US20090050205A1 - Method of optimizing the band edge positions of the conduction band and the valence band of a semiconductor material for use in photoactive devices - Google Patents

Method of optimizing the band edge positions of the conduction band and the valence band of a semiconductor material for use in photoactive devices Download PDF

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US20090050205A1
US20090050205A1 US12/280,359 US28035906A US2009050205A1 US 20090050205 A1 US20090050205 A1 US 20090050205A1 US 28035906 A US28035906 A US 28035906A US 2009050205 A1 US2009050205 A1 US 2009050205A1
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semiconductor
dye
particles
conduction band
semiconductor compound
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Michael Duerr
Silvia Rosselli
Gabriele Nelles
Akio Yasuda
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Sony Deutschland GmbH
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
    • H01G9/00—Electrolytic capacitors, rectifiers, detectors, switching devices, light-sensitive or temperature-sensitive devices; Processes of their manufacture
    • H01G9/20—Light-sensitive devices
    • H01G9/2027—Light-sensitive devices comprising an oxide semiconductor electrode
    • H01G9/2036—Light-sensitive devices comprising an oxide semiconductor electrode comprising mixed oxides, e.g. ZnO covered TiO2 particles
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E10/00—Energy generation through renewable energy sources
    • Y02E10/50—Photovoltaic [PV] energy
    • Y02E10/542—Dye sensitized solar cells

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  • the present invention relates to a semiconductor compound having the general formula A x B 1-x C y , to a method of optimizing positions of a conduction band and a valence band of a semiconductor material using said semiconductor compound, and to a photoactive device comprising said semiconductor compound.
  • Photoelectrochemical cells based on sensitisation of nanocrystalline TiO 2 by molecular dyes have been first reported by B. O'Regan and M. Gratzel, Nature 353 (1991) 737; WO 91/16719 [1] and have been continuously improved over the last decade.
  • absorption of a photon leads to the excitation of an electron, which is then injected from the dye molecule into the conduction band of the TiO 2 and transported to the front electrode.
  • the dye molecule is regenerated from a platinum counter electrode via a redox couple in electrolyte.
  • Most crucial for a further success of dye-sensitised solar cells is to increase their power conversion efficiency.
  • J SC short circuit current density
  • FF fill factor FF
  • V OC open circuit voltage
  • J SC depends among others, on the number of absorbed photons and the efficiency to convert those absorbed photons into photo-electrons.
  • FF mainly depends on the conductivity of the materials in use.
  • V OC is dependent on both the energy difference between the conduction band of the semiconducting material and the redox potential of the redox couple as well as the recombination rate of electrons from the semiconductor into the electrolyte ( FIG. 1 ).
  • Most effort has been taken in the past to increase J SC by means of different dye molecules and light management.
  • V OC was increased by means of co-adsorption of smaller molecules together with the dye molecules to suppress recombination.
  • the main disadvantage of the state of the art DSSC is the low power conversion efficiency when compared with other, well-established solar cell technologies.
  • the three main parameters to be improved are short circuit current density J SC , fill factor FF, and the open circuit voltage V OC .
  • Little innovation has been reported with respect to the latter one since the advent of DSSC. This is especially true with respect to the nanoporous semiconductor material, which is in almost all cases TiO 2 .
  • ZnO has been used as a substitute mainly due to the possibility to grow ZnO at low temperatures, but lower V OC and minor efficiencies have been obtained when compared to TiO 2 ([3] K. Keis, E. Magnusson, H. Lindstrom, S.-E. Lindquist, A. Hagfeldt, Sol. Energy Mat. Sol. Cells 72, 51 (2002)).
  • core-shell-structures As reported by Diamant et al. (see above) were prepared by electrochemical deposition of the shell material on the core material or by dipping the core electrode (usually the TiO 2 electrode) into a solution containing a precursor of the respective shell material. In such core-shell-structures, the shell-materials only form a thin coating on the TiO 2 core particle [2] (see above).
  • the idea behind such a core-shell-structure is to avoid recombination processes between the photo-injected electrons in the semiconductor and the oxidized ions in the redox mediator or oxidized dye at the semiconductor's surface.
  • the recombination processes can possibly be slowed down by the formation of an energy barrier at the TiO 2 surface.
  • the influence on the overall DSSC characteristics, for example J SC , FF, and V OC is limited, and furthermore, such core-shell-particles are subject to faster degradation.
  • J SC can also be improved by changing the properties of the semiconductor material.
