TWI820023B - Helium generator and method producing helium-3 - Google Patents

Abstract

Provided are apparatuses and methods for producing helium-3 by a reactor with a confining wall that encloses a confinement region within which charged particles and neutrals rotate. A plurality of electrodes is positioned adjacent to the confinement region. A control system having a voltage source applies an electric potential between the plurality of electrodes to generate an electric field within the confinement region to induce rotational movement of the charged particles and the neutrals therein. A reactant is disposed in the confinement region. Repeated collisions between the neutrals and the reactant produce a product having a nuclear mass that is different from a nuclear mass of the nuclei of the neutrals and the reactant. The product includes at least helium-3, and sometimes also includes helium-4.

Description

Helium generator and method of producing helium-3 Joint Research Agreement Statement

The subject matter and claimed invention were developed by First Ring International, Inc., Monterey, California, and Nonlinear Ion Dynamics, LLC, Monterey, California, under a joint research agreement entitled "Joint Research and Development Agreement." of. The subject matter disclosed and the claimed invention was made by or on behalf of one or more parties to a joint research agreement prior to the effective patent filing date. and that some aspects of the claimed invention are the result of activities carried out within the scope of a joint research agreement.

The present invention relates to internuclear reactions and reactors for initiating and sustaining such internuclear reactions.

Since the 1950s, the scientific and technological community has been striving to achieve controllable and economically feasible nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is a highly desirable energy source for many reasons, but after billions of dollars and decades of research, the idea of using nuclear fusion as a sustainable source of clean energy has become nothing more than a dream. The challenge is to find a way to sustain fusion reactions in an economical, safe, reliable and environmentally friendly way. The challenge proved extremely difficult. The common view on this technology is that there is still 25-50 years to go before fusion becomes a viable option for electricity generation - as the old joke goes "Fusion is the energy source of the future - and there will always be one in the future." Come" ("Next ITERation?", Sep. 3, 2011, The Economist).

Previous research on large-scale fusion mainly focused on two methods: inertial confinement fusion (ICF) and magnetic confinement fusion. ICF attempts to initiate fusion reactions by compressing and heating small, pinhead-sized spheres of fusion reactants, such as a mixture of deuterium and tritium. The fuel is excited by delivering a high-energy laser beam, electron beam, or ion beam to the fuel target, causing the heated outer layer of the target fuel to explode and create a shock wave that propagates inward through the fuel particles, compressing and heating the fusion reactants, This triggers a fusion reaction.

At the time this patent application was filed, the most successful ICF project was the National Ignition Facility (NIF), which cost nearly $3.5 billion and was completed in 2009. NIF reached a milestone where fuel particles give off more energy than they put in, but as of 2015, NIF experiments could only achieve about one-third of the energy required for ignition. Regarding sustainable reactions, the longest ICF fusion reaction time is 150 picoseconds. Even if ICF's efforts achieve ignition conditions, there are still many obstacles to making it a viable energy source. For example, solutions are needed to remove heat from the reaction chamber without disturbing the fuel targets and drive gears, and solutions are needed to mitigate the short lifetime of fusion devices due to the radioactive by-products of fusion reactants: deuterium and tritium reactions Produce neutrons.

The second major research direction, magnetic confinement fusion, attempts to induce fusion by using magnetic fields to confine hot fusion fuel in the form of a plasma. This method is designed to extend the time that ions are in close contact and increase the likelihood of fusion. Magnetic fusion devices exert magnetic forces on charged particles such that when balanced with centripetal forces, the particles move in circular or spiral paths within the plasma. Magnetic confinement prevents the hot plasma from contacting its reactor walls. In magnetic confinement, fusion occurs entirely within the plasma.

Most studies of magnetic confinement are based on Tokamak designs, in which hot plasma is confined within a toroidal magnetic field. Tokamak cluster in Princeton, NJ The Variable Test Reactor (TFTR) is the world's first magnetic fusion device to conduct extensive scientific experiments using a plasma composed of 50/50 deuterium/tritium. Built in 1980, it was originally hoped that TFTR would eventually achieve fusion energy, but ultimately failed to achieve this goal and it closed in 1997. The longest plasma duration of any tokamak to date is 6 minutes and 30 seconds, held by France's Tore Supra tokamak. Current magnetic confinement fusion efforts are focused on the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), a tokamak reactor that began construction in 2013. As of June 2015, construction costs exceeded $14 billion, and construction is expected to be completed by 2019. The facility is expected to conduct deuterium and tritium testing beginning in 2027. The current cost of the project is estimated to be more than $50 billion, and the cost is likely to continue to rise. Recently, the Senate-appropriated Energy and Water Development Subcommittee issued a recommendation that the United States withdraw from the ITER project. Due to market realities and the inherent limitations of tokamak fusion power generation designs, many analysts doubt that fusion reactors such as ITER will become commercially viable devices.

The Maryland Centrifuge Experiment (MCX) at the University of Maryland is investigating an alternative form of magnetic confinement. It will test the concepts of centrifugal constraints and velocity shear stabilization. In this experiment, in a design in the presence of a magnetic field, the capacitor was vented with hydrogen gas from the cylindrical cathode to the surrounding vacuum chamber. Orthogonal electric and magnetic fields (denoted J × B) generate forces that drive the thermally ionized plasma (>10 ⁵ K) to rotate around the discharge electrode. Due to the significant changes in plasma boundary temperature, there is inevitably the presence of cold neutral species that significantly affect the plasma flow. The research focused on the effects of neutral particles, and they argued that "impeding the required plasma rotation" is required for fusion conditions. "Neutral matter" or simply "neutral particles" are atoms or molecules with a neutral charge, that is, they have the same number of electrons and protons. In the design of the atom, this number is the atomic number. An ion or ionized atom or other particle has a charge, that is, it has at least one more electron than proton or at least one more proton than electron.

Rotating plasma devices that do not employ highly ionized plasma have been considered for nuclear fusion research, but neutral particles have been considered an obstacle to reaching fusion conditions. Due to limiting effects including neutral drag and instability, one researcher in the field believes that a self-sustaining fusion reactor relying solely on rotating plasma is unlikely, though "not impossible." (Review Article: "ROTATING PLASMAS", Lehnart, Nuclear Fusion 11 (1971)).

0.7，美國國家點火裝置最近聲稱已經實現了Q>1(忽略了其雷射器的非常大的能量損失)。Q=1的條件，稱為“損益兩平”，表示通過聚變反應釋放能量值等於能量輸入量。實際上，用於產生電力的反應堆應該顯示出遠大於1的Q值，使其在商業上可行，因為只有一部分聚變能被轉化為有用的形式。傳統思想認為，只有不存在大量中性粒子的強電離等離子體具有達到Q>1的可能。這些條件限制了在聚變反應器中可以實現的顆粒密度和能量約束時間。因此，該領域將勞森(Lawson)判據視為受控聚變反應的基準---這一基準，在考慮到所有能源投入時，尚沒有人能實現。對於勞森判據或大體上相似的範式的追求，已導致聚變裝置和系統龐大、複雜、難以管理，昂貴，當然在經濟上就是不可行的。勞森判據的公式是三重向量積，如下所示：

All credible previous approaches face constraints and engineering issues. The total energy balance Q of a fusion reactor is defined as follows: Q=E _fusion /E _in , where E _fusion is the total energy released through the fusion reaction, and E _in is the energy used to produce the reaction. The goal is to get a Q value greater than 1 or greater than unity, thereby creating a usable energy source. JET officials claim to have achieved Q

0.7, the US National Ignition Facility recently claimed to have achieved Q>1 (ignoring the very large energy losses of its laser). The condition of Q=1 is called "even profit and loss", which means that the energy released through the fusion reaction is equal to the energy input. In practice, a reactor used to produce electricity should exhibit a Q value well above 1 to make it commercially viable, since only a portion of the fusion energy is converted into a useful form. Traditional thinking holds that only strongly ionized plasma without a large number of neutral particles has the possibility of reaching Q>1. These conditions limit the particle density and energy confinement time that can be achieved in a fusion reactor. As a result, the field considers the Lawson criterion as the benchmark for controlled fusion reactions—a benchmark that no one has yet achieved when all energy inputs are taken into account. The pursuit of Lawson's criterion or a broadly similar paradigm has resulted in fusion devices and systems that are large, complex, unmanageable, expensive, and certainly not economically viable. The formula for Lawson's criterion is the triple vector product as follows:

Although the Lawson criterion is not discussed in detail here; in essence, the Lawson criterion states that in order to achieve ignition conditions, the particle density ( n ), temperature (T)) and confinement time ( τ _E ) must be greater than a number , this number depends on the energy of the charged fusion product ( E _ch ), Boltzmann's constant ( k _B ), fusion cross section ( σ ), relative velocity ( υ ), and temperature. For the deuterium-tritium reaction, the minimum value of the triple product occurs at the temperature T = 14keV, and the value of the triple product is approximately 3 x 10 ²¹ keV s/m ³ (J. Wesson, "Tokamaks", Oxford Engineering Science Series No 48, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2nd edition, 1997.) In fact, this industry benchmark shows that temperatures in excess of 150 million degrees Celsius are required to achieve a positive energy balance using deuterium-tritium fusion reactions. For proton-boron 11 fusion, Lawson's criterion states that the required temperature must increase significantly. More specifically, n τ~10 ¹⁶ cm ^-3 /s, hundreds of times higher than deuterium-tritium fusion [from Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion: Fundamentals and Applications by George H. Miley and S. Krupaker Murali].

One aspect of Lawson's criterion is based on the premise that thermal energy must be continuously added to the plasma to replace lost energy, maintain the plasma temperature, and keep it fully or highly ionized. In particular, the main source of energy loss in conventional fusion systems is due to the radiation caused by electron bremsstrahlung and cyclotron motion when moving electrons interact with ions in hot plasmas. The Lawson criterion was developed for fusion methods in which electron radiation loss is an important factor due to the use of hot and highly ionized plasmas with rapidly moving electrons.

Because conventional thinking requires a high temperature and strongly ionized plasma without significant presence of neutral particles, it was further assumed that cheap, physically constrained reactions were not possible. Therefore, the most widely used methods involve complex and expensive schemes to control the reaction, such as magnetic approximation beam systems (e.g., ITER tokamak) and inertial confinement systems (e.g., NIF laser).

In fact, at least one source acknowledges that it is impossible to contain a fusion reaction with physical structure: "The simplest and most obvious method for providing plasma confinement is through direct contact with the material walls, but this is not possible for two fundamental reasons is impossible: walls cool the plasma and most wall materials will melt. We recall that a fusion plasma here requires a temperature of ~10 ⁸ K, and metals typically melt at temperatures below 5000 K. (" Principles of Fusion Energy," AA Harms et al.). The need for extremely high temperatures is based on the belief that only charged high-energy ions can fuse and that Coulomb repulsion limits fusion events. Existing teaching in this area relies on absolute This is the basic assumption of most studies and projects.

In a handful of designs, researchers consider ways to reduce the Coulomb barrier, or repulsive force (which repels interacting positive nuclei), to reduce the energy required to initiate and sustain fusion. These methods and the methods mentioned above have been largely ignored as unfeasible.

In the 1950s, Luis Alvarez studied muon-catalyzed nuclear fusion at UC Berkeley using a hydrogen bubble chamber. Alverez’s work ("Catalysis of Nuclear Reactions by μ Mesons." Physical Review. 105, Alvarez, L.W.; et al. (1957)) demonstrated that nuclear fusion occurs at temperatures significantly lower than those required for thermonuclear fusion. In theory, it is proposed that fusion can occur even at room or room temperature. In this process, a negatively charged muon replaces one of the electrons in the hydrogen molecule. Since the mass of a muon is 207 times greater than the mass of an electron, the hydrogen nucleus is 207 times closer than the atomic molecule. When atomic nuclei are brought close together, the potential for nuclear fusion increases greatly until a large number of fusion reactions are possible at room temperature.

Although muon-catalyzed fusion has received some attention, muon-catalyzed fusion Efforts to turn it into energy have not been successful. Current techniques for producing large numbers of muons require large amounts of energy, far exceeding that produced by catalytic nuclear fusion reactions, and thus cannot achieve a breakeven or Q>1. Furthermore, each muon has only a 1 chance of "sticking" to an alpha particle produced by a deuterium (deuterium's nucleus) and a tritium atom (tritium's nucleus) (removing the "stuck" muon from the catalytic loop). %, which means that each muon can only catalyze a few hundred deuterium-tritium fusion reactions. So these two factors—muons are too expensive to produce and muons stick too easily to alpha particles—limit muon-catalyzed fusion to the laboratory. To produce useful muon-catalyzed fusion reactions, the reactors would need cheaper, more efficient muon sources and/or a way to catalyze more fusion reactions per muon. To date, no feasible method has been discovered or even theoretically possible.

