US20020192190A1 - Induction of immunological tolerance - Google Patents

Induction of immunological tolerance Download PDF

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US20020192190A1
US20020192190A1 US09/226,742 US22674299A US2002192190A1 US 20020192190 A1 US20020192190 A1 US 20020192190A1 US 22674299 A US22674299 A US 22674299A US 2002192190 A1 US2002192190 A1 US 2002192190A1
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cells
dose
tolerizing
mammal
membrane
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Paul P. Latta
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Priority to US09/226,742 priority Critical patent/US20020192190A1/en
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Priority to US10/660,924 priority patent/US7361333B2/en
Priority to US10/823,263 priority patent/US7361334B2/en
Priority to US12/106,047 priority patent/US20080317770A1/en
Priority to US12/823,545 priority patent/US20100260816A1/en
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    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K35/00—Medicinal preparations containing materials or reaction products thereof with undetermined constitution
    • A61K35/12—Materials from mammals; Compositions comprising non-specified tissues or cells; Compositions comprising non-embryonic stem cells; Genetically modified cells
    • A61K35/37—Digestive system
    • A61K35/39—Pancreas; Islets of Langerhans
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K39/00—Medicinal preparations containing antigens or antibodies
    • A61K39/0005—Vertebrate antigens
    • A61K39/0008—Antigens related to auto-immune diseases; Preparations to induce self-tolerance
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K39/00—Medicinal preparations containing antigens or antibodies
    • A61K39/0005—Vertebrate antigens
    • A61K39/001—Preparations to induce tolerance to non-self, e.g. prior to transplantation
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K9/00—Medicinal preparations characterised by special physical form
    • A61K9/0012—Galenical forms characterised by the site of application
    • A61K9/0019—Injectable compositions; Intramuscular, intravenous, arterial, subcutaneous administration; Compositions to be administered through the skin in an invasive manner
    • A61K9/0024—Solid, semi-solid or solidifying implants, which are implanted or injected in body tissue
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K9/00—Medicinal preparations characterised by special physical form
    • A61K9/48—Preparations in capsules, e.g. of gelatin, of chocolate
    • A61K9/50—Microcapsules having a gas, liquid or semi-solid filling; Solid microparticles or pellets surrounded by a distinct coating layer, e.g. coated microspheres, coated drug crystals
    • A61K9/5005—Wall or coating material
    • A61K9/5021—Organic macromolecular compounds
    • A61K9/5031—Organic macromolecular compounds obtained otherwise than by reactions only involving carbon-to-carbon unsaturated bonds, e.g. polyethylene glycol, poly(lactide-co-glycolide)
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
    • A61P1/00—Drugs for disorders of the alimentary tract or the digestive system
    • A61P1/16—Drugs for disorders of the alimentary tract or the digestive system for liver or gallbladder disorders, e.g. hepatoprotective agents, cholagogues, litholytics
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
    • A61P19/00—Drugs for skeletal disorders
    • A61P19/02—Drugs for skeletal disorders for joint disorders, e.g. arthritis, arthrosis
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
    • A61P25/00—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system
    • A61P25/14—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system for treating abnormal movements, e.g. chorea, dyskinesia
    • A61P25/16—Anti-Parkinson drugs
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
    • A61P25/00—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system
    • A61P25/28—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system for treating neurodegenerative disorders of the central nervous system, e.g. nootropic agents, cognition enhancers, drugs for treating Alzheimer's disease or other forms of dementia
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
    • A61P3/00—Drugs for disorders of the metabolism
    • A61P3/08—Drugs for disorders of the metabolism for glucose homeostasis
    • A61P3/10—Drugs for disorders of the metabolism for glucose homeostasis for hyperglycaemia, e.g. antidiabetics
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
    • A61P7/00—Drugs for disorders of the blood or the extracellular fluid
    • A61P7/06—Antianaemics
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12N—MICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N5/00—Undifferentiated human, animal or plant cells, e.g. cell lines; Tissues; Cultivation or maintenance thereof; Culture media therefor
    • C12N5/06—Animal cells or tissues; Human cells or tissues
    • C12N5/0602—Vertebrate cells
    • C12N5/0676—Pancreatic cells
    • C12N5/0677—Three-dimensional culture, tissue culture or organ culture; Encapsulated cells
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K35/00—Medicinal preparations containing materials or reaction products thereof with undetermined constitution
    • A61K35/12—Materials from mammals; Compositions comprising non-specified tissues or cells; Compositions comprising non-embryonic stem cells; Genetically modified cells
    • A61K2035/122—Materials from mammals; Compositions comprising non-specified tissues or cells; Compositions comprising non-embryonic stem cells; Genetically modified cells for inducing tolerance or supression of immune responses
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K35/00—Medicinal preparations containing materials or reaction products thereof with undetermined constitution
    • A61K35/12—Materials from mammals; Compositions comprising non-specified tissues or cells; Compositions comprising non-embryonic stem cells; Genetically modified cells
    • A61K2035/126—Immunoprotecting barriers, e.g. jackets, diffusion chambers
    • A61K2035/128—Immunoprotecting barriers, e.g. jackets, diffusion chambers capsules, e.g. microcapsules
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K39/00—Medicinal preparations containing antigens or antibodies
    • A61K2039/51—Medicinal preparations containing antigens or antibodies comprising whole cells, viruses or DNA/RNA
    • A61K2039/515—Animal cells

Definitions

  • the present invention relates to the induction of immunological tolerance to foreign cells, tissues and organs. More specifically, the invention relates to implantation of a tolerizing dose of cells or tissues encapsulated in a membrane in a mammal to establish immunological tolerance thereto.