  • dyes with a different absorption spectrum which could otherwise not be used in the DSSC, e.g. because their LUMO (where LUMO stands for lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) is too low to inject excited electrons into the conduction band of the semiconductor material, can be used when the conduction band edge of the semiconductor material is lowered.
  • LUMO lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
  • the objects of the present invention are solved by method of optimizing positions of a conduction band and a valence band and/or the energy difference between a conduction band and a valence band of a semiconductor material in a semiconductor layer of a photoactive device, preferably a dye-sensitised solar cell having a dye in said semiconductor layer, and/or of optimizing an open circuit voltage of said device, preferably of said dye-sensitised solar cell, using a semiconductor compound having a formula A x B 1-x C y , wherein A and B are metals or metalloids, and wherein C is a non-metal or a metalloid, preferably selected from the group comprising C, N, O, P, S, Se, As, NO 2 , NO 3 , SO 3 , SO 4 , PO 4 , PO 3 , CO 3 , x is in the range of from 0.001 to 0.999 and y is in the range of from 0.1 to 10.
  • a and B are metals or metalloids selected from the group comprising Zr, Ti, Hf, V, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Sn, Nb, Zn, Ag, Pt, Ce, Ge, As, Ga, Si, Al, Cu, CuAl, CuNi, PbZr, SrTi, BaZr, SrCu 2 .
  • C is O, said semiconductor compound thus being a mixed semiconductor oxide.
  • said semiconductor compound is synthesized starting from at least two precursor compounds, preferably metal isopropoxides of the general formulae A u (iPrO) w and B s (iPrO) t , wherein A and B are metals or metalloids selected from the group comprising Zr, Ti, Hf, V, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Sn, Nb, Zn, Ag, Pt, Ce, Ge, As, Ga, Si, Al, Cu, CuAl, CuNi, PbZr, SrTi, BaZr, SrCu 2 , and s, u, t and w are in the range of from 1 to 10, and (iPrO) is an isopropoxide-group.
  • a and B are metals or metalloids selected from the group comprising Zr, Ti, Hf, V, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, I
  • said semiconductor compound is synthesized starting from three, four or more different precursor compounds, preferably metal isopropoxides as defined above.
  • AC v and BC z are independently selected from the group comprising TiO 2 , SnO 2 , ZnO, Nb 2 O 5 , ZrO 2 , CeO 2 , WO 3 , Cr 2 O 3 , CrO 2 , CrO 3 , SiO 2 , Fe 2 O 3 , CuO, Al 2 O 3 , CuAlO 2 , SrTiO 3 , SrCu 2 O 2 , ZrTiO4.
  • semiconductor compounds in accordance with the present invention may also have the formula A x1 B x2 C x3 . . . X xn , having a number n of elemental components A, B, . . . X, wherein n ⁇ 3, and each of x1 to xn is in the range of from 0.001 to 0.999.
  • A, B, C, . . . X are metals or metalloids or non-metals, wherein the metals or metalloids are selected from the group comprising Zr, Ti, Hf.
  • non-metals are selected from the group comprising C, N, O, P, Se, As, NO 2 , NO 3 , SO 3 , SO 4 , PO 4 , PO 3 , CO 3 , with the proviso that at least one of A, B, C, . . . X is a metal or metalloid as defined above, and at least one of A, B, C, . . . X is a non-metal as defined above.
  • the components A and B are present in said semiconductor compound in a ratio of from 1:1000 to 1000:1.
  • said semiconductor compound is synthesized starting from an oxide, AO m and a nitrate, B(NO 3 ) q ,
  • a and B are metals or metalloids being selected from the group comprising Zr, Ti, Hf, V, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Sn, Nb, Zn, Ag, Pt, Ce, Ge, As, Ga, Si, Al, Cu, CuAl, CuNi, PbZr, SrTi, BaZr, SrCu 2 , and m and q being in the range of from 0.1 to 10, wherein said oxide and said nitrate have been reacted together, preferably by mixing them, wherein, preferably, after said oxide and said nitrate have been reacted together, the resulting product is sintered, preferably at T>300° C.