In March 1989, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons submitted an article to the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry reporting that they had discovered a way to reduce the Coulomb barrier through what is now commonly referred to as "cold fusion." They believe they have observed large amounts of heat generated by nuclear reaction byproducts and in a small benchtop experiment involving the electrolysis of heavy water on the surface of a palladium electrode. One explanation for cold fusion is that hydrogen and its isotopes can be absorbed at high densities in certain solids, such as palladium. The absorption of hydrogen creates a high partial pressure that reduces the average spacing of the hydrogen isotopes and thereby lowers the barrier. Another explanation is that electron masking by the positive hydrogen nuclei in the palladium lattice is sufficient to lower the barrier.

While Fleischmann-Pons' findings initially received a great deal of attention, acceptance by the scientific community was largely critical, as a team at Georgia Tech soon discovered problems with their neutron detectors, Texas A&M discovered that their thermometers were poorly wired. These experimental errors, as well as numerous failed attempts by well-known laboratories to replicate the Fleischmann-Pons experiment, led the scientific community to conclude that any positive None of the experimental results should be attributed to "fusion". Partly due to public concern, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) organized a panel to review cold fusion theory and research. The U.S. Department of Energy first concluded in November 1989 and again in 2004 that results to date did not provide convincing evidence that the phenomenon of "cold fusion" could produce useful energy.

Another attempt to lower the Coulomb barrier is to exploit electron masking in solid matrices. Electron masking was first observed in stellar plasmas, and if the masking factor is changed by only a few percent, the fusion rate changes by five orders of magnitude (Wilets, L., et al. "Effect of screening on thermonuclear fusion in stellar and laboratory plasmas" ." The Astrophysical Journal 530.1 (2000): 504.). Wilets discovered that the rate of thermonuclear fusion in plasma is controlled by barrier penetration. The barrier itself is controlled by the Coulomb repulsion of the fusion nuclei. Because the barrier potential appears in the exponent of Gamow's formula, the results are very sensitive to the masking effects of electrons and positive ions in the plasma. The mask lowers the barrier, thereby increasing the fusion reaction rate; the more charged the nucleus, the more important the mask becomes.

An example of an attempt to utilize this electronic masking effect to generate ignition conditions is provided in US Patent Publication No. US2005/0129160A1 by Robert Indech. In this application, Indech describes the masking of positively charged electrons between two deuterons located near the tip of a microscopic cone structure when electrons are concentrated at the top of the cone structure due to an applied electric potential. As disclosed, the cones are arranged on a 3 cm x 3 cm surface.

While Indech and others have recognized the potential for electron shrouding to lower the Coulomb barrier of fusion reactors, any efforts that have succeeded are doubtful. Most of these efforts appear to propose ignition methods rather than sustained and controlled fusion reactions. Despite efforts in ICF, magnetic confinement fusion, and various methods of reducing the Coulomb barrier, there is currently no commercially viable fusion reactor design.

In addition to producing energy, the reactor can be configured to produce desired fusion reaction products, such as helium-3. Such a reactor can be configured to operate in a mode that produces the desired product. For example, the reactor may be configured to undergo a deuterium-hydrogen fusion reaction to produce helium-3. In some embodiments, a reactor type such as one of those described herein may be configured such that a gaseous reactant such as deuterium or hydrogen is immobilized in the target substrate, which may be similar to the boron-containing reactants described herein. In certain embodiments, the deuterium-containing target is provided in the form of other materials that absorb deuterium at high density.

When operating a reactor to produce helium-3 or other desired products, any of a number of techniques can be used to remove or extract the products from the reactor. Inherent separation mechanisms resulting from reactor operation can be exploited. For example, centripetal force can partially separate helium-4 from helium-3 within the reactor. More massive material such as helium-4 (compared to helium-3) will be distributed to a larger radius, and by deploying the collection device at a relatively high radial position, a relatively high percentage of helium can be extracted. -3.

When removing helium-3 or other desired products from the reactor, purification may be required, which can be accomplished using a variety of mechanisms and processes. For example, cryogenic separation processes can be used or tools like mass spectrometers can be used.

In summary, a reactor suitable for producing helium-3 includes a confinement wall at least partially surrounding a confinement region within which charged and neutral particles can rotate. A voltage source and/or current source that applies a potential between at least two of the plurality of electrodes in the reactor, wherein the applied potential alone or in combination with a magnetic field creates an electric field in the confinement area that drives and/or maintains the Rotational motion of charged and neutral particles. A reactant is disposed in or adjacent to the confined region. During operation, repeated collisions between neutral particles and the reactant produce an interaction with the reactant, which releases energy and generates a different from The product of the nuclear masses of neutral particles and the nuclei of reactants, where the reaction products include helium-3 and helium-4. Helium can be produced as positive ions (alpha particles) with rotation driven by electric and/or magnetic fields in a confined region. Additionally, the product helium in the confinement region can be pushed by charged and neutral particles to produce similar spins. The rotational motion generates centrifugal force, which distributes the gas radially according to its corresponding mass, partially separating the helium-3 from the helium-4.

In some embodiments, a plurality of electrodes are azimuthally distributed around the confinement region, and wherein the control system induces rotational motion of charged particles and neutral particles in the confinement region by applying a time-varying voltage to the plurality of electrodes.

Rotation of the charged and neutral particles in the confinement region is caused by the interaction between the electric field and the magnetic field applied in the confinement region. As explained, this can produce Lawrence forces on charged particles in the confinement region.

In some embodiments, an electron emitter is disposed in or adjacent to a confined region in which the electron emitter generates electrons during operation.

In some embodiments, a phase separation device is connected to the reactor to allow fluid communication therebetween, wherein the phase separation device receives a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 and cools the mixture below the transition temperature to render the helium-4 superfluid. nature. Means are provided for filtering helium-4 in superfluid form from helium-3 remaining in the phase separation device. A phase separation device to which a distillation device is connected, wherein the distillation device receives helium-3 and helium-4 in vapor form for fractionation therebetween. The distillation unit may include a packed column.

In some embodiments, a cryogenic storage device is provided for collecting and storing helium-3 produced in vapor form from the reactor. Additionally, in various embodiments, the cryogenic storage device includes a cryogenic storage dewar having one or more pressure relief valves that remove helium-3 and helium-4 vapor from the cryogenic storage when the pressure therein becomes excessive. discharged from the Dewar flask.

In various embodiments, the reactor includes a method of selectively evacuating helium-3 at relative radial locations within the reactor.

In some embodiments, the charged particles comprise hydrogen.

In various embodiments, the confinement wall is made essentially of palladium or other material capable of absorbing large amounts of deuterium or other reactants. In some embodiments, deuterium is a reactant embedded in the palladium of the confinement wall. Collisions of charged particles with deuterium produce helium-3. Deuterium is supplied from a source external to the reactor.

wherein the electric field in the confinement region reduces at least part of the repulsive force or Coulomb barrier between the charged particles, thereby allowing a fusion reaction to occur between at least some of the charged particles and the reactants in the confinement region and the production of helium-3

Although helium-3 can react with itself to produce helium-4, relatively low concentrations of helium-3, especially due to the removal of helium-3 from the reactor, are detrimental to the reaction.

In some embodiments, the thermal and/or particle kinetic energy generated by helium-3 is used to generate electrical and/or mechanical energy. Additionally, in various embodiments, at least a portion of the electrical energy generated by generating the heat of the helium-3 is fed back to provide power to the reactor

In various embodiments, the magnetic field substantially axially surrounds inner electrodes of the plurality of electrodes. In other embodiments, the magnetic field is substantially radial.

In some embodiments, the magnetic field is provided by a toroidal or disc-shaped permanent magnet consisting of any of: a neodymium-iron-boron permanent magnet, a samarium cobalt permanent magnet, a solenoid or toroidal electromagnet, or a superconducting electromagnet or a combination thereof.

In various embodiments, the magnetic field is in a plurality of electrode axial directions and the electric field is in a plurality of electrode radial directions.

In some embodiments, wherein the magnetic and electric fields are in a common azimuthal direction The previous one acts on the charged particles, causing them to rotate in a common azimuthal direction.

In various embodiments, the charged particles include negatively charged particles and positively charged particles. In some embodiments, negatively charged particles include negatively charged clumps of electrons, negative ions, and neutral atoms or compounds. Additionally, in some embodiments, the positively charged particles include protons and hydrogen.

In various embodiments, the plurality of electrodes includes an anode and a cathode. In some embodiments, wherein the cathode radially surrounds the anode, hydrogen-1 gas between the anode and the cathode in the confinement region is emitted from the cathode surface by applying a negative voltage to the cathode. And be ionized.

In various embodiments, the charged particles include protons, and wherein the protons rotate near the cathode surface in the ionized hydrogen gas, collide with neutral particles in the confinement region, and cause the neutral particles to interact with the neutral particles through ion-neutral coupling. The protons rotate together. Furthermore, in some embodiments, ion-neutral coupling, electric and magnetic fields together result in the formation of dense neutrals and protons that rotate with the electron space charge emitted by the cathode.

In various embodiments, the electric field between the charged particles and the reactant at or near internal electrodes of the plurality of electrodes increases Gamow tunneling between the hydrogen-1 and deuterium, whereby hydrogen and The rate of nuclear fusion reactions between deuterium increases, producing high-energy fusion products including helium-3.

In various embodiments, a device for converting neutral products and products into thermal energy is placed at either or both ends of the reactor.

In some embodiments, at least one mass spectrometer is placed at one or more ends of the reactor, where the mass spectrometer separates and extracts helium-3 from the product.

In some embodiments, the fusion reaction produces helium-3 in a method that includes An electric field is applied between at least two electrodes of the plurality of electrodes adjacent or close to the confinement region, such that the applied electric field at least partially traverses the confinement region and causes rotation of the charged hydrogen atoms 1 and neutral particles. In which repeated collisions of charged particles and deuterium placed in or near the confinement region create an interaction that releases energy and produces products with a different nuclear mass than the neutral particle nuclei and reactants, including helium-3 and helium-4. Separates helium-3 from a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 based on its relative radial position within the confinement region.

In some embodiments, an electric field is applied between at least two electrodes: time-varying voltages are applied to a plurality of electrodes to induce rotational motion of the charged particles and the neutral particles in the confinement region, wherein a plurality of electrodes are The electrodes are distributed along the azimuthal angle around the constrained area.

In some designs, a magnetic field is applied within a confinement region such that the interaction between the applied electric field and the applied magnetic field causes rotation of charged and neutral particles in the confinement region, with multiple electrodes azimuthally distributed around the confinement region.

Features of the present disclosure will be described in more detail with reference to the relevant drawings.

110:External electrode

112: Internal electrode

120:Internal electrode

122:External electrode

140:Annular Space

142: Gap

144: Electric field

146:Magnetic field

204:Charged particles

206:Neutral particles

210:Confining wall

232: Rich electronics area

412:Confining wall

432: Electron-rich region

482: Stage

483: Stage

484: Stage

485: Stage

502: Larmor radius

503:Path

510:External electrode

520: Internal electrode

520a: conductive core

520b:Target material

532: Rich electronics area

540: Ring area

542:Gap

544: Electric field

546:Magnetic field

616:Outer ring magnet

626:Inner ring magnet

640: Annular space

658:Arctic

659:Antarctica

660a:Electrode

660b:Electrode

704:ion

714:Electrode

724: Internal electrode

740: Annular space

810:External electrode

820: Internal electrode

842:Gap

910:External electrode

912:Surface

920: Internal electrode

922:Surface

1010:External electrode

1020: Internal electrode

1040:Annular space

1054:Superconducting coil winding

1056: Shell

1110:External electrode

1112:Confining wall

1120: Internal electrode

1140: Annular space

1150:Magnet

1201:Enlarge view

1210:External electrode

1212:Inner surface

1220: Internal electrode

1240: Annular space

1250:Permanent magnet

1300:Reactor

1310:External electrode

1312:Confining wall

1320: Internal electrode

1340:Annular space

1350:Magnet

1400:Reactor structure

1410:External electrode

1412:Confining wall

1420: Internal electrode

1440: Annular space

1450:Permanent magnet

1545:Magnetic field

1546:Magnetic field

1550:Magnetic field

1610:External electrode

1612:Confining wall

1620: Internal electrode

1640: Annular space

1650:Magnet

1710:External electrode

1712:Confining wall

1720: Internal electrode

1740: Ring area

1750:Magnet

1752:Magnet

1810:External electrode

1812:Confining wall

1820: Internal electrode

1840: Annular Space

1854: Coil winding

1910: Internal electrode

1920: Internal electrode

1921:Sleeve

1923: Ceramic block

1928:Internal Passage

2010: Confined Walls

2036: Electron Emitter

2110:External electrode

2112:Confining wall

2120:Internal electrode

2130:Electron emitter materials

2134:Filament

2135:Power supply

2136:Electron emission device

2137:Insulation layer

2138:Insulation layer

2140: Ring area

2200:Reactor

2220: Internal electrode

2230:Electron emitter

2231:Laser

2239:Insulated optical fiber

2240: Ring area

2310:External electrode

2320: Internal electrode

2390:Detection coil

2391:Magnetic field

2392: Time-varying magnetic field

2460: Sensor

2461:Signal

2462:Control system

2463:Signal

2464:Reactor

2501: Stage

2502: Stage

2503: Stage

2604:Charged particles

2606:Neutral particles

2610:Confining wall

2632: Electron-rich region

2910:External electrode

2912:Region

2940:Annular space

Figures 1a-c are some views of the reactor of the first embodiment.