  • organ transplantation is the only alternative to certain death. While there were only 4,843 organ donors in the U.S. in 1993, there were 2,866 heart and 3,040 liver failure patients on the waiting list for these organs ( UNOS Update, 10(2), 1994). Thus, because of timing and tissue matching problems, many patients die each year for lack of an available organ. For those lucky enough to receive an organ, the results are still less than ideal.
  • the transplant procedure constitutes major surgery which is associated with attendant risks and is exceedingly expensive. After the surgery, the patient must be placed on a regimen of immunosuppressive drugs to keep the immune system from destroying the transplanted organ. As a consequence, the patient's entire immune system is suppressed for the rest of his life, significantly lowering his defenses against other serious disease threats such as infections, viruses or cancers.
  • transplantation is known to be effective, although its attendant problems preclude its practical therapeutic use. This is true for many of the kidney, pancreas and lung patients described above. It is also true where whole pancreas transplantation can cure diabetes or liver transplantation can cure hemophilia but the risks outweigh the rewards.
  • tissue transplants as opposed to whole organ transplants, have been shown to be therapeutic in animals and even in man (Scharp et al., Transplantation, 51:76-85, 1991). Tissue transplantation requires full immunosuppression and carries the same risks and problems as already discussed for whole organ immunosuppression. The following treatments address the rejection of the transplanted tissue.
  • One implantation method involves pre-inoculation in the thymus with a small dose of cells, full temporary immunosuppression, then a full therapeutic dose at another site (Posselt et al., Annals of Surgery, 214:363-373, 1991).
  • This has only been shown to work in rodents to date. No large animal or human test has been successful.
  • the human adult thymus is shrunken and may not be practical to treat with an adequate pre-dose.
  • the immunosuppression step while temporary, does subject the patient to risks for that period of time.
  • this procedure may not protect against autoimmune destruction even if it does prevent rejection.
  • Another method of preventing rejection is irradiation of the recipient's bone marrow immune cells, implantation of bone marrow cells from the donor, then implantation of a full therapeutic dose of tissue or organ from the same donor (Illstad et al., J. Exp. Med., 174:467-478, 1991).
  • This has not been shown to work for tissue transplants in humans.
  • irradiation of immune cells, either partial or whole body carries serious risks.
  • a further method of treatment to prevent rejection is by using monoclonal antibodies to suppress certain parts of the immune system (Andersson et al., J. Autoimmun., 4:733-742, 1991). These tests have only been performed in rodents so it is not known if they would succeed in humans. Also, it is not known if the proper monoclonal antibody could be identified and created for each different disease state. In addition, the overall affect of these agents on the human immune system is not known.
  • Still another method of preventing rejection is encapsulation of the transplanted tissue in a semi-permeable membrane device which allows oxygen, nutrients and other small molecules to pass but prevents entry of large immune system cells (Lacy et al., Science, 254:1782-1784, 1991; Sullivan et al., Science, 252:718-721, 1991).
  • a semi-permeable membrane device which allows oxygen, nutrients and other small molecules to pass but prevents entry of large immune system cells
  • the material must be biocompatible; it must be sufficiently strong to last a long time when implanted; its porosity must be exactly correct to allow survival and function of the enclosed cells while keeping out cells and perhaps antibodies of the immune system; and finally, the device itself must be large enough to contain enough cells for a fully therapeutic implant and yet small enough to allow for some reasonable method of implantation which causes no damage to other internal organs.
  • transplantation As a potential prevention of disease due to all of the problems associated with transplantation as previously described.
  • transplantation can actually prevent a disease from occurring other than the obvious case of whole organ failures.
  • interventional transplantation can have some preventive effect in rodents (Miller et al., J. Neurol Immunol., 46:73-82, 1993; van Vollenhoven et al., Cell. Immunol., 115:146-155, 1988).
  • rodents Miller et al., J. Neurol Immunol., 46:73-82, 1993; van Vollenhoven et al., Cell. Immunol., 115:146-155, 1988.
  • One embodiment of the invention is a method of creating immunological tolerance to foreign cells, tissues or organs in a mammal, comprising the step of implanting in the mammal a tolerizing dose of foreign cells or tissue encapsulated in a biologically compatible permselective membrane.