  • said semiconductor compound is synthesized by a process comprising the steps: mixing and reacting at least two precursor molecules, preferably metal isopropoxides of the general formulae A u (iPrO) w und B s (iPrO) t , wherein A and B are metals or metalloids selected from the group comprising Zr, Ti, Hf, V, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Sn, Nb, Zn, Ag, Pt, Ce, Ge, As, Ga, Si, Al, Cu, CuAl, CuNi, PbZr, SrTi, BaZr, SrCu 2 , and s, u, t and w are in the range of from 0.1 to 10, and (iPrO) is an isopropoxide-group, preferably in a ratio in which said metals are desired to be present in the resulting compound, heating the resulting mixture, optionally in the presence of an acid,
  • said semiconductor compound is incorporated in said semiconductor layer of said device as semiconductor particles having an average diameter ⁇ 1 ⁇ m, preferably ⁇ 500 nm, more preferably ⁇ 100 nm, wherein, preferably, said semiconductor particles have an outer shell made of the same and/or a further semiconductor compound, preferably a semiconductor oxide.
  • said semiconductor particles have a shape selected from the group comprising rods, tubes, cylinders, cubes, parallelipeds, spheres, balls and ellipsoids.
  • said semiconductor particles are a mixture of at least two kinds of particles differing in their average diameter or length, and/or differing in their composition.
  • said semiconductor particles are a mixture of a first kind of particles and a second kind of particles, said first kind of particles having an average diameter or length in the range of from 1 nm to 30 nm, and said second kind of particles having an average diameter in the range of from 50 nm to 500 nm and/or length in the range of from 50 nm to 5 ⁇ m.
  • said semiconductor particles are a mixture of a first kind of particles and a second kind of particles, said first kind of particles being made of a first semiconductor compound A x B 1-x C y as defined above, with C being O, and said second kind of particles being made either of a second semiconductor compound A x B 1-x C y as defined above, with C being O, or of any semiconductor oxide as defined in claim 7 with respect to AC v and/or BC z , and wherein said first semiconductor compound and said semiconductor compound may be the same or different.
  • said semiconductor layer has pores having a diameter in the range ⁇ 1 ⁇ m, preferably in the range of from 1 nm to 500 nm, more preferably in the range of from 10 nm to 50 nm.
  • said semiconductor particles during manufacturing of said device, preferably said dye-sensitised solar cell (DSSC), are applied via screen printing, doctor blading, drop casting, spin coating, inkjet printing, electrostatic layer-by-layer self-assembly, lift-off-process, mineralization process or anodic oxidation.
  • DSSC dye-sensitised solar cell
  • said semiconductor material is chosen such that it has an upper edge of a conduction band which is below or equal to a photo-excited state of said dye to allow electron injection from said dye into said conduction band upon photo-excitation of said dye, but which upper edge is between the upper edges of conduction bands of AC v and BC z as defined in any of claims 2 - 11 .
  • said optimizing is a widening or narrowing of said energy difference between said conduction band and said valence band of said semiconductor material or is a shift in the position of a band gap between said conduction band and said valence band.
  • said optimizing is with respect to a photoexcited state of said dye, so as to enable electron injection from said photoexcited state into said conduction band of said semiconductor material, and is furthermore with respect to the redox potential of a redox couple present in said dye-sensitised solar cell (DSSC).
  • DSSC dye-sensitised solar cell
  • a photoactive device which is not an inorganic solar cell, said photoactive device comprising a semiconductor layer having as semiconductor material a semiconductor compound as defined above, preferably a mixed semiconductor oxide as defined in claim 4 , wherein, preferably, the photoactive device is optimized by the method according to the present invention.
  • a photoactive device preferably a dye-sensitised solar cell (DSSC), comprising a semiconductor layer having as semiconductor material a semiconductor compound as defined above, preferably a mixed semiconductor oxide as defined in claim 4 , wherein, preferably, the photoactive device is optimized by the method according to the present invention.
  • DSSC dye-sensitised solar cell
  • said photoactive device is not an inorganic solar cell.
  • the photoactive device according to the present invention further comprises a dye in said semiconductor layer and is further characterized in that the conduction band of said semiconductor material has been adjusted with respect to the excited state of said dye to ensure an efficient electron injection from the excited state of said dye to the conduction band of said semiconductor material, whilst making the upper edge of said conduction band of said semiconductor material to be as close as possible to said excited state of said dye.
  • the photoactive device according to the present invention is a device selected from the group comprising dye-sensitised solar cells, photoactive catalysts, self-cleaning windows, and water purification systems.
  • the present inventors have found that it is possible to optimize the open circuit voltage of a dye-sensitised solar cell by using said new semiconductor material in the active layer, i.e. the new semiconductor layer participating in the electron transport within the solar cell.