Figure 2a-b shows the motion of charged and neutral particles rotating within a confinement wall.

Figure 3a– d are schematic diagrams of the interaction of neutral particles and charged particles with the confinement wall.

Figure 4a-e are illustrations of the stages of the non-neutron hydrogen-boron fusion reaction.

Figure 5a-d Reverse polarity reactor schematic.

Figure 6a-f are schematic diagrams of the mixing reactor.

Figure 7a-b is a schematic diagram of the wave-particle reactor.

Figures 8a-b are schematic diagrams of various electrode configurations of the reactor of the first embodiment.

Figures 9a-c are schematic cross-sectional views of the reactor of the first embodiment.

Figures 10a-d depict a first embodiment of a reactor with an axial magnetic field applied via a superconducting magnet.

Figures 11a-b are a first embodiment of a reactor in which permanent magnets apply an axial magnetic field in the reactor.

Figures 12a-b depict a reactor of a first embodiment in which permanent magnets are used to apply a magnetic field in the confinement region.

Figures 13a-c are device diagrams of the reactor of the first embodiment.

Figures 14a-c are device diagrams of the reactor of the first embodiment.

Figure 15a-c How ring magnets are positioned along a common axis to produce a magnetic field substantially in the direction of this axis.

Figures 16a-c are reactor schematics of a first embodiment in which a magnetic field applied in a confinement region using a ring magnet is used.

Figures 17a-c are reactor schematics of a first embodiment in which a magnetic field is applied in the confinement region using radially offset magnets.

Figures 18a-d are reactor schematics of a first embodiment in which electromagnets are used to apply a magnetic field in the confinement region.

Figures 19a-b are schematic diagrams of various embodiments of reverse polarity reactors.

Figures 20a-b are schematic illustrations of various electron emitters that can be placed on the confinement wall.

Figure 21a-b is a schematic diagram of an electron emission module that can be placed on the confinement wall of the reactor.

Figure 22 is a reactor equipped with a laser used to increase or control electron emission from an electron emitter.

Figure 23a-c depicts a configuration where NMR sensing is used to determine the composition of gaseous reactants within the reactor.

Figure 24 depicts how the control system is set up to operate the reactor using closed loop feedback.

Figure 25 is a schematic diagram of a multi-stage process flow that can be used to operate a reactor.

Figures 26a-b illustrate the motion of a charged particle rotating within a confinement wall in one embodiment.

Figure 27a-b depicts the interaction of a confining wall with embedded reactants with charged particles.

Figures 28a-b depict the evolution of the hydrogen 1--deuterium fusion reaction.

Figure 29 depicts a reverse polarity reactor according to one embodiment.

Preface

Various embodiments disclosed herein relate to reactors and methods of operating these in a manner that produces more energy than the energy input to the reactor under conditions that induce reactions between two or more atomic nuclei. The present disclosure relates to reactions, such as nuclear fusion reactions or simple fusion reactions, although aspects of the reaction may differ quantitatively or qualitatively from reactions traditionally referred to as nuclear fusion. Therefore, when the term "fusion" is used in the remainder of this disclosure, the term does not necessarily mean that it possesses all the characteristics of nuclear fusion in the traditional sense. In some embodiments disclosed herein, the reactor can produce a sustained fusion reaction, making it suitable as a viable energy source. As used herein, a sustained fusion reaction refers to a fusion reaction in which the reactor can be larger than a single The state of the bit runs continuously for a period of approximately one second.

In various embodiments, the reactor in which the fusion reaction occurs is designed or constructed to confine or confine rotating species, including one or more nuclei participating in the fusion reaction. Various structures are provided to constrain rotating matter. Usually, although not necessarily required, these structures form a solid physical shell. As explained herein, the closed structure can have many shapes, such as a generally cylindrical shape. Suitable structures that can be used for the physical enclosure are shown in Figures 1 , 7 and 6 .

Ignoring any other function, the walls of a reactor generally serve to confine rotating material to areas adjacent to and within the walls. The wall is limited in that it confines the rotating material within the reactor. As used herein, this wall of the reactor is referred to as a wall, confinement wall or shroud. In various embodiments, the wall also has other functions: in particular as an electrode, as a magnet, as a source of fusion reactants (eg, boron compounds), and/or as an electron emitter. The wall differs from any conventional fusion reactor design because the wall instead physically confines the reactant species via magnetic fields and pressure waves (as is done in conventional fusion methods). Other functions of the reactor walls, such as electrodes for applying voltage differences, magnets as sources of reactant materials, and electron emitters, provide additional differentiation from conventional fusion reactor designs.

In certain embodiments, the reactor includes said wall and an interior space formed by the wall (which may be annular in shape) in which the reactant species (including a majority or a large percentage of the neutral particles) rotate and repeatedly impact The surface of the reactor wall that sometimes undergoes fusion reactions with substances present in the wall. When the energy input to the reactor is taken into account, the resulting reaction can reach equilibrium and lead to Q>1. To ensure that fusion reaction times are sustainable in a specific energy generation application, the ratio of energy output to energy input should be significantly greater than 1. This hypothesis allows for the use of energy generated by fusion reactions to maintain conditions that allow polymerization to occur (e.g., in the confinement region Inherent inefficiency for a specific plasma density). . In certain embodiments, the ratio is at least about 1.2. In certain embodiments, the ratio is at least about 1.5. In certain embodiments, the ratio is at least about 2. In certain embodiments, the reactor operates continuously under sustainable conditions for at least about fifteen minutes, or at least about one hour. In one example, hydrogen atoms spin in a reactor and strike boron or lithium atoms in the reactor walls to fuse. In some embodiments, the reactor includes one or more electron emitters to generate an electron flux that generates a strong field during operation to reduce Coulomb repulsion between interacting nuclei.

The reactants may be any substance capable of supporting a fusion reaction in the interior space of the confining walls of the reactor. In various embodiments, at least one of the reactants is a species rotating within the interior region of the reactor. In some designs, both reactants are rotating species. In some designs, one of the reactants rotates and the other species remains stationary, such as when the reactants are embedded in reactor walls that restrict the rotating species. In some designs, there are some combinations of rotating and stationary reactants such that a fusion reaction occurs between rotating matter or between rotating and stationary matter. In designs where the reactant species are primarily rotating species, the physical structure of the reactor is such that the rotating species does not have to hit the interior surface of the reactor wall for the fusion reaction to occur. In some designs, the rotating materials are restrained by forces such as forces that prevent them from striking the reactor walls. In such a design, two rotating objects fuse inside a confinement wall (eg, a confinement region) or along the surface of the wall. In some designs, the rotating species can react with stationary species (eg, target species) located within the annular region.

In certain embodiments, the reactants are non-neutronically reactive species. In other embodiments, the reactants are neutronically reactive species. One or both reactants can also be neutral or uncharged species. The substances present in the reactor are sometimes referred to as "particles". However, these substances are only molecules or atomic-sized particles.

The disclosed small size, eg benchtop, non-neutron reactor requires no or relatively little biomasking of neutron radiation. Fusion reactions in the reactors described herein may be characterized as "mild fusion", for example, fusion reactions occur in the temperature range of about 1000 K to 3000 K, and are comparable to "hot fusion reactors" (e.g., tokamak reactors) Easier to handle than . Because fusion is essentially non-neutronic and "mild" materials, the costs associated with "mild fusion" reactors are significantly reduced. For example, in some designs, a built reactor costs less than $50,000. The disclosed small reactors can also have a small weight and footprint by eliminating the need for radiation shields and industrial-grade hardware that would typically be used in thermal plasma reactors.

Rotational motion of matter in the reactor can be imparted by a variety of mechanisms. One mechanism achieves rotation by applying interacting electric and magnetic fields. The interaction manifests itself as Lawrence forces acting on the charged particles in the reactor. For example, in Figures 1a-c and 6 , this design can produce Lawrence forces acting on charged particles. Figures 1a-c show a Lawrence driven reactor, where the reactor has an internal electrode 120 and where the shield (confining wall) is the external electrode 110 . In the presence of an applied magnetic field 146 with a vertical component, the electric field 144 between the electrodes causes Lawrence forces on charged particles or charged species traveling between the electrodes. This force causes it to rotate in the azimuthal direction, as shown in Figure 1c . In another type of reactor design, rotational motion is imparted to a charged species by sequentially applying a potential or change in potential to a plurality of electrodes arranged azimuthally around the reactor wall. An example of a suitable reactor design is shown in Figure 7 .

In many embodiments, the reactor is operated in such a manner that the rotating charged species interacts with the neutral particles and imparts angular momentum to those neutral particles, thereby establishing rotational motion of the neutral particles as well as the charged species within the reactor. In many schemes, most of the rotating matter is neutral particles, and the charged matter is ionized particles, such as protons (p+). As described in this article, this method may be referred to as ionic neutral particle coupling. Figure 2a shows an ionic neutral particle coupling process in which a small number of charged particles 204 cause surrounding neutral particles 206 to move.

In various embodiments, the reactor is designed to emit electrons in a localized region within the reactor where a corresponding fusion event occurs. Referring again to Figure 2a , these electrons can form an electron-rich region 232 near the confinement wall 210 . The presence of excess electrons lowers the Coulomb barrier, thereby increasing the possibility of fusion. As discussed elsewhere in this article, emitting electrons in this manner creates free-electron-rich regions that reduce the inherent Coulomb repulsion between two positively charged nuclei where nuclear fusion can occur. reaction. In certain embodiments, electron emission occurs on or adjacent a wall that confines rotating material within the reactor. In one example, electron emission is provided by a passive structure, such as a boron-containing sheet or strip either embedded or attached to the reactor confinement wall. This structure emits electrons when the local temperature increases during reactor operation. In other embodiments, electron emission is achieved using active structures that are controlled independently of the heating generated during normal operation of the reactor. An example of an active structure for electron emission is shown in Figures 21a and 21b , which includes independently controlled resistive elements for heating individual electron emitters.

Another aspect of the present disclosure relates to a structure or system for capturing and converting energy produced by fusion reactions within a reactor. One class of energy capture systems provides direct access to electrical energy produced by the traveling alpha particles produced by fusion reactions. This energy conversion system can be accomplished by creating an applied electric field in the path of the emitted alpha particles, which causes the particles to decelerate and generate an electric current in an electrical circuit connected to the electrodes used to generate the electric field. Another type of energy capture system provides energy capture using a thermal engine, including, for example, turbines, heat exchangers, or other conventional structures for converting thermal energy generated by fusion reactions into mechanical energy. These and other energy capture mechanisms will be discussed later in this disclosure.

Interaction of neutral particles with walls

Neutral particles interacting with the reactor walls provide a different type of interaction than those used in traditional fusion research. Repeated interactions occur over a relatively large volume, which may be an annular space adjacent to an inner wall or inner surface of a confining wall. Because rotating neutral particles often interact elastically with the wall at small angles, such as at oblique or tangential angles, they may immediately leave the wall and re-enter the interior space with an energy comparable to that with which they entered. Figure 2b shows the trajectory path that the neutral particle 206 may have as it moves along the surface of the confinement wall 210 . When a spinning neutral particle enters or hits a wall, it typically encounters potential fusion species with which it may or may not react. When it doesn't react, it reenters the inner space, where it continues to spin. In this way, it repeatedly interacts with the wall's surface, and in each such elastic collision, almost no energy is lost.