  • the method may additionally comprise the step of administering to the mammal a curative dose of corresponding unencapsulated cells, tissue or organ.
  • the mammal is a human, canine or feline.
  • the tolerizing cells are insulin-secreting cells; more preferably, they are pancreatic islet cells.
  • the membrane comprises polyethylene glycol.
  • the curative dose is between one and two orders of magnitude greater than the tolerizing dose.
  • the tolerizing and curative doses are from the same species as the mammal.
  • the tolerizing and curative doses are from a species different from the mammal.
  • the tolerizing and curative doses are porcine.
  • the method may further comprise the step of administering one or more anti-inflammatory agents to the mammal prior to, at the same time as, or subsequent to administration of the curative dose.
  • the membrane has a molecular weight cutoff of about 150 kDa or less.
  • the membrane has a pore size of about 0.4 ⁇ m or less.
  • the membrane may also have a pore size of about 0.2 ⁇ m or less.
  • the membrane has a molecular weight cutoff of about 150 kDa or less.
  • the tolerizing step is subcapsular, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal or intraportal and the curative step is intraperitoneal, intraportal or subcutaneous.
  • the tolerizing dose may also be administered incrementally.
  • the present invention also provides a method of treating diabetes in a mammal in need thereof, comprising the steps of:
  • administering to the mammal a curative dose of corresponding unencapsulated insulin-secreting cells.
  • the mammal is a human, canine or feline.
  • the tolerizing dose is one to two orders of magnitude less than the curative dose.
  • the membrane comprises polyethylene glycol.
  • the insulin-secreting cells are pancreatic islet cells.
  • the mammal and the insulin-secreting cells are from the same species.
  • the mammal and the insulin-secreting cells are from different species.
  • the tolerizing and curative doses are porcine.
  • the method may further comprise the step of administering one or more anti-inflammatory agents to the mammal prior to, at the same time as, or subsequent to administration of the curative dose.
  • the membrane has a molecular weight cutoff of about 150 kDa or less.
  • the membrane has a pore size of less than about 0.4 ⁇ m.
  • FIG. 1 is plane view illustrating the key properties of the membrane enclosing the cells.
  • the membrane may be configured into many different device designs.
  • FIG. 2 is a plane view of one design of the invention, wherein two layers of the membrane are used in a flat sheet configuration where cells are “sandwiched” in between the two membranes and then the ends are sealed.
  • FIG. 3 is a tubular view of one design of the invention, wherein the membrane is cast or rolled into a tubular configuration. The cells are loaded in the lumen and the ends are sealed.
  • FIG. 4 is a spherical view of one design of the invention, wherein the membrane is cast in a spherical configuration and cells may be encased one in each device (microcapsule) or many in a device (macrocapsule).
  • FIG. 5 is a graph showing blood glucose levels in mice implanted with a tolerizing dose of 100 encapsulated NIT insulinoma aggregates.
  • FIG. 6 is a graph showing blood glucose levels in mice implanted with a tolerizing dose of 50 encapsulated NIT insulinoma aggregates.
  • FIG. 7 is a graph showing blood glucose levels in non-tolerized control mice.
  • one goal of the invention is to eliminate the critical problems of transplantation in cases where whole organ transplantation is the only alternative to certain death. These are cases of heart or liver failure.
  • the major advantage of the invention process for this application is that it eliminates the shortage of organs for the patients by making animal organs acceptable in humans. While there are only about 4,800 human organ donors in the U.S. each year, the supply of animal organs for transplant is not limited. The reason that animal organs are not presently used is that they are acutely rejected when transplanted into humans even with immunosuppression.
  • a second goal of the invention is to make organ transplantation a safe, effective, practical therapy for those cases of disease where it is known now to be therapeutic but the risks associated with it prevent its widespread therapeutic use. Examples of these disease cases are kidney failure, pancreas failure and cystic fibrosis (lung failure).
  • kidney failure pancreas failure
  • cystic fibrosis lung failure
  • the advantages of the process of the invention eliminate the major obstacles.
  • a third goal of the invention is to make cell or tissue transplants, as opposed to whole organ transplants, a practical therapy in cases where cells or tissue alone can cure a disease state by providing a lacking or deficient protein, enzyme or peptide.
  • these cases are insulin-secreting islet cells for Type I diabetes, Factor VIII-secreting hepatic cells for hemophilia, dopamine-secreting adrenal chromaffin cells for Parkinson's disease and collagen for arthritis.
  • a significant advantage of the process of the invention for these cases is that animal tissue or genetically engineered tissue expressing an absent or deficient protein of interest can be used if human tissue is scarce.
  • cell types other than the normal protein-secreting cells can be engineered to secrete the protein of interest.
  • myoblasts can be engineered by standard methods to secrete insulin.
  • the use of such cells is also within the scope of the present invention.
  • Continuous immunosuppression is not needed to protect the transplanted tissue and the costs would be reduced.