  • the new semiconductor material A x B 1-x C y has different physical and chemical characteristics, such as band gap, band edge positions, composition etc, in comparison to the at least two different semiconductor compounds AC v and BC z on their own.
  • a conduction band edge which is meant to signify the lowest energy level of the conduction band of a given semiconductor material.
  • valence band edge is meant to signify the highest energy level of the valence band of the respective semiconductor material.
  • semiconductor material is meant to signify any material having one or several semiconductor compounds in it.
  • semiconductor compound is meant to signify a chemical compound having semiconducting qualities.
  • mixed semiconductor oxide is meant to signify a semiconductor oxide in accordance with the present invention, of the formula A x B 1-x C y , wherein C is O (oxygen).
  • the symbols A, B and C are variables for which a number of chemical elements can be substituted, as further specified and defined above.
  • the symbols O, S, As, Cr, Ti, Sn, Nb, Cn, Ce, W, Si, Al, Cu, Sr, etc. are the chemical elemental symbols as used in the periodic table and refer to the respective chemical element.
  • semiconductor compounds in accordance with the present invention may also have the formula A x1 B x2 C x3 . . . X xn , having a number n of elemental components A, B, . . . X, wherein n ⁇ 3, and each of x1 to xn is in the range of from 0.001 to 0.999.
  • the symbols A, B, C, . . . X are variables for which a number of chemical elements can be substituted, as further specified and defined in the respective paragraph on A x1 , B x2 , C x3 . . . X xn above.
  • metal refers to an element the properties of which are intermediate between metals and non-metals. More specifically, a “metalloid” which is sometimes also called “semi-metal”, has the physical appearance and properties of a metal but behaves chemically like a non-metal.
  • the known metalloids include B, Se, Ge, Si, As, Sb, Te and Po.
  • DSSC die-sensitised solar cell
  • the “dye-sensitised solar cells” in accordance with the present invention are so-called “hybrid devices” in that their photoactive layer contains both inorganic and organic materials which take part in the charge generation and transporting processes.
  • a solar cell in accordance with the present invention is not an inorganic solar cell.
  • inorganic solar cell is used herein in reference to a solar cell which has a photoactive layer consisting exclusively of inorganic material.
  • a “dye-sensitised solar cell” according to the present invention always is a “hybrid solar cell” and is not an inorganic solar cell as defined above.
  • the term “optimization” as used in the present application may imply a widening or a narrowing and/or shifting of the absolute position of a band gap. If a dye is present, “optimization” may imply adjusting of the respective properties of the semiconductor material for the actual dye used. Taking a dye-sensitised solar cell as an example, the reference point of such optimization is a comparable dye-sensitised solar cell, wherein, in the active semiconductor layer, there is not a semiconductor material according to the present invention present, but only a semiconductor compound made of less constituents than said new semiconductor material present. It is with respect to this one compound that the band gap is optimised, i.e.
  • the inventors have found that, in particular semiconductor oxides are particularly useful for creating such a new semiconductor, i.e. an entirely different compound, in accordance with the present invention.
  • the term “mixed oxide” as used herein refers to the result of fabricating a new semiconductor compound A x B 1-x C y according to the present invention, with C being oxygen.
  • Such mixed oxide has different physical characteristics, such as band gap and/or band edge positions, in comparison to the semiconductor oxides AC v and BC z on their own.
  • pores having an average diameter in the range ⁇ 1 ⁇ m preferably in the range of from 1 nm to 500 nm, more preferably in the range of from 10 nm to 50 nm.
  • Such pores ⁇ 1 ⁇ m are herein also sometimes referred to as “nanopores”.
  • the new semiconductor compound is the result of combining the precursors for TiO 2 and ZrO 2 and the dye used is red-dye-bis-TBA (cis-bis (isothiocyanato) bis (2,2′-bipyridyl-4,4′-dicarboxylato)-ruthenium(II) bis-tetrabutylammonium).
  • the mixture ratio of Ti:Zr in the semiconductor compound according to the present invention is 1000:1-1:1000, preferably approximately 200:1-10:1, more preferably approximately 99:1.
  • Exemplary compounds in accordance with the present invention are Ti 0.8 Zr 0.2 O 2 , Ti 0.9 Zr 0.1 O 2 and Ti 0.99 Zr 0.01 O 2 .