Some particle and wall interactions that do not lead to fusion are schematically shown in Figure 3a-d . Although these figures depict interactions involving boron 11 and/or titanium, these interactions may also occur when other reactant materials are used in the confinement wall. As shown in Figure 3a , in a small proportion of neutral particle-wall interactions, the neutral particle undergoes an elastic collision with the nucleus in the wall (boron 11 in this design), and the neutral particle rebounds retaining most of its energy entering the interaction. Elastic collisions generally have the highest incidence of all neutral particle and wall interactions. In a very small proportion of collisions shown in Figure 3b , the nuclei of the neutral particles are close enough to the nuclei of the atoms in the wall that the collision becomes inelastic, due to the tunneling that occurs when two nuclei are very close. Figure 3c depicts another interaction that may occur; in this design, neutral particles penetrate into the reactor wall. This type of collision may occur more frequently when the confinement surface contains materials such as titanium or palladium that can absorb hydrogen molecules.

Figure 3d depicts the inelastic collision of a charged particle (such as a proton) with a confining wall. Collide. This situation contrasts with the frequent elastic collisions of neutral particles such as atomic hydrogen with confinement walls (as described above in Figure 3a). As charged particles approach and leave the confinement wall, the particles may experience braking radiation energy losses. This energy loss is caused by electrostatic interactions between charged particles and electrons in electron-rich regions. Due to electrostatic forces, some kinetic energy is lost, and high-energy electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays are emitted. In traditional fusion reactors that focus on trying to fuse ionized particles, braking radiation can cause huge energy losses. These losses can be largely avoided by using weakly ionized plasmas with a high proportion of neutral particles to ions.

Nuclear fusion may occur during some partial tunneling between the moving neutral nuclei and the nuclei in the wall. Figure 4a depicts the stages of the non-neutron fusion reaction that occurs when hydrogen atoms or protons fuse with boron-11 atoms. First, in 482 , protons moving at high speed collide with boron 11 atoms, and the two nuclei fuse to form excited carbon nuclei, as shown in 483 . However, the excited carbon nuclei are short-lived and decompose into beryllium nuclei and emitted alpha particles with a kinetic energy of 3.76 MeV, as shown in 484 . Finally, in 485 , the newly formed beryllium nucleus almost immediately breaks down into two alpha particles, each with a kinetic energy of 2.46 MeV. Figures 4b-e depict the surface of confinement wall 412 and various stages of the same proton-boron 11 fusion reaction shown in Figure 4a . Figure 4a depicts protons traveling at high speed towards boron 11 atoms confining the wall surface. As a neutral hydrogen atom approaches its confining wall, it passes through an electron-rich region 432 , which partially masks the repulsive force between the two positively charged nuclei. Figure 4c depicts the stages in which neutral hydrogen fuses with boron atoms to form carbon atoms. In Figure 4d , the carbon nucleus has decomposed into a beryllium nucleus and an alpha particle. Finally, in Figure 4e , the beryllium nucleus decomposes, emitting two additional alpha particles. Because the potential reactants are neutral particles rather than ions, most of their interactions with atoms in the confining wall surface are elastic collisions. In contrast, positively charged particles entering the wall are deflected by electrostatic repulsion, keeping them at a distance from other nuclei in the wall. These electrostatic interactions cause charged particles to lose energy; for example, collisions are inelastic. Neutral particles, which have a positively charged core that is somewhat masked by orbiting electrons, do not experience the same repulsion. Therefore, a neutral particle is more likely to directly affect another atom in the wall. Therefore, using neutral particles instead of ions increases the likelihood of a fusion reaction, and when a fusion reaction does not occur, neutral particles are more likely to bounce back elastically with higher energy than ions.

Overall, the rotating neutral particles undergo many repeated interactions with the wall, and those neutral particles that played no role in producing the fusion reaction rebound elastically with a relatively small loss of energy. As mentioned above, neutral particles tend to reform from the wall with enough energy that they can enter into their next interaction with the wall, potentially creating a fusion reaction. Every interaction with the wall has the potential to result in a fusion reaction between neutral nuclei and nuclei in the wall.

When the reactants are different species (for example, ¹¹ B and p+), the fusion rate per unit volume is given by: dN/dT=n ₁ n ₂ σ ν

where n ₁ and n ₂ are the densities of the corresponding reactants, σ is the fusion cross-section at a specific energy, and ν is the relative velocity between the two interacting species. For systems in which at least one substance rotates in a confinement area and repeatedly strikes a confinement wall containing a second substance, the density value of the substance can be on the order of 10 ²⁰ cm ^-3 for the rotating substance, and for the immobilized substance (such as boron ), the density value of the substance can be on the order of 10 ²³ cm ^-3 , the value of the fusion cross-section can be on the order of 10 ^{-32 cm2} , and the relative velocity of the interacting substances can be on the order of 10 ³ cm/s. By comparison, for a tokamak reactor, the density value of each species is on the order of 10 ¹⁴ cm ^-3 , the fusion cross-section is on the order of 10 ^{-28 cm2} , and the velocity of the interacting species is on the order of 10 ⁶ cm/s . (Based on information provided by “Inertial Confinement Fusion.pdf” by M. Ragheb dated on January 14, 2015.) Clearly, systems employing neutral particles, as described in this article, have strong advantages due to their higher density. The rate of fusion energy per unit volume of such a system exceeds that of tokamak and inertial confinement systems by at least about eight orders of magnitude. Thus, the systems disclosed herein can achieve defined energy production rates in approximately one billionth of the volume of a tokamak or inertial confinement system.

Lowering of Coulomb Barrier

As mentioned above, credible previous approaches to nuclear fusion have been to electrify the fusion reactants and supporting environment to reach extremely high temperatures of at least 150,000,000K (13000eV). This is done to give the fusion reactants enough kinetic energy to overcome their natural electrostatic repulsion. In this environment, each reactant is a nucleus with an inherent positive charge that must first be overcome to allow some possibility of a fusion reaction.

Certain embodiments of the present disclosure use much lower temperatures; for example, approximately 2000 K (0.17 eV) in melt fusion reactions. These embodiments use neutral particles as one or more reactants and/or modify the reaction environment to reduce the strong Coulomb repulsion between reactant nuclei. Reducing the Coulomb force can be achieved in various ways, including, for example, (i) providing an electron-rich field in the reaction region and/or (ii) aligning the quantum mechanical spins of the reactant nuclei. Depending on the structure of the reactor, devices and methods for reducing Coulombic rejection can take many forms. The following description assumes that the reactor includes an annular space with an outer confining wall or shroud. Other reactor configurations can also create an environment that reduces Coulomb repulsion and thereby support the occurrence of fusion, but they can do so in a manner different from that described below.

The following is presented as one possible explanation for the environment surrounding the inner surface of the confinement electrode, which explanation should not be considered to be a limitation of the disclosed constraints. In this explanation, reactants, especially neutral particles, rotate at high speeds and impact the inner surface of the electrode. At the same time, electrons are bounded from Emitted from a wall or nearby. Rapidly rotating neutral particles have high angular velocities and therefore exert extreme pressure on the inner surface of the confinement wall through associated centrifugal forces. Electrons emitted from the inner surface of the wall act in the opposite direction of this force.

The emitted electrons will diffuse from the location from which they were emitted, i.e. away from the wall and towards the interior space. However, the neutral particle centrifugal force confines the electrons to the inner surface region close to the external electrode. The resulting thin region of balancing forces adjacent to the inner surface of the electrode has a strong field that reduces the Coulomb repulsion between reactant nuclei.

The force balance can be expressed mathematically as the balance of (i) the gradient of the product of temperature and density of electrons and neutral particles (in the direction away from the wall from which the electron is emitted), and (ii) the centrifugal force exerted toward the inner surface. The centrifugal force is proportional to the product of the square of the neutral particle density, radial position and angular velocity.

In this equation, r is the radial direction away from the inner surface of the confinement electrode, K is Boltzmann's constant, T _e and T ₀ are the electron and neutral particle temperatures in Kelvin, n _e and n ₀ are the electron and the density of neutral particles, n ₀ is the density of neutral particles, m ₀ is the mass of a rotating neutral particle (such as a hydrogen atom), and ω ² is the square of the angular velocity of the rotating neutral substance.

In a thin region next to the surface from which electrons are emitted (eg, the inner surface of the confinement wall), the free electrons generate a strong electric field (see the schematic diagram of the electron-rich region 232 adjacent to the confinement wall 210 in Figures 2a-b ). High concentrations of neutral particles restrict the mean free path of electrons, thereby preventing them from following ballistic trajectories and thus gaining sufficient kinetic energy to better ionize neutral particles. Furthermore, because neutral particles have a higher density than ions, relatively few positive ions are available for recombination. For example, the ratio of ions to neutral particles ranges from less than about 1:10, less than about 1:100, less than about 1:1000, or less than about 1:100. Therefore, neutral particles are usually distributed between electrons and positive ions. This condition creates a high concentration of excess electrons near the inner surface of the confinement wall, thus creating a strong electric field.

The combination of a large excess of electrons (over ions) and a high concentration of neutral particles in a very thin region (e.g., near the inner surface of the electrode) creates a very strong electric field. In this region, strong fields reduce the Coulomb repulsion of interacting positively charged nuclei. Therefore, the probability of two positively charged nuclei coming into proximity increases significantly.

Additionally, as mentioned above, the impact of rotating particles on the inner surface of the confinement wall allows repeated opportunities for the interacting fusion reactants to achieve a fusion reaction. Neutral particles repeatedly pass through the electron-rich layer and strike the inner surface of the confinement wall or shield and re-enter the interior space of the reactor. This impact on the wall is the radial component of the centrifugal force produced by rotating particles in a confined environment (eg, the inner surface of the confining wall). Repeated collisions, contacts, or impacts increase the likelihood of a fusion reaction in a given area over a given period of time. This repetition replaces the need for long confinement times and solves the difficulties of meeting the Lawson criterion to achieve fusion reactions in traditional methods. Simply put, the overall probability of fusion reactions increases significantly.

As an example, electron-rich regions can be characterized by any combination of the following parameter values: Free electron density: approximately 10 ²³ /cm ³

Neutral particle density: about 10 ²⁰ /cm ³

Positive ion density: about 10 ¹⁵ -10 ¹⁶ /cm ³ (about 10 ^-5 to 0.01% of neutral particles)

Difference in electron and positive ion densities: approximately 10 ⁶ to 10 ⁸ /cm ³

Thickness (radial direction) of the free electron-rich region (the region where most electron density gradients exist): approximately 1 μm

Electric field strength in the electron-rich region: about 10 ⁶ to 10 ⁸ V/m

Electronic temperature: about 1800-2000K. (about 0.15 to 0.17eV)

Centripetal acceleration: about 10 ⁹ g's (where g is the acceleration due to gravity = 9.8ms ^-2 )

The free electrons in such a system can be thought of as co-catalyzing the fusion reaction of two atomic nuclei. By analogy, one or more muons combined with a proton and a deuteron are sometimes described as catalyzing the fusion of hydrogen and deuterium atoms. Just as muons catalyze reactions by bringing two fusion nuclei closer to each other, free electrons near the fusion nuclei catalyze the fusion reactions described here. Effectively, the electrons reduce the energy barrier that prevents the two reactants from getting close enough to react. This is very similar to the role of any catalyst in a chemical or physical environment. Muons and electrons both increase the rate of a reaction but do not actually participate in the reaction; they merely reduce the energy barrier between the reactants and bring them close enough for the reaction to occur.

However, muons and electron catalysis have few other similarities. Muon-catalyzed fusion is not commercially viable for a variety of reasons. It's worth noting that muons have a greater mass than electrons, so they are more expensive to create. Furthermore, only relatively small amounts are produced at any one time, meaning that fusion's breakeven requirement is unattainable. In the proton-boron 11 reaction, achieving breakeven fusion requires approximately 10 ¹⁷ successful fusion interactions per cubic centimeter per second. Only a few nuclei in large pools can benefit from muon-catalyzed nuclear fusion, far from the levels required for fusion.

In contrast, electrons can be produced easily and in high density. For example, according to the technology disclosed herein, electrons can be generated at a density of approximately ¹⁰²⁰ per cubic centimeter or greater. With such high densities, the electrons act collectively to generate high electric fields, which reduce the Coulomb barrier of interactions between nuclei that are close to each other over a larger volume. This considerable volume allows for the required interaction gains and losses, that is, at least about 10 ¹⁷ successful fusion interactions to occur per cubic centimeter per second.