  • pre-inoculation into the thymus with immunosuppression or irradiation of bone marrow with immunosuppression or monoclonal antibodies could be identified and produced for many disease states or encapsulation of fully therapeutic doses of tissue in some membrane device can overcome many technical problems, the process of the invention is a safer and more practical therapy than any of these.
  • a fourth goal of the invention is the treatment of autoimmune diseases including diabetes, Alzheimer's, arthritis, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis and systemic lupus erythematosus.
  • autoimmune diseases including diabetes, Alzheimer's, arthritis, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis and systemic lupus erythematosus.
  • the body's immune system attacks and destroys one's own tissue.
  • the immune system can be induced to accept grafted tissue or organs to replace those that have been destroyed without the autoimmune destruction of the newly transplanted graft.
  • organ rejection and autoimmune destruction are two completely different phenomena so that even with systems that may prevent rejection, in autoimmune diseases the grafts may still be destroyed by a different means.
  • the process of the invention addresses both problems.
  • a fifth goal of the invention is to make transplantation a practical therapy to prevent certain diseases from ever occurring, as well as treating existing diseases as previously discussed.
  • the advantage of the process that makes this possible is the immunomodulation effect which stops or prevents the immune system from destruction of self tissue.
  • the process can be used to intervene in the course of the disease at a critical point before the immune system is initiated into self-destruction of tissue that is necessary for normal body function.
  • the present invention meets all of these goals. Additionally, the present invention also provides a number of advantages which would not have been readily apparent to one having ordinary skill in the art.
  • the present invention is a two step process.
  • a small number of cells or tissue is implanted into a mammal inside a device made of a biocompatible “permselective” membrane which protects the implanted cells from the mammal's immune system while at the same time allowing the cells to survive.
  • a permselective membrane is one having a pore size selected so that it is small enough to prevent the entry of immunological factors such as cells or antibodies, yet large enough to allow the free passage of oxygen, nutrients and other molecules needed to sustain the transplanted cells.
  • the membrane pores must allow the passage of antigens which are shed from the transplanted cells and prevent the entry of large immune system cells and antibodies.
  • the mammal is a human.
  • the mammal is a canine or feline.
  • One of ordinary skill in the art can readily determine the proper pore size for the permselective membrane for any particular application of the present invention. It is preferable to use the largest pore size possible to prevent the entry of the undesirable elements because the larger pores allow better diffusion of the desirable elements such as nutrients and oxygen across the membrane. Smaller pore sizes (e.g. those excluding molecules greater than 100,000 daltons) are not necessarily a problem for diffusion as has been shown in long-term survival of cells in a 50,000 dalton membrane in vivo implant (Lacy et al., Science 254:1782-1784, 1991).
  • Antigens shed from the transplanted cells pass through the permselective membrane into the body of the recipient where they are fully exposed to the immune system.
  • the immune system will recognize these antigens as “foreign” and destroy them. This process will continue for some time with the immune system constantly destroying the shed antigens but not able to destroy the source which is the cells protected in the encapsulation device. In time, the immune system will begin to become tolerant of these antigens because they do no actual damage in the body and the constant source cannot be destroyed. At this time, the immune system is tolerant to that particular cell type from that particular donor.
  • the second stage of the process is enacted.
  • a fully therapeutic (curative) dose of cells, tissue or whole organ from the same donor as the tolerizing dose is implanted in the recipient for cure of the disease. Since this implant, whether cells, tissue or organ, is from the same donor as the small dose, it is recognized by the immune system as “self” and a rejection response is not elicited. The immune system is fully tolerant to the new implant.
  • the tolerizing dose is given as a single (bolus) dose.
  • the tolerizing dose may be administered incrementally over several weeks or months.
  • the incremental tolerizing dose is the same as the bolus dose, only spread out in even increments.
  • the total incremental tolerizing dose is one to three times the bolus tolerizing dose.
  • the incremental tolerizing dose is typically one to two orders of magnitude lower than the curative dose.
  • this process makes animal organs and cells available for human implants (xenografts). Presently, these organs or tissues are acutely rejected in humans because of the wide immunological barriers between the species. With the process of the invention, even animal tissue will be tolerated because tolerance is induced gradually over time. The availability of animal organs for human use will save many thousands of lives each year which are now lost due to the shortage of available human organs for transplantation. In addition, this process will allow transplant therapy for autoimmune diseases such as diabetes, arthritis, myasthenia gravis and multiple sclerosis. This is possible because as the immune system is tolerized to the new tissue by the initial small implant, the self-destructive autoimmune process is suppressed.
  • autoimmune diseases such as diabetes, arthritis, myasthenia gravis and multiple sclerosis. This is possible because as the immune system is tolerized to the new tissue by the initial small implant, the self-destructive autoimmune process is suppressed.
  • the xenograft recipient is administered one or more anti-inflammatory agents.
  • the anti-inflammatory agent is administered either systemically or locally at the implantation site.