  • V OC is dependent on the difference between conduction band edge of the semiconductor material and the redox potential of the charge mediator (compare FIG. 1 ), it is possible to increase V OC by raising the conduction band edge of the semiconductor material.
  • the energetic level of the conduction band edge also determines the efficiency of electron injection from the dye molecule into the conduction band. It therefore must not lie too high when compared to the excited state of the dye molecule. As a consequence, one cannot expect to find the perfect fit of the conduction band edge position in nature.
  • the present inventors therefore made use of band-gap engineered semiconductor materials.
  • they used band-gap engineered, synthesised mixed oxides. They allow for the careful adjustment of the band edge energies within some given limits.
  • the band gap of the ternary component A x B 1-x C y will change with the amount of A and B in the compound between the values of AC v and BC z .
  • FIG. 2 illustrates that the use of dyes with different absorption spectrum, e.g. longer wavelength region and therefore energetically lower LUMO (where LUMO stands for lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) might be of advantage.
  • a mixed oxide with reduced conduction band edge is preferred.
  • FIG. 1 shows the schematics of the energy levels in a DSSC under illumination.
  • V OC is determined by the band edge of the conduction band (CB) and the redox potential of a redox-couple as charge mediator, e.g. I ⁇ /I 3 ⁇ .
  • VB denotes the valence band of the semiconductor.
  • FIG. 2 shows a schematic description of the dependence of the energetic positions of valence band edge and conduction band edge on atomic composition of the semiconductor material.
  • FIG. 3 shows results of absorption measurements with porous layers using an integrating sphere to collect directly transmitted and scattered light.
  • the layers consist either of TiO 2 alone (smaller band gap) or of a mixed semiconductor oxide made of Ti 0.8 Zr 0.2 O 2 .
  • FIG. 4 shows the current density as a function of voltage for cells measured under illumination with white light (100 nmW/cm 2 ).
  • FIG. 5 shows the lattice spacing of a mixed oxide as a function of Zr content.
  • FIG. 6 shows the current open circuit voltage of DSSCs as a function of Zr content.
  • the lattice spacing as obtained by X-ray diffraction is shown as a function of Zr content.
  • the continuous increase proved that a new material/compound rather than a mixture of two materials has been produced.
  • V OC increases as the Zr content increases in comparison to pure TiO 2 .
  • the conduction band edge can be too high for an effective injection of electrons into the conduction band, depending on the dye molecule and band edge shift. This is indeed the case for the dye molecules used in the present case of the 1:4 ratio of Zr and Ti.
  • Mixed oxides were prepared either by means of a post treatment of the pre-sintered porous TiO 2 layers or by the synthesis of mixed oxides by means of thermal hydrolysis using at least two different precursor molecules.
  • a general synthetic route for the synthesis of mixed oxides can be described as follows: x mole of zirconium isopropoxide, Zr( i PrO) 4 were mixed with (1 ⁇ x) mole of titanium isopropoxide, Ti( i PrO) 4 . The mixture was poured under continuous stirring into a beaker containing distilled water. The resulting milky mixed oxide suspension was heated up at 80° C. in the presence of HNO 3 0.1 M. Finally the mixture was poured into a teflon inlet inside a reactor and heated up at 240° C. for 12 hours. The reaction conditions were adjusted to give the required average particle size and a homogeneous distribution of the compounds in the particles.
  • the DSSC are assembled as follows: A 30-nm-thick bulk TiO 2 blocking layer is formed on FTO (approx. 100 nm on glass). A 10- ⁇ m-thick porous layer of semiconductor particles is screen printed on the blocking layer and sintered at 450° C. for half an hour. If the mixed oxide is formed by means of a post treatment of the first material, the porous layer, which might be, e.g., TiO 2 , is immersed in, e.g., ZrO(NO 3 ) 2 for 1 h. The layer is then again sintered at 450° C. for 30 min.
  • the Zr ions are penetrated into the TiO 2 material and have replaced some of the Ti ions and a mixed oxide is formed which is not just a core-shell-structure as described in Diamant et al, but wherein Zr has replaced Ti throughout the semiconductor layer.
  • the mixed oxide from the synthesis described above can be used directly for preparation of the porous layers.
  • Red-dye-bis-TBA molecules were adsorbed to the particles via self-assembling out of a solution in ethanol (0.3 mM) and the porous layer was filled with electrolyte containing I ⁇ /I 3 ⁇ as redox couple (15 mM).
  • a reflective platinum back electrode was attached with a distance of 6 ⁇ m from the porous layer.

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