Terminology

A "reactor" is a device in which one or more reactants react to produce one or more products, usually with the release of energy. One or more reactants are provided in the reactor by continuous delivery, intermittent delivery and/or single delivery. They can be supplied in gas, liquid or solid form. In some designs, the reactants are provided as components of the reaction; for example, they may be included in the structure of the reactor, such as walls. Boron 11, lithium 6, carbon 12, etc. can be provided in the walls of the reactor. In some designs, the reactants are provided from an external source (eg, from a gas supply tank). In certain embodiments, the reactor is configured to promote a Q>1 nuclear fusion reaction. The reactor may have elements for removing products and/or energy produced during the reaction. Product removal elements may be ports, channels, getters, etc. The energy removal components may be heat exchangers and the like for removing thermal energy, as well as inductors and similar structures for directly removing electrical energy. Reactor elements can allow product and energy to be removed continuously or intermittently. In certain embodiments, the reactor has one or more confining walls that contain reactants, and in some designs provide a source of reactants, an electric field, etc. As shown in this disclosure, reactors suitable for providing sustained fusion reactions can be of many different designs.

A "rotor" is a reactor or reactor element in which one or more reactants or products (particles) rotate. This "space" may (or is) defined by confinement walls as described herein. In some designs, rotation is caused by magnetic forces, electricity, and/or a combination of both, as in the case of the Lawrence force. In some embodiments, rotation is driven by applying electrical and/or magnetic forces to charged particles in a manner that causes them to rotate in the confinement region; the rotating charged particles collide with neutral particles such that the neutral particles also rotate in the confinement region rotation, a phenomenon sometimes called ion-molecule coupling. Since neutral particles are not affected by electricity and/or magnetism, they do not interact with charged particles Sub-interactive designs do not rotate within the constraint area. The confinement walls or other external structures of the rotor may have many closed shapes as described herein. In some embodiments, the outer structure is generally circular or cylindrical in shape. In this design, the shape does not need to be geometrically precise, but can exhibit certain variations, such as eccentricity around the axis of rotation and discontinuous curvatures (such as vertices).

In some designs, the confinement area of the rotor has internal rods or other structures arranged concentrically relative to the confinement wall. In this design, the rotor has an "annular space" in which the particles rotate. As used herein, "annular space" refers to a constrained area where the area is substantially annular. It should be understood that some rotors do not have internal rods or other structures to define an annular space. In this design, the constrained area of the rotor is simply a hollow structure. Although most annular spaces have a roughly cylindrical shape, such shapes can show certain changes, such as eccentricity around the axis of rotation and discontinuous curvatures (such as vertices).

The "Lawrence force" is exerted on an electric charge by a combination of electric and magnetic forces due to the resulting electromagnetic field. The magnitude and direction of a force are given by the cross product of the electric and magnetic fields; therefore the force is sometimes called J x B . When the electric and magnetic fields have orthogonal directions, the force exerted on a charged particle has a direction of rotation that can be expressed by the right-hand rule.

In a fusion reaction, the reactants and products involved—which may include protons, alpha particles, and boron ( ¹¹ B)—are not necessarily present in 100 percent purity. Where any such reactants, products, or other components of a reaction are given herein, such components are understood to be present to the greatest extent possible. In other words, the component need not be present at a 100% level, but may be present at a lower level, such as about 95% or about 99% by mass.

Non-neutron fusion reactions are generally defined as fusion reactions in which neutrons carry no more than 1% of the total energy released. As used herein, a non-neutronic reaction or a substantially non-neutronic reaction It should be a response that meets this criterion.

Examples of nonneutronic reactions include: p +B ¹¹ →3He ⁴ +8.68MeV

D+He ³ →He ⁴ +p+18.35MeV

p+Li ⁶ →He ⁴ +He ³ +4.02MeV

p+Li ⁷ →2He ⁴ +17.35MeV

p+p→D+e ⁺ +v+1.44MeV

D+p→He ³ +γ+5.49MeV

He ³ +He ³ →He ⁴ +2p+12.86MeV

p+C ¹² →N ¹³ +γ+1.94MeV

N ¹³ →C ¹³ +e ⁺ +v+γ+2.22MeV

p+C ¹³ →N ¹⁴ +γ+7.55MeV

p+N ¹⁴ →O ¹⁵ +γ+7.29MeV

O ¹⁵ →N ¹⁵ +e ⁺ +v+γ+2.76MeV

p+N ¹⁵ →C ¹² +He ⁴ +4.97MeV

C ¹² +C ¹² →Na ²³ +p+2.24MeV

C ¹² +C ¹² →Na ²⁰ +He ⁴ +4.62MeV

C ¹² +C ¹² →Mg ²⁴ +γ+13.93MeV

Examples of neutron reactions include:

D+T→He ⁴ +n+17.59MeV

D+D→He ³ +n+3.27MeV

T+T→He ⁴ +2n+11.33MeV

Coulomb repulsion is the electrostatic force between two or more particles of the same charge force. For two interacting particles, it is proportional to the reciprocal of the square of the distance between them (Coulomb's law). Therefore, when charged particles approach each other, the repulsive force increases significantly. In an electric field generated by multiple charged particles, the repulsive force of one charged particle is the superposition of all nearby charged particles.

Lowering the Coulomb barrier means that when a particle approaches a sufficient number of electrons or other charged particles, the calculated or experienced Coulomb repulsion between two independent particles is "lowered" or reduced by a certain calculable amount. degree to reduce the repulsive forces that independent particles would experience. For example, the presence of an excess of electrons at a density of XX reduces the Coulomb repulsion between two positively charged YY particles in the domain by ZZ%.

Lawrence rotor embodiment

First embodiment

Figures 1a-c show a first embodiment of a reactor in which charged particles, charged species or ions are rotated due to the Lawrence force. Figure 1a is a cross-sectional view of the reactor, while Figure 1b provides an isometric cross-sectional view of the same reactor along interface AA of Figure 1a , using a cylindrical coordinate system for r, Θ and z direction coordinates unless otherwise stated, As shown in Figure 1b . In the depicted embodiment, the Lawrence driven rotor has an outer wall 110 as an outer electrode and a concentric inner electrode 120 sometimes referred to as a discharge rod, which is separated from the outer electrode by an annular space 140 . By applying an electric potential between the inner electrode 120 and the shield 110 , an electric field is formed across the annular region. When a sufficient potential is applied between the electrodes, the gas in the annular space becomes partially ionized, creating a radial plasma current across the annular region. In various embodiments, when the shield is grounded, the internal electrodes are maintained at a high positive potential such that the electric field and current flow are substantially in the positive r-direction.

Figure 1c depicts how the Lawrence force drives charged particles in the azimuthal direction within the confinement wall 110 . In Figure 1c, the discharge rod has been removed and the axis translated in the z direction to improve clarity. Although not shown, a magnet such as a permanent magnet or a superconducting magnet is used to generate a magnetic field substantially parallel to the z-axis (substantially axial direction) within the annular region. The magnetic field is essentially perpendicular to the direction of the current, causing moving charged particles, charged species, and ions to experience Lawrence forces in the azimuthal (or Θ) direction. For example, the discharge rod has a positive potential relative to the external electrode (eg, the discharge rod has a positive potential applied and the external electrode is grounded), thus generating an electric field in the r direction ( 144 ). In this configuration, positively charged ions will move in the r-direction through annular space 140 toward the outer electrode. If the magnetic field is also pointed in the z direction ( 146 ), the ions will experience the Lorentz force in the -Θ direction, or clockwise from the angle shown in Figures 1b and 1c . In some designs, the electric and magnetic fields can be at angles different from the vertical but not parallel, such that the vertical component is present to a smaller or greater extent, with sufficient strength to produce a sufficiently strong azimuthally strong Lawrence force. . This azimuthal force acts on charged particles, charged substances and ions, which in turn combine with neutral particles, causing the neutral particles in the annular space between the central discharge rod and the external electrode to move at a high Rotation speed moves. The absence of any moving mechanical parts means there are virtually no limits on the speed of rotation, providing spin rates for neutral and charged particles in excess of, for example, 100,000RPS.

Reverse Polarity Example

Figures 5a-d depict another embodiment in which the reactor can utilize Lawrence forces to drive ion and neutral particle rotation through ion-neutral coupling. A reactor of reverse polarity differs from the reactor shown in Figures 1a-c in that the electric field and current (by convention in the direction of positive charge movement) are essentially in the negative r-direction. Figure 5a is a cross-sectional view of the reactor and Figure 5b provides an isometric cross-sectional view of the same reactor along section AA of Figure 5a. The reverse polarity rotor has an outer electrode 510 and a concentric inner electrode 520 separated from the outer electrode by an annular region 540 , referred to herein as a constraint region. By applying a potential to the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode, a radial electric field can be created in the annular space directed towards the inner electrode. When a sufficient potential is applied between the electrodes, a portion of the gas in the annulus is ionized and a radial plasma flow is created across the annulus.

Figure 5c depicts how the Lawrence force can be used to drive charged particles azimuthally within the reactor. In Figure 5c , the internal electrodes have been removed from view and the depicted axis has been translated in the z direction to improve clarity. Although not shown, magnets such as permanent magnets or superconducting magnets are used to generate an applied magnetic field that is substantially parallel to the z-axis (ie substantially in the axial direction) within the annular space. The magnetic field is essentially perpendicular to the direction of the current, causing charged particles, charged species, and ions to experience Lawrence forces in the azimuthal (or Θ) direction. For example, where the inner electrode has an applied negative potential and the outer electrode is grounded (or held at a positive potential), an electric field is generated in the negative r-direction ( 544 ). In this configuration, positively charged ions will move in the negative r-direction through annular region 540 toward the inner electrode. If the magnetic field is simultaneously pointed in the z direction ( 546 ), the ions will experience the Lawrence force in the +Θ direction or in the counterclockwise direction from the perspective shown in Figures 5b and 5c . In some designs, the electric and magnetic fields can be at angles different from, but not parallel to, the vertical, such that the vertical component is present to a smaller or greater extent, with sufficient strength to produce a sufficiently large azimuthal Lawrence force. The azimuthal force acts on charged particles, charged substances and ions, which in turn couple with neutral particles, causing the neutral particles in the annular space to also move at high speed. The absence of any moving mechanical parts means there is almost no limit to the speed at which rotation can occur, so neutral and charged particles can spin at rates in excess of, say, 100,000RPS.

Reverse field embodiment

Figures 6a-d depict multiple views of another reactor embodiment that utilizes Lawrence forces to drive ion and neutral particle rotation through ion-neutral coupling. The reactor of this embodiment operates using a reverse field configuration. The reactor with this configuration differs from the reactor shown in Figures 1a-c and 5a-d in that both the electric and magnetic fields directions within the confinement region are opposite. In this configuration, the magnetic field is not parallel to the z-axis but is directed radially in the positive or negative r direction. Similarly, the electric field is not directed radially but essentially parallel to the z-axis. Figure 6a is an isometric view of the reactor, Figure 6b is a view of the reactor in the z direction, Figure 6c is an isometric cross-section of the reactor (corresponding to line AA in Figure 6b ), Figure 6d is a side view of the reactor view. The depicted embodiment includes an inner ring magnet 626 and a concentric outer ring magnet 616 that also serves as a confinement wall. The poles of the ring magnets are oriented in the same direction so that the corresponding surfaces of the inner and outer magnets are identical. In this design, the outer surface is the North Pole 658 , and the inner surface is the South Pole 659 . In some embodiments, one or more additional layers of material may be present on the interior surface of magnet 658 such that the constraining surface material is different from the magnetic material. The area between the concentric magnets forms an annular space 640 , which is constrained in the z-direction by electrodes on one end of the constraint region 660a and the other end of the constraint region 660b . Typically, all electrodes on either side of the confinement region (corresponding to electrode 660a or electrode 660b ) are given a similar potential. Unlike the mixing reactor, electrode 660 a (or electrode 660 b) may be a single continuous electrode, for example formed in a ring or disk shape. If electrode 660 a is grounded and the electrode on the other side of annular space 660 b is given a positive potential, an electric field is applied within the constrained region in the positive z direction. If the magnetic field points in the r direction (as described), the orthogonal electric and magnetic fields cause the ions to rotate azimuthally in the θ direction (see e.g. Figure 6c ). Alternatively, if electrode 660 b is grounded, electrode 660 a is applied with a positive potential, and the electric field direction is the negative z direction, the ions will rotate in the -θ direction.