  • the agent may be administered prior to the implant, at the time of implantation or subsequent to the implant for a time necessary to overcome the initial inflammatory reaction.
  • the agents may be over-the-counter preparations such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen, or a specific immunosuppressive agent such as Cyclosporine (Sandoz) or Imuran (azathioprine, Burroughs-Wellcome).
  • the agent may also block the binding of a particular antigen such as CTLA4Ig (Bristol Myers Squibb).
  • CTLA4Ig Bristol Myers Squibb
  • the amount of anti-inflammatory agent to be administered is typically between about 1 mg/kg and about 10 mg/kg. The extent of inflammation will determine whether the administration of such an agent(s) is necessary. The need for such agents is only temporary and not required for the ongoing survival and function of the transplant.
  • the process of the invention can also be used to prevent certain diseases, particularly autoimmune disorders.
  • the process is as follows. First, patients at high risk for the disease or already in the very early phase of the disease are identified. At the critical time of the onset, the process is intervened with the small encapsulated tissue. For example, islets are used for Type I diabetes and collagen is used for arthritis. This implant of foreign tissue immediately diverts the attention of the immune system to the new foreign invader and it begins the process to destroy this new threat. Because of this diversion, the process of self-destruction of desirable tissue that was just beginning is suppressed, then abandoned, then forgotten. It is, in essence, “switched off” and the damage is prevented.
  • the first step of this method involves acquiring small amounts of cellular tissue for the initial tolerizing implant.
  • the method in which tissue is obtained depends on the type of tissue needed, the source of the tissue, the donor, and the amount of tissue needed. These methods are generally well known by those skilled in the art of tissue digestion, separation, purification, culture, and the like. The following examples are only used to illustrate that these methods are readily available.
  • Islets are small clusters of cells located in the pancreas of mammals. They are composed of alpha cells which make and secrete somatostatin, beta cells which make insulin, delta cells which make glucagon and other cells which make other proteins. To isolate the islet cells which make up only 1-2% of the pancreas from the surrounding acinar tissue, the digestive enzyme collagenase is used. This process is described by Ricordi ( Diabetes 37:413-410, 1988, hereby incorporated by reference). Once the islets are obtained, they are purified from acinar cells and can then be implanted fresh, cultured for extended periods, cryopreserved indefinitely or encapsulated.
  • primary islet cells are obtained from human cadaver donors or from suitable mammalian sources such as rat, cow, or pig.
  • suitable mammalian sources such as rat, cow, or pig.
  • SPF pathogen-free
  • gnotobiotic colonies or herds of animals it is desirable to assure safety of the animal source by using specific pathogen-free (SPF) or gnotobiotic colonies or herds of animals.
  • SPF pathogen-free
  • an engineered cell line which is genetically altered to produce the proper regulated amounts of insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, etc. is also suitable for treatment of diabetes.
  • Adrenal chromaffin cells have multiple applications. They secrete the neurotransmitter dopamine for amelioration of Parkinson's disease, fibroblast growth factor, and can be engineered to secrete nerve growth factor which will counter degeneration and cell death in Alzheimer's and Huntington's disease.
  • a collagenase digestion method of isolating adrenal chromaffin cells from the adrenal gland is described by Livett ( Physiol. Rev. 64:1103-1161, 1984). Human or other mammalian sources can be appropriate sources of this tissue.
  • mammalian cells can also be genetically engineered to secrete certain proteins or peptides whose absence or deficiency is the cause of various genetic diseases (i.e. adenosine deaminase deficiency).
  • such cells can also be engineered to secrete various cytokines and growth factors for the treatment of viral infections (i.e., interferon- ⁇ ) and cancer (i.e., interleukin-2). Hormone deficiencies can also be treated by this method.
  • Mammalian cells are transfected with an expression vector containing a gene encoding such a therapeutic protein or peptide. These expression vectors are constructed using standard methods well known to one of ordinary skill in the art.
  • a tolerizing dose of these cells is encapsulated as described herein and implanted into a mammal. Two to three weeks later, a curative dose of the same cells is implanted into the mammal. The cells are no longer recognized as foreign, are not destroyed by the host immune system and continue to secrete the desired therapeutic protein.
  • hypoparathyroidism thyroid hormone
  • hyperadrenocorticalism adrenocorticotrophic factor
  • dwarfism growth hormone
  • Gaucher's disease glucocerebrosidase
  • Tay-Sachs hexosaminidase A
  • cystic fibrosis cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator
  • cells expressing stimulatory or inhibitory cytokines can be encapsulated, resulting in stimulation or inhibition, respectively, of a particular cell type.
  • erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production
  • interleukin-2 stimulates the proliferation of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and interferons inhibit certain types of tumor cells.
  • Other conditions contemplated for treatment using the method of the present invention include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's Chorea, epilepsy, hepatitis, anxiety, stress, pain, addiction, obesity, menopause, endometriosis, osteoporosis, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension and allergies.
