard scintillation crystals.

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US15/710,509 US10053624B2 (en) 2011-06-06 2017-09-20 Scintillation crystal, a radiation detection system including the scintillation crystal, and a method of using the radiation detection system
US16/043,374 US10442989B2 (en) 2011-06-06 2018-07-24 Scintillation crystal, a radiation detection system including the scintillation crystal, and a method of using the radiation detection system
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CN103687928B (zh) 2016-10-12
WO2012170390A3 (fr) 2013-05-23
US20160122639A1 (en) 2016-05-05
US10947452B2 (en) 2021-03-16
US20180010041A1 (en) 2018-01-11
EP2718398A2 (fr) 2014-04-16
JP6130360B2 (ja) 2017-05-17
US20200071611A1 (en) 2020-03-05
EP2718398A4 (fr) 2014-12-03
JP2014522440A (ja) 2014-09-04
US10442989B2 (en) 2019-10-15
EP3670633A1 (fr) 2020-06-24
US20180327663A1 (en) 2018-11-15

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