Wave-Particle Example

A second embodiment of a controlled fusion device is shown in Figures 7a and 7b , where the ions rotate due to oscillations of an electrostatic field. In this embodiment, the ions are accelerated in the azimuthal direction by an electric field generated by a plurality of discrete electrodes 714 located on or forming the outer ring, or combined with an inner electrode 724 located on or forming the inner ring to rotate in the azimuthal direction. A local electric field that varies in azimuthal angle is generated within the annular space 740 . In some designs, the wall electrodes collectively form the confinement wall, and in other designs, the wall electrodes may be disposed on or in a portion of the confinement wall or bracket. The electric field oscillates in a controlled sequence such that the electrostatic force applied to the ions proceeds sequentially in the general azimuthal direction (in the Θ or -Θ direction). In this way, the acceleration of charged matter is similar to a maglev train propelled by an oscillating magnetic field along a train track. An oscillating potential can be applied to the electrodes. Oscillations can vary in phase or other parameters between adjacent electrodes, causing or maintaining rotational motion of the ions.

The ions existing in the annular space are subject to electrostatic forces due to the electric field, and through the principle of ion-neutral coupling, a relatively small number or percentage of ions is sufficient to drive a large number or larger number or percentage of neutral particles. Ion-driven neutralon rotation can be generated by any suitable mechanism, such as inductive or capacitive coupling. In some embodiments, ions are generated when an RF charge sequence is applied to the wall and/or internal electrodes. In some embodiments, the walls and/or internal electrodes may first undergo a charge sequence to ionize some of the neutral gas in the annular space and then convert to a charge sequence that drives ion rotation. For example, grounding the wall electrode 714 while applying a high potential to the inner electrode 724 can create a charge distribution in the ionized gas. In some embodiments, gas that has been partially ionized may be introduced into annular region 740 .

Although Figures 7a and 7b depict two binary charge distributions that can be used to drive ion rotation in the annular region, many charge sequences are also possible. In some charge sequences, the electrodes may be held at ground potential for a sustained period of time, or there may be an asymmetric charge sequence (e.g., a positive potential is held for twice the duration of a negative potential).

In certain embodiments, the system does not require a magnetic field, such as an axial static magnetic field. Figure 7a depicts an example of this embodiment at a first time point, at which the electrode is provided with a first potential distribution such that ions (such as ion clouds or ion clusters) 704 are forced in the -Θ direction. Figure 7b depicts the situation at a later time point in the embodiment of Figure 7a , where the electrodes are provided with different potential distributions so that the ions 704 continue to experience azimuthal angular forces in the -Θ direction.

Hybrid Example

In certain embodiments, the reactor can generate Lawrence forces and oscillating electrostatic fields to drive ion and neutral particle rotation through ion-neutral coupling. At any stage of operation, the reactor may use one or both of these mechanisms. Figures 6a-f depict exemplary reactors suitable for such operation. Figure 6a is an isometric view of the reactor in the Z direction, Figure 6b is a view of the reactor in the Z direction, Figure 6c is an isometric cross-section of the reactor (corresponding to line AA in Figure 6b), Figure 6d provides the reaction A side view of the device, and Figures 6e and 6f are cross-sectional views at different points in time (corresponding to line BB in Figure 6d ). The depicted embodiment includes an inner ring magnet 626 that serves as a confinement wall and a concentric outer ring magnet 616 that also serves as a confinement wall. The poles of the ring magnets are oriented in the same direction so that the corresponding surfaces of the inner and outer ring magnets are identical. In this design, the outer surface is North Pole 658 and the inner surface is South Pole 659 . In some embodiments, one or more additional layers of material may be present on the interior surface of magnet 658 such that the constraining surface material is different from the magnetic material. The area between the concentric magnets forms an annular space 640 which is constrained in the z direction by one or more pairs of electrodes 660 a and 660 b. When the electrode pair 660 a and 660 b are given different potentials, for example, the electrode 660 b is grounded and the electrode 660 a is applied with a positive potential, an electric field substantially parallel to the z direction is generated in the annular space. When ions are generated in the annular region, orthogonal electric and magnetic fields cause them to rotate angularly in the -Θ direction (see, e.g., Figure 6c ). If a positive potential is applied to electrode 660 b while electrode 660 a is grounded, the ions will rotate in the Θ direction.

In some embodiments, as shown in Figures 6a-e, a plurality of electrodes 660a and 660b are radially distributed along the annular space. In this design, the reactor is driven in a similar manner to that of the reactor in Figures 7a and 7b. During operation, each electrode pair is connected to adjacent electrodes The pairs of similar electric potentials with different electric potentials are driven, so that a local electric field is generated in the Θ direction. As shown in Figures 6d and 6e, the voltage applied to the electrode pair can be modulated in a controlled sequence such that the electrostatic force applied to the ions exhibits a substantially continuous azimuthal (in the Θ or -Θ direction) varying component. In some configurations, the reactor may be configured to operate in such a manner that the ions and neutrals are driven initially by Lawrence forces and then the ions and neutrals are driven using the alternating electrostatic fields described above.

Reactor type (size)

In one aspect, reactors can be classified by the output power they provide. In this manner, for the purposes of this discussion, the reactors of the present disclosure are classified into small, medium, and large reactors. Small-scale reactors are typically capable of producing about 1-10kW of power. In some embodiments, these reactors are used in personal applications, such as powering cars or powering homes. The next classification is mid-scale reactors, which typically provide around 10kW-50MW of power. Medium-sized reactors can be used for larger applications such as server farms, large vehicles such as trains and submarines. Large-scale reactors are reactors with a power output of about 50MW-10GW and may be used in large-scale operations, such as powering parts of the grid and/or industrial power plants. While these three classifications provide practical categories to which this disclosure may relate, the reactors disclosed herein are not limited to any one of these categories.

The surface area of the shroud or confinement wall (the product of perimeter and axial direction) generally limits the maximum power that can be produced by the reactor. A shield with a large surface area has the fusion reaction occurring over a large area of the inner surface (eg, 122 in Figure 1a ). For small reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud typically ranges from about 1 centimeter to about 2 meters, and the surface area of the inner surface typically ranges from about 5 cubic centimeters to 20 cubic centimeters. For medium-sized reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud is typically from about 2 meters to about 10 meters, and the surface area of the inner surface is typically between about 25 cubic meters and 150 cubic meters. For large reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud is typically from about 10 meters to about 50 meters, and the surface area of the inner surface is typically between about 125 cubic meters and 628 cubic meters. In some designs, the radius of the inner surface could be on the order of several kilometers, with a similar footprint to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) operated by Switzerland's CERN laboratory. Each of the above values assumes that a single reactor is either independent or part of a continuous array of reactors (as described below).

First embodiment

Figures 1a-c show the structure of a reactor with concentric electrodes that utilizes a Lawrence rotor to drive the rotation of charged particles and fusion reactants. This embodiment has an inner electrode 120 , an outer electrode 110 and an annular space 140 between the two electrodes. During operation, the applied potential between these electrodes creates an electric field 144 in the r-direction. Although not shown, this embodiment also includes a permanent magnet or electromagnet (eg, a superconducting magnet) that generates a magnetic field 146 in the z-direction between the inner and outer electrodes. As shown in Figure 1c , charged particles moving between electrodes experience azimuthally directed forces or Lawrence forces due to the radial electric field and the axial magnetic field.

As shown, the reactor shown in Figure la has a gap 142 radially separating the outer surface of the inner electrode 112 and the inner surface of the outer electrode 122 . Although the surface area of the opposing surfaces of the inner and outer electrodes can determine the size of the reactor, the radial gap can remain relatively constant over a wide range of applications. In some designs, the upper limit of the gap is limited to the power available in the annulus to ionize the gases and generate the plasma current, while the lower limit of the gap may be limited to manufacturing tolerances. When the gap is very small, such as less than 0.1 mm, any misalignment between the electrodes may cause the electrodes to come into contact creating a short circuit. Of course, smaller gaps may be feasible due to the greater accuracy that can be achieved in manufacturing tolerances. In some embodiments, the gap may be between about 1 mm and about 50 cm; in some embodiments, the gap may be between about 5 cm and about 20 cm. In some designs, the gap can vary along the r and/or z directions of the reactor. For example, the radius of the inner electrode may vary as a function of position along the z-axis, while the radius of the inner surface of the outer electrode is constant.

The length of the confining wall created by the external electrodes in the z-direction is determined by the radial dimensions of the reactor and the power generation requirements. In some embodiments, the length of the external electrodes in the z-direction may be limited by the type and configuration of the magnet used to generate the magnetic field. For example, if permanent magnets were placed at either end of the annular space along the z-direction (as shown in Figure 11 ), the external electrodes might be limited to about 5 or about 10 centimeters in the z-direction. However, if multiple permanent magnet ring magnets or electromagnets or superconducting magnets (as shown in Figure 10 ) are used to generate the magnetic field (as shown in Figures 16 and 17 ) then the outer electrodes may be longer in the z direction. For example, the external electrode may be between about 1 meter and about 10 meters. Typically, the length of the outer electrode 110 is similar to the length of the inner electrode 120 , but this is not always the case. In some embodiments, the inner electrode may extend beyond the outer electrode on one or both sides. In some embodiments, the length of the outer electrode may exceed the length of the inner electrode such that the outer electrode extends beyond the inner electrode on one or both sides.

Figures 1a-1b depict one of these configurations, where a solid circular inner electrode is used in combination with a circular outer electrode, although other combinations of electrode shapes may also be used in this configuration. Several non-limiting examples of alternative embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art, discussed with reference to Figures 8a-b and 9a-c . Several illustrative examples are provided here so that the reader can readily understand that other electrode shapes are possible.

As shown in Figure 8a , in some embodiments, the internal electrode 820 may be a discontinuous annular structure. The cavity or open space of the internal electrode, the use of internal magnets as shown in Figure 17a-c , or the use of other components within the reactor are beneficial to the heat dissipation of the reaction device. In some designs, the radius of the inner and outer electrodes can vary along the z-direction of the reactor. For example, as shown in Figure 8a , the inner electrode 820 may have a larger circumference at certain locations along the z-direction, thereby reducing the gap 842 at those locations. Instead, it is possible to use uniform inner electrodes and outer electrodes whose inner radius changes or even fluctuates along the z-direction. In some designs, such as the embodiment shown in Figure 8b , both the radius of the inner electrode 820 and the radius of the inner surface of the outer electrode 810 vary in the z-direction such that the gap 842 remains constant along the z-direction of the reactor.

Figures 9a-c depict cross-sections of reactors with non-circular cross-sections. As shown, in some embodiments, the inner electrode 920 and the outer electrode 910 may have radii that vary in azimuthal angle, ie, in the Θ direction. In some designs, the surfaces of the inner and outer electrodes ( 912 and 922 ) may have an elliptical cross-section as shown in Figure 9a . In some designs, the major and minor axes of an elliptical cross-section electrode differ only by a small amount, such as less than 1%. In some embodiments, surfaces 912 and/or 922 may form a polygonal cross-section, such as the reactor shown in Figure 9b , which has a heptagonal cross-section. In some embodiments, surfaces 912 and 922 may have 4 or more sides; in some embodiments more than 8 sides, in some embodiments more than 16 sides. In some designs, corners on surface 912 may be advantageous; for example, rotating particles may have an increased collision rate with the target material at the corner location, resulting in an increased fusion ratio. In some embodiments, as in the reactor configuration shown in Figure 9c , the radius of the inner or outer electrode defined by surfaces 912 and 922 can vary in the Θ direction such that the cross-section of either surface is a specific edge; for example, Sine, zigzag or square wave edges. The inner and outer electrodes in the described embodiments are coaxial, but in some embodiments the axes of the inner and outer electrodes are offset, for example, the annular region is eccentric such that the inner and outer electrodes have Z-direction axes that are essentially parallel but not collinear.

The materials used for the inner and outer electrodes depend on the reactor size, the selected fusion reactants, and other parameters that control the operation of the fusion reactor. Typically, there are many trade-offs in cost, thermal performance, and electrical properties that determine which materials can be selected for use in reactors. Refractory metals (eg, tungsten and tantalum) may be selected for small reactors due to their high melting points and relatively high electrical conductivity at high temperatures. However, use of these materials in large-scale reactors may Significantly increases the cost of the reaction unit.