  • Other cell/tissue sources and methods include collagen recovery from chicken for prevention and treatment of arthritis, Schwann cells from myelin tissue for prevention and treatment of neural degeneration and Factor VIII from liver hepatocytes for treatment and prevention of hemophilia.
  • the amount of cells or tissue necessary for the initial tolerizing implant will vary depending on the disease, site, source, whether the tissue is primary or immortalized and other factors.
  • the tolerizing dose is one or two orders of magnitude less than a full dose implant.
  • the initial implant dose for tolerization is about 100-2,000 islets/kilogram of body weight.
  • the size of these doses are not known for all disease states, they can be optimized using routine dose/response experiments well known to one of ordinary skill in the art. In general, between about 100 cells/kg body weight and about 5,000 cells/kg body weight are suitable for tolerization.
  • the corresponding curative doses are between about one and two orders of magnitude higher than these numbers.
  • the membrane for the device is chosen for the application needed based on its biocompatability, permeability, strength, durability, ability to be manipulated and other important considerations.
  • materials have already been shown to be acceptable for implants in mammals. Examples of some of these materials are PAN/PVC acrylic co-polymers, hydrogels such as alginate or agarose, mixed esters cellulose, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)/polypropylene (Lum et al., Diabetes 40:1511-1516, 1991; Aebischer et al., Exp. Neurol., 111:269-275, 1991; Liu et al., Hum. Gene Ther.
  • a critical factor is the pore size that can be produced in the material chosen.
  • PEG macromers can vary in molecular weight from 0.2-100 kDa.
  • the degree of polymerization, and the size of the starting macromers, directly affect the porosity of the resulting membrane.
  • the size of the macromers are selected according to the permeability needs of the membrane. It is believed that for xenograft transplants (animal to human), antibodies of the immune system and complement are involved in rejection (Bachet al. Transplantation Overview 6(6):937-947, 1991).
  • a pore size (molecular weight cutoff) of 150 kDa or smaller is desired to prevent the passage of the smallest immune antibody (IgG) through the pores of the membrane capsule.
  • the application and its conditions will determine the choice of membrane material from many available alternatives.
  • the configurations of the device will be determined by the application.
  • the preferred starting macromer size is in the range of about 3 kDa to 10 kDa, with the most preferred being about 4 kDa. Smaller macromolecules result in polymer membranes of a higher density with smaller pores.
  • Cells can also extend processes (“arms”) which can enter openings having a size of about 0.2 ⁇ m.
  • the pore size is about 0.2 ⁇ m or less.
  • the pore size is as small as possible to exclude entry of detrimental components, but allows cell survival by permitting vital molecules such as nutrients, proteins and oxygen to freely pass through the permselective membrane.
  • a desired pore size may be obtained by adjusting the crosslink density and length of PEG segments by one of ordinary skill in the art without undue experimentation.
  • a suitable configuration may be microcapsules where only a few or even single cells are each enclosed in separate membranes. Because of the small volume in this case, the microcapsules may simply be injected into one of many sites for the implant. If it is desirable to retrieve or reload the device or larger numbers of cells are necessary, a “macrocapsule” may be constructed wherein many cells are enclosed together inside one membrane. In this case, it has been shown that the environment inside the macrocapsule may need special conditions to allow the cells to survive. For example, an alginate matrix has been used to immobilize islet cells and prevent their aggregation and subsequent central necrosis (Lacy et al., Science, 254:1782-1784, 1991).
  • the macrocapsule may be of any shape that is practical. Examples of shapes commonly used by those skilled in the art are: 1) flat sheet “sandwiches” where two layers of the membrane are top and bottom on the cells and the ends are sealed by heat welding, gluing, or other known means (FIG. 2). This method provides a large surface area for membrane exposure to the host systems and generally short diffusion distances which helps transport substances across the membrane; 2) A tubular membrane formed by co-extrusion or rolling a flat sheet into a tube and sealing the ends (FIG. 3).
  • the cells can be placed inside the lumen at the same time the membrane is formed if co-extrusion is employed. If the tube is made first, the cells are loaded by syringe or other means and the ends are sealed by heat welding, gluing or other known means. As previously discussed, various matrices may be employed as needed by the enclosed cells.
  • the tubes can be any suitable length and may be joined at the ends (potted) or woven if multiple tubes are used; 3) a spherical shape (FIG. 4) which has a large surface area compared to its volume and is efficient in some applications.
  • the loaded devices are then implanted into patients in need of therapy.
  • the method of implantation, site and duration are dependent on the disease being treated. For example, in diabetes it is desirable to have the shed antigens processed by the liver. Therefore, implantation in the peritoneum where the portal circulation would carry the antigens directly to the liver (intraportal) is a preferred site. Alternatively, if the dose is a small enough volume (i.e. 10 ⁇ l or less), direct injection into the portal vein is preferred.
  • Other implantation sites include under the kidney capsule and subcutaneous implantation.
  • the cells should be processed first in the brain.