In certain embodiments, the electrode material has a melting point high enough to withstand the thermal energy released during reactor operation. For external electrodes, which form the confinement walls where fusion reactions may occur, the thermal energy released is often large. For regular use, the melting point of the material of the external electrode should exceed the temperature reached by the electrode during reactor operation. In some designs, the materials selected for the electrodes have a melting point greater than about 800°C, in some designs a melting point greater than about 150°C, and in other designs a melting point greater than about 2000°C.

，在一些設計中，熱導率大於約 100

，在另一些設計中，熱導率大於約200

。 In many embodiments it is beneficial for the electrode material to have high thermal conductivity. The reactor may be suitable for continuous operation if the heat transferred to the electrodes can be extracted from the electrodes at an equivalent rate (e.g., using a heat exchanger) under steady state conditions. When electrode materials have high thermal conductivity, the rate at which heat can be extracted can be increased and concerns about overheating of the material reduced. In some designs, the thermal conductivity is greater than about 10

, in some designs the thermal conductivity is greater than approximately 100

, in other designs the thermal conductivity is greater than about 200

.

In certain designs, such as when the reactor is configured for pulse operation, it may be beneficial for the electrode material to have a high heat capacity. By having a high heat capacity, the electrode heats up at a slower rate during operation of the reactor. When used for pulse operation, the heat energy generated can continue to dissipate through the electrode between pulses, preventing the electrode from reaching its melting point. In some designs, the specific heat of the electrodes should be greater than about 0.25 J/g/°C, in some designs the specific heat should be greater than about 0.37 J/g/°C, and in other designs the specific heat should be greater than about 0.45 J/g/g /℃.

In certain embodiments, the electrode material has a relatively small coefficient of thermal expansion. In some designs, reactors can operate well over a wider temperature range by having a low coefficient of thermal expansion. For example, if the reactor has a gap of approximately 1 mm at room temperature, the gap will be correspondingly much smaller during steady state operation due to expansion of the internal and/or external electrodes. If the coefficient of thermal expansion is too high, the outer electrode and the inner electrode may come into contact, causing a short circuit. Alternatively, if the reactor is designed to have a certain clearance at operating temperature, the clearance can be larger than required when the reactor is first run. In some designs, the electrode material has a linear thermal expansion coefficient of less than about 4.3× ¹⁰ °C ^-1 , in some designs the electrode material has a linear thermal expansion coefficient of less than about 6.5×10°C ^-1 , and in other designs, the electrode material The linear thermal expansion coefficient is less than approximately 17.3×10 ^-6 ℃ ^-1 .

To facilitate reactor operation, electrodes can be designed with mechanical properties such as resistance to deformation during thermal cycling. Under certain conditions, some materials, such as stainless steel, become brittle and eventually experience metal fatigue due to thermal cycling. If the reactor is operated in pulsed operation and the electrodes are rapidly heated and cooled, internal stresses may develop. In some designs, the effects of thermal load loops can be reduced by using electrodes with a single bulk material, or by using two or more materials with similar coefficients of expansion. Some materials may deform due to high temperatures. Therefore, electrode materials can be selected that maintain their strength at elevated temperatures.

The electrode material may be chemically inert and will not be affected by oxidation, corrosion or other chemical degradation during the life of the reactor. Another consideration for electrode materials is whether they are ferromagnetic. In some designs, the use of ferromagnetic materials creates internal localized magnetic fields that interfere with the establishment or maintenance of the predetermined magnetic field within the annulus.

In a Lawrence driven reactor with concentric electrodes, the inner and outer electrodes can be made of electrically conductive materials so that during operation, the electrical potential is applied uniformly across the surfaces of the electrodes. In certain embodiments, the internal or external electrode material has a resistivity of less than about 7x10 ^"7 Ωm, and in some designs less than about 1.68x10" ⁸ Ωm at room temperature. In addition to being conductive at room temperature, the inner and outer electrodes are also conductive at higher temperatures when the reactor is not operating. During operation, the inner electrode or outer electrode may reach a temperature of about 600°C to about 2000°C. During operation, the resistivity of the external electrode material should be no greater than approximately 1.7E-8Ωm, and in some designs no greater than approximately 1E-6Ωm.

In designs where reactants or by-products include hydrogen or helium, the material's resistance to hydrogen embrittlement may be considered. Hydrogen embrittlement is a process by which metals such as stainless steel become brittle and, in some designs, due to the introduction and subsequent diffusion of hydrogen atoms or molecules into the metal, causing fracture. Due to the increased solubility of hydrogen at higher temperatures, hydrogen diffusion into the electrode material may increase during reactor operation. The diffusion rate can be further increased when assisted by a concentration gradient, where there is far more hydrogen on the outside of the metal than on the inside, for example caused by centrifugal densification of hydrogen atoms impinging on the confinement walls. The individual hydrogen atoms within the metal gradually combine to form hydrogen molecules, creating internal pressure in the metal. Additionally or alternatively, the entrapped hydrogen molecules themselves generate internal pressure. The stress can be increased to a level where the metal has reduced ductility, toughness and tensile strength, to the point where cracks form and the electrode fails. In some designs, where the metal contains carbon (such as carbonized steel), the electrodes may undergo a process known as hydrogen impingement -- hydrogen atoms diffuse into the steel and recombine with the carbon to form methane gas. When methane gas becomes concentrated inside metal, it can create internal pressure that causes mechanical failure of the equipment. Although methods to reduce the effects of hydrogen embrittlement are described elsewhere in this article, material susceptibility to embrittlement is often taken into account when designing electrodes. In some designs, electrodes may include platinum, platinum alloys, and ceramics such as boron nitride to reduce hydrogen embrittlement. In some designs, the metallurgical structure can be modified so that the influence of hydrogen in the metal lattice may be reduced. For example, in some designs, metals or metal alloys can be heat treated to obtain the desired metal structure.

In various embodiments, the inner and outer electrodes are composed primarily of metals and metal alloys. In some embodiments, the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode are made at least in part from a refractory metal with a high melting point. Refractory metals are known to be chemically inert, suitable for manufacturing using powder metallurgy, and have stable creep resistance at very high temperatures. Suitable refractory metal packages Including niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, zirconium, hafnium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium and iridium. In one example, at least the outer electrode includes tantalum.

In some embodiments, stainless steel is used to fabricate one or both electrodes. Advantages of stainless steel include its workability and corrosion resistance. In some designs, the electrodes are made at least in part from non-carbon-based stainless steel, such as Incoloy, which can be more resistant to hydrogen embrittlement than carbonized stainless steel. In some designs, the electrodes may be made at least partially from nickel alloys that retain their strength at very high temperatures, such as Inconel, Monel, Haas Troy corrosion-resistant nickel-based alloys (Hastelloys) and nickel-chromium-titanium alloys (Nimonic). In some designs, the electrodes are made at least partially from copper or copper alloys. In some designs, the electrodes are configured with one or more channels for internal cooling to extract heat, and materials less resistant to temperature extremes may be used.

Although the absorption of small atomic fusion reactants such as hydrogen, deuterium or helium can lead to mechanical failure of the electrode under certain operating conditions, certain materials may reduce or eliminate harmful embrittlement effects. For example, under certain conditions, hydrogen-absorbing materials such as palladium-silver alloys do not appear to be affected by hydrogen embrittlement (Jimenez, Gilberto, et al. "A comparative assessment of hydrogen embrittlement: palladium and palladium-silver (25 weight% silver, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). In this design, absorption of fusion reactants may increase the rate of the fusion reaction, for example, rotating gaseous reactants such as hydrogen may be associated with fixed external electrodes (or confinement walls) Collisions of fixed hydrogen atoms on the reactor. In some designs, reactants are provided to the reactor by diffusion through internal and/or external electrodes. In some designs, the electrodes may include titanium, palladium, or palladium alloys for Deliver fusion reactants or increase the rate of collisions between fusion reactants.

In some designs, as discussed elsewhere in this article, external electrodes or internal The pole may include an electron-emitting material with a high electron emission rate. In some designs, the external electrodes may contain target materials for fusion reactants. In some designs, target material is consumed during operation due to fusion reactions. For example, in some designs, lanthanum hexaboride is used as the target material and boron-11 atoms are consumed during the proton-boron reaction.

First Embodiment - Electrodes. In some embodiments, the outer electrode is monolithic and is made from a single material. In other embodiments, the outer electrode has layers or segments that include two or more materials. structure. In some embodiments, the inner surface of the external electrode, the confining wall, includes target material (material containing fusion reactants) or electron-emitting material. In some designs, the target material or electron emitters may cover the entire surface area of the confinement wall, and in other designs, the target material or electron emitters are located at one or more discrete locations on the confinement wall (e.g., as shown in Figure 21a- The electron emitter shown in b ).

In some designs, the inner layer of the external electrode provides one property and the outer layer provides a different property. For example, the inner layer forming the confining wall surface may have a high melting point, while the outer layer may have good thermal or electrical conductivity.

In some designs, the electrode may include a layer of material forming a confining wall that is more resistant to hydrogen embrittlement than the remainder of the electrode. In some designs, the electrodes have a ceramic coating that prevents hydrogen atoms from penetrating into the crystal lattice of the external electrode or provides thermal insulation from the bulk electrode material. For example, the external electrode may have an aluminum nitride layer, an aluminum oxide layer, or a boron nitride layer. Some materials with low conductivity, such as boron nitride, can be heat treated to improve conductivity. In some designs, the electrodes can undergo a surface treatment that adds a certain material to the electrode surface to reduce hydrogen embrittlement. For example, when an electrode is made from a material that is susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement (such as tantalum), embrittlement is reduced by adding a small amount of noble metal to the electrode surface. In some designs, the precious metal may cover only a small portion of the electrode surface. For example, noble metals can cover less than about 50% of the electrode surface. %, less than 30% or less than 10%, thereby significantly reducing electrode hydrogen embrittlement. In some designs, small amounts of platinum, palladium, gold, iridium, rhodium, osmium, rhenium and ruthenium can be added to the electrode surface to reduce hydrogen embrittlement. In some designs, dotted areas of noble metal (eg, about a 0.5 foot radius) can be riveted or welded to the electrode surface. In other designs, precious metal powders can be added to the surface of the electrode, and during normal operation the powder will spread to the electrode surface. In some designs, noble metals can be added to the electrode surface periodically, such as after the reactor has been running for a predetermined time.

In some designs, the sleeve is attached to the inner surface of the outer electrode such that the inner surface of the sleeve forms a restraining wall. In some designs, a sleeve may be used to, for example, provide target material, provide an electron emitter, provide a barrier to prevent hydrogen gas from penetrating to the external electrode, and/or provide thermal protection for the external electrode. In some designs, the sleeve is expendable and/or replaceable. For example, if the sleeve contains consumed target material, the sleeve will eventually be replaced. In other designs, the sleeve serves as a sacrificial layer that protects the external electrode from hydrogen embrittlement. In the event that the sleeve itself fails due to hydrogen embrittlement, replacement costs are much lower than the entire external electrode.

In some embodiments, the outer electrode can have a porous or mesh structure that allows energetic charged particles to pass through the electrode while still confining rotating neutral particles within the annular space. Charged particles passing through the external electrode can be guided by the magnetic field of the external magnet. In some designs, escaping alpha particles are redirected to hardware capable of converting the alpha particles' kinetic energy into electrical energy (see discussion elsewhere in this article). In some designs, the pore size in the electrode may be less than about 100 microns, and in other designs, less than about 1 micron. Generally, the structure of the inner electrode is similar to that of the outer electrode. Like the external electrodes, the internal electrodes can be made from a single material or from a layered or segmented structure of two or more materials. In some embodiments, the internal electrode may be solid; in other embodiments, the internal electrode has an internal space. In some designs, the internal electrode may include one or more passages for internal cooling. In various embodiments, internal The electrodes are connected to a power source that provides a current output from the inner electrode to the grounded outer electrode. The materials for the outer electrode generally also apply to the inner electrode, although in some embodiments the inner electrode does not include target material or electron-emitting material.