  • implanting into the interstitial region of the brain is a preferred site.
  • the method of implantation may be different.
  • intraperitoneal placement of a device for diabetes may be performed by a minimally invasive laparoscopic procedure.
  • the neurosurgeon commonly uses stereotaxic instruments to ensure exact placement.
  • a small incision to allow a trocar to be inserted may be used.
  • those skilled in the art will recognize the most efficient method of implantation.
  • the cells are left in place for a period of time during which tolerization will occur. This time period will vary depending on the disease treated, whether an allograft or a xenograft transplant is being used, site of the implant, and other factors. Generally, tolerization requires from a few weeks to a few months. During this time, the transplanted cells constantly shed antigens from their surface. These antigens comprise a variety of small molecules which are constantly being replaced by living cells The antigens can pass freely out of the pores of the membrane and into the recipient at the locations of the implant and eventually into the circulatory system. The immune system immediately recognizes these antigens as “foreign” and initiate its mechanisms to protect the recipient from the intruder.
  • neither system can destroy the cells of the implant when the pore size of the membrane is properly selected for the application.
  • the membrane pores must only prevent entry of these cells and thus may be about 0.4 ⁇ m or smaller.
  • the pores must be smaller than the smallest of the human antibodies, IgG, which is 150 kDa.
  • IgG the human antibodies
  • a pore size having a molecular weight cutoff of about 150 kDa or less is suitable for tolerization in both allografts and xenografts.
  • the method is used for a human allograft.
  • the tissue for the initial implant is taken from a living related kidney donor by biopsy or similar method and a tolerizing dose is implanted into the patient.
  • a tolerizing dose is implanted into the patient.
  • the whole kidney is taken from the donor and transplanted into the recipient.
  • the graft is accepted with no continuous immunosuppression being necessary.
  • animal organs for human transplants.
  • the procedure is as follows: suitable animal donors are identified. Sources of these donors may be genetically identical (inbred). Tolerizing cells are taken from any animal in the colony. Later, the whole organ is taken from any other animal in the colony. It is preferable that these sources are free of all contaminants of risk to humans so they would preferably be specific pathogens free (SPF) or gnotobiotic (totally isolated in sterile conditions) colonies or herds. Heart, lungs, livers, kidneys, pancreases and other organs may be used in this embodiment, thus eliminating the critical shortage of these organs from the limited number of available human organ donors.
  • SPPF pathogens free
  • gnotobiotic totally isolated in sterile conditions
  • the method is used for human to human cellular transplants.
  • a full size therapeutic dose is obtained from the cadaver donor source as previously described.
  • islet cells are obtained from the pancreas of a human donor.
  • the small amount needed for the tolerizing implant is taken from the preparation, encapsulated and implanted as previously described.
  • the remainder of the cells are cryopreserved by known methods (Kneteman et al, Transplant. Proc. 18:182-185, 1986) and are held until tolerization is completed.
  • the full preparation is then thawed and ready for implantation. If, in this embodiment, it is necessary to acquire cells from more than one donor to have enough for a curative implant, then the cells for the initial implant are taken from multiple donors and mixed for the implant. The recipient is therefore tolerized to all of the cells from the multiple donors.
  • the present method allows the use of cellular transplants from animals as well.
  • Cells for the initial implant are taken from genetically identical animals or multiple pooled animals as previously described.
  • cells may be taken from any other member of the genetically identical colony or from multiple pooled animals if necessary for sufficient curative quantities.
  • the implantation procedure for the fully curative dose of cells is dependent on the disease, the quantity of cells, the site, and other factors.
  • a preferred procedure for the implantation of islet cells in humans is to inject the cells through the portal vein so that they become lodged in lobes of the liver. This procedure is done under local anesthesia and is minimally invasive to the patient.
  • cells can be implanted into any selected area of the brain by well known stereotaxic surgical procedures. Those skilled in the art will know preferred methods for cellular implantation for each embodiment.
  • the NIT insulin-producing mouse tumor cell line was encapsulated with PEG conformal coatings of a single configuration, 11% PEG 4,000 kDa molecular weight (See U.S. Pat. No. 5,529,914), which corresponds to a molecular weight cutoff of between about 10 kDa and about 70 kDa.
  • the encapsulated cells were implanted beneath the kidney capsule at two different doses into C57B6 mice of a different allograft haplotype in which diabetes had been induced by intravenous injection (tail vein) of 167 mg/kg body weight of streptozotocin (Upjohn, Kalamazoo, Mich.). Induction of diabetes by streptozotocin injection is a well known procedure which destroys pancreatic insulin-producing ⁇ cells.
  • Tolerizing doses of encapsulated insulinoma cells were 50 or 100 cell aggregates, each containing about 1,000 cells. Encapsulated cells were implanted beneath the kidney capsule using standard surgical procedures. Curative implants of unencapsulated insulinoma cells (2,000-3,000 insulinoma cell aggregates, each containing about 1,000 cells) were administered by free intraperitoneal injection 15 or 20 days after the tolerizing dose to determine whether a sufficient quantity of cells survived. Control animals were given only the curative dose of insulinoma cells. Blood glucose levels were monitored and are shown for the 100 encapsulated NIT aggregate tolerizing dose, 50 encapsulated NIT aggregate tolerizing dose and non-tolerized controls (FIGS. 5, 6 and 7 , respectively).
  • Rat pancreatic islet cells are isolated by a standard collagenase digestion method (Ricordi, Diabetes 37:413-410, 1988) and cultured for three days prior to PEG encapsulation.
  • Donor islets are derived from the Wistar Furth (WF) strain having MHC haplotype RT1-U.
  • Recipients are of the Lewis strain having MHC haplotype RT1-1. Transplants across this strain combination are normally rejected within three weeks.
  • Islet transplant mass is dosed on the basis of a standard 150 ⁇ m diameter rat islet; an Islet Equivalent (Ieq). Islets are quantified and tested for sterility and mycoplasma prior to encapsulation and implantation.
  • Islet cells are conformally coated with 11% PEG 4,000 kDa molecular weight by the method described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,529,914.
  • acellular cross-linked dextran beads are encapsulated in a similar manner.
  • Diabetes is induced in fasted Lewis rats by intravenous injection of streptozotocin (65 mg/kg) one week prior to implantation of the tolerizing dose and monitored during that week for blood glucose levels and weight changes. Rats are considered diabetic once their blood glucose level exceeds 350 mg/dl. Rats having a minimal weight loss and blood glucose levels of 300-350 mg/dl are used for the study.
  • Diabetic rats are implanted by trochar with a subcutaneous 30 day time release depot insulin (Linplant, Lishin, Ontario, Canada) to reduce the chances of ketosis/acidosis and to stabilize their diabetes. Animals remain hyperglycemic at this Linplant dose (2 units of bovine insulin in 24 hours—lasts 30 days).
  • Loplant Lishin, Ontario, Canada
  • Diabetic MHC disparate Lewis rats are surgically implanted once with encapsulated donor WF islets at the renal subcapsular site after anesthetization.
  • the dose of implanted cells varies as outlined in Table 2.
  • TABLE 2 Group N Dose Rationale 1 12 1200 encap islets high dose sensitization/ tolerization 2 12 600 encap islets low dose tolerization 3 12 300 encap islets very low dose tolerization 4 12 1200 encap acellular beads control for polymer
  • a set of recipients (Group 4) is implanted with encapsulated acellular beads to control for possible polymer effects in tolerization. All implanted animals are maintained for intervals as shown in Table 3 prior to the second transplantation. At the time of implantation, serum samples from each animal are drawn and retained for future immunological analysis.
  • Lewis rats remaining in Groups 1-4 receive a second transplant (curative dose) of WF islets which are unencapsulated.
  • Transplant sites in each animal are intraportal (IP) at a dose of 6,000 Ieq and at one kidney with a dose of 100 Ieq (See Table 4).
  • 6,000 Ieq implanted into the liver is known to be a curative dose in the rat diabetes model.
  • the 100 Ieq kidney capsule implant is only for histology at the end of the experiment.
  • serum samples from each animal are drawn and retained for future immunological analysis.
  • animals are monitored for blood glucose levels and weight changes.
  • graft sites are processed for histology.
  • Human islets are isolated from cadavers and 1,500 islets/kg body weight are PEG-encapsulated and implanted under the kidney capsule in a diabetic patient. After two months, a curative dose of 15,000 unencapsulated islets/kg body weight are injected intraportally. Insulin administration is continued during the course of the protocol up to administration of the curative dose. Blood glucose levels are constantly monitored and are within the normal range.
  • Adrenal chromaffin cells are isolated from inbred baboon adrenal glands and 1,000 cells/kg body weight are encapsulated in an appropriate PEG conformal coating.
  • the capsule is implanted into the interstitial brain region of a human by a neurosurgeon using stereotaxic instruments. After 1 month of tolerization, 10,000 unencapsulated cells/kg body weight are injected into the same brain region. Significant improvement in the condition is observed.
  • liver transplant An individual in need of a liver transplant is subcutaneously implanted with 1,000 PEG-encapsulated liver cells/kg body weight isolated from an inbred baboon. Two months later, the entire liver is transplanted into the individual. Signs of organ rejection and vital signs are monitored over several months. Rejection does not occur.
  • Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder resulting from the presence of antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor on neurons.
  • An individual having very early signs of the disease is implanted under the kidney capsule with a tolerizing dose of 2,500 PEG-encapsulated neural cells/kg recipient body weight expressing the acetylcholine receptor isolated from baboons. This results in tolerization to the acetylcholine receptor and prevention of the disorder.

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US10/823,263 US7361334B2 (en) 1995-10-26 2004-04-13 Method of treatment of diabetes through induction of immunological tolerance
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