First embodiment - magnet

Figures 10a-d show a first embodiment in which the axial magnetic field is applied by an electromagnet, such as a superconducting magnet. Figure 10a shows an isometric view of the superconducting magnet surrounding the reactor's external electrodes. As shown, the magnet includes a housing 1056 . Figure 10b provides the same perspective view as Figure 10a with the housing 1056 of the superconducting magnet removed, exposing the superconducting coil windings 1054 . Figure 10c provides a perspective view of the reactor viewed along the z-axis, and Figure 10d is an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the section line shown in Figure 10a . As shown, the reactor has an outer electrode 1010 , an inner electrode 1020 , and a gap 10 defining an annular space 1040 between the two electrodes. Electric current (shown by arrows in Figure 10a ) passes through the superconducting coil winding 1054 surrounding the reactor, generating a magnetic field in the z-direction through the annular space. In some embodiments, superconducting magnets are used to generate a magnetic field of approximately 1-20 Tesla across the annular region. In some designs, the applied magnetic field is between 1-5 Tesla. The coils are placed in an insulating enclosure 1056 around the reactor, which is maintained at low temperature (eg, less than -180°C) and low pressure. The housing 1056 may be cooled, for example, by an adiabatically expanding gas (eg, He) or a cryogenic liquid so that the temperature of the superconducting coil is maintained below its critical temperature. In some designs, the enclosure can be cooled mechanically, avoiding the use of liquid cryogen. Coils can be made from superconducting materials such as niobium titanium or niobium tin, bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCC) or yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO). The coil windings can be wound in insulating material in the form of wires or strips. In some designs, the coil windings may include the superconducting material described above, placed in a copper base to provide mechanical stability. In some embodiments, commercially available superconducting magnets may be used, such as those supplied by Cryomagnetics or manufacturers of MRI equipment. In some designs, a superconducting magnet such as or similar to the AMS-02 superconducting magnet used for the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer experiments may be used. When superconducting magnets are used to provide an axial magnetic field, the radius of the confinement wall is usually smaller than the radius of the superconducting magnet, for example the radius can be limited to about 20 meters in some designs.

When an electromagnet or superconducting magnet is placed around an external electrode, there may be a gap between the external electrode 1010 and the housing 1056 of the magnet. This spacing can be used to reduce heat transfer to the magnet. In some designs, a heat exchanger can be placed between the external electrode 1010 and the magnetic housing. When the outer electrode has a porous or mesh structure, there may be a space between the outer electrode and the magnet housing that allows charged particles to pass through the outer electrode. Charged particles, such as alpha particles, passing through the external electrodes can be restrained in the r-direction by ion cyclotron motion so that they do not collide with the shell 1156 . In some designs, the spacing between the external electrodes is approximately 3 cm to 6 cm, and in other designs, it is approximately 6 cm to 10 cm. As described elsewhere in this article, charged particles can travel in the z-direction toward the energy conversion device, thereby generating electrical energy. Figures 11a-b show a reactor in which disk-shaped permanent magnets 1150 are placed on either end of an annular space 1140 to generate a substantially axially oriented applied magnetic field (in the figures it points in the z-direction). Figure 11a provides a perspective view looking along the z-direction, while Figure 11b provides an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the section line in Figure 11a . As shown in Figure 11b , the reactor has an internal electrode 1120 , an external electrode 1110 forming a confining wall 1112 , and an annular space between the internal and external electrodes. Magnets 1150 are placed on either side of the annular space with the same magnetic orientation. For example, two magnets may have north poles facing the positive z-direction, or two magnets may have north poles facing the negative z-direction. Although not shown, in some embodiments, the magnet 1150 may be annular such that the magnet is close to the annular space 1140 and provides a substantially uniform magnetic area along the inner surface of the outer electrode 1112 . The ring magnet has the same pole orientation as the disc magnet shown in Figure 11 .

Figures 12a-b illustrate another embodiment in which multiple permanent magnets 1250 with the same polarity in the z-direction (eg, the same orientation as the disk magnets shown in Figure 11 ) are placed in an annular space 1240 either side to generate an applied magnetic field in the z direction along the inner surface of the external electrode 1212 . Figure 12a provides a perspective view in the z-direction and Figure 12b provides an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the section line indicated in Figure 12a . Some features are labeled in the enlarged view 1201 which shows the inner electrode 1220 , the outer electrode 1210 and the permanent magnet 1250 defining the annular space formed. In embodiments, using multiple smaller magnets reduces the costs and physical limitations associated with larger monolithic magnets that can be used in large reactors. The arrangement of magnets 1250 shown in Figures 12a and 12b can be thought of as two facing ring magnets. Although not shown, in some embodiments, a combination of different magnet shapes is used to generate the axial magnetic field. For example, a ring magnet could be used on one side of the annulus, while multiple bar magnets could be used on the other side.

Figures 13a-c show a reactor 1300 with a single internal electrode 1320 , with permanent magnets 1350 arranged along the z-direction separating multiple annular spaces 1340 . As shown, the reactor has an internal electrode 1320 , a plurality of external electrodes 1310 forming a bounding wall 1312 (which is a combination of wall segments), and an annular space 1340 between each external electrode and the internal electrode. Figure 13a provides a perspective view looking along the z-direction, Figures 13b and 13c are cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views respectively corresponding to the indicated section lines in Figure 13a . When permanent magnets are placed at either end of the annular region, the length of the annular space in the z-direction may be limited by the strength of the magnetic field generated by the permanent magnets. In some designs, the annular space may be limited to about 5 or 10 centimeters, for example. By arranging the magnets 1350 in the Z-direction between multiple annular spaces 1340 , the total surface area on the outer electrode 1310 and the confinement wall 1312 can be increased. As with the previous embodiment, each magnet 1350 has the same orientation along the z-axis. This design effectively uses permanent magnets between the annulus, as each pole helps form the magnetic field applied to the bounding annulus. Although the depicted embodiment uses ring magnets, many other shapes are possible; for example, each magnet bordering an annular space could be composed of many smaller magnets that together form a ring-like structure (see Figures 12a-b ). In some embodiments, external electrode 1310 may be segmented into electrically isolated, physically distinct portions. In some embodiments, the external electrodes may be monolithic or otherwise electrically connected, such as such that each external electrode corresponding to each annulus 1340 is grounded.

Figures 14a-c illustrate a single reactor structure 1400 with multiple annular spaces 1440 separated by permanent magnets 1450 arranged along the z-direction. As shown, the reactor has a plurality of internal electrodes 1420 and a plurality of external electrodes 1410 , forming a confining wall 1412 for an annular space 1440 between each set of electrodes. Figure 14a provides a z-direction perspective view and Figures 14b and 14c provide cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the section lines indicated in Figure 14a . Instead of using a ring magnet and a single internal electrode (as shown in the embodiment of Figures 13a -c), the embodiment of Figures 14a-c uses a disk magnet and multiple internal electrode segments. The description of the corresponding features of Figures 13a-c refers to the embodiment of Figures 14a-c . In some embodiments, the reactor shown can be operated using only a subset of the available annulus, depending on energy requirements. For example, in some embodiments, fusion reactants are introduced into only one annulus, and voltage potentials are applied only to internal electrodes adjacent to that annulus. In this way, the reactor's energy output can be controlled according to the energy demand and can be monitored on the fly if necessary. Accordingly, in some embodiments, each inner electrode 1420 and/or outer electrode 1410 may be independently controlled.

Figures 15a-15c illustrate the magnetic field produced by a series of rings of magnets 1550 that are substantially coaxial and have the same orientation. Figure 15a is an isometric view of the three magnets, Figure 15b is a view along the common axis of the magnets, and Figure 15c is a cross-sectional view corresponding to the markings shown in Figure 15b . Although the previous embodiments utilized magnets offset from the annular space in the z-direction, the magnets may also be offset radially from the annular space in the r-direction. As shown by the dashed lines in Figure 15c , when considered individually, each ring magnet produces a magnetic field 1545 that begins at its north pole and terminates at its south pole. When multiple ring magnets are placed adjacent to each other, the net effect can be a combined magnetic field - a superposition of the individual magnetic fields and pointing substantially along a common axis as shown by solid magnetic field line 1546 in the figure. This magnet configuration extends the feasible length of the reactor's annulus while using permanent magnets.

Figures 16a-16c illustrate an embodiment using a radially offset ring magnet 1650 to generate an axial magnetic field through an annular region. As shown, the reactor has a single internal electrode 1620 and a single external electrode 1610 forming a confining wall 1612 for an annular space 1640 between the electrodes. Figure 16a provides a perspective view of the reactor viewed along the z-direction, while Figures 16b and 16c provide cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the indicated section lines in Figure 16a . Each magnet 1650 has the same polarity along the z direction. For example, as shown, each magnet 1650 has a south pole facing the positive z direction. This embodiment allows for an annular space extending in the z-direction, creating a larger surface area on the confinement wall 1610 and allowing for a larger power output potential. The overlapping features of the corresponding embodiments of Figures 13 and 14 can be applied to the embodiment of Figures 16a-c .

Figures 17a-17c illustrate the use of radially offset magnets ( 1750 , 1752 ) to generate an axial magnetic field through a single annulus. As shown, the reactor has a single internal electrode 1720 and a single external electrode 1710 that forms a confining wall 1712 of a single annular region 1740 between the electrodes. Figure 17a provides a perspective view of the reactor viewed in the z-direction, while Figures 17b and 17c provide cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the section lines indicated in Figure 17a . The embodiment of Figures 17a-c goes beyond the embodiment described with respect to Figures 16a-c in that additional magnets 1752 are placed in the inner region of the inner electrode 1620 . As shown, additional magnet 1752 has the same orientation as external magnet 1750 along the z-direction. In some embodiments, as shown in Figures 17b and 17c , the inner ring magnets 1752 are aligned with the outer ring magnets 1750 in the z direction. In some embodiments, the inner ring magnets may be offset from the outer ring magnets, or the spacing between the magnets may be different than the spacing between the outer magnets. In some embodiments, the inner magnet may take a different shape than the outer magnet, for example. The internal magnet may be a rod magnet.

In some embodiments, the permanent magnets are made of rare earth elements or alloys of rare earth elements. Examples of suitable magnets include samarium cobalt magnets and neodymium magnets. Other strong magnets, now or later developed, may also be suitable for use. In some embodiments, permanent magnets may be used to generate a magnetic field between approximately 0.1 and 1.5 Tesla in the annulus; in some embodiments, permanent magnets may be used to generate a magnetic field between approximately 0.1 and approximately 0.5 Tesla in the annulus. magnetic field between them.

Not all reactors require permanent magnets. Some use electromagnets or superconducting magnets, as described with reference to Figures 10a-d . Some reactors employ a combination of two or more of permanent magnets and electromagnets. Figures 18a-d show a first embodiment in which the axial magnetic field is applied by an electromagnet. As shown, the reactor has internal electrodes 1820 and external electrodes 1810 with confining walls 1812 forming an annular space 1840 between the electrodes. Figure 18a shows an isometric view of an electromagnet placed on the reactor. Figure 18b is a perspective view of the reactor along the z-axis, while Figures 18c and 18d depict cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the section lines shown in Figure 18b . The current is passed through the coil winding 1854 surrounding the reactor in the z-direction, thereby creating a magnetic field across the reactor that is applied substantially in the z-direction, as shown by the magnetic field lines in Figure 18c . Electrical current through the conductive coil can be provided by an AC or DC power source. In designs where the conductive coil is driven by an AC power source, the inner and/or outer electrodes may also be driven by an AC power source of the same frequency. Doing this keeps the spin of the charged particles in the same direction, as opposed to the alternating directions that would occur if the alternating polarity of the magnetic field were out of sync with the electric field. Coils can be made from conductive materials such as copper, aluminum, gold or silver. In some embodiments, the coil is wound around the exterior of the external electrode, and in some embodiments, the coil is placed in a separate housing surrounding the external electrode.

Reverse Polarity Example

The counter electrode rotor has been described previously in Figures 5a to 5c . Generally, unless otherwise stated, the structure of the electrode of the first embodiment is also applicable to the design scheme of reverse polarity. For example, the materials used for the inner and outer electrodes, the gap between the electrodes ( 542 in Figure 5a ) and the configuration of the magnets used to generate the magnetic field in the z-direction can be the same as the design of the concentric electrode reactor. However, as discussed below, some embodiments utilize different structural configurations and/or different materials (eg, different materials on the internal electrodes).

Figure 5d depicts the crossover selection of the reverse electrode rotor. The electric field can be applied in the negative r direction by applying a negative voltage to the inner electrode and grounding the outer electrode, by grounding the inner electrode and applying a positive potential to the outer electrode, or by applying a more negative potential to the inner electrode than the outer electrode. When an electric potential is applied to the inner and/or outer electrodes to create an electric field, positively charged particles in the annulus 540 are pulled toward the inner electrode 520 . As a charged particle moves inward, the Lawrence force causes the particle to accelerate azimuthally, potentially resulting in a spiral trajectory, as shown in path 503 . Through ion-neutral coupling, neutral particles in the annulus rotate together with positively charged particles. Due to the potential difference between the internal electrode and the external electrode, many electrons on the internal electrode form an electron-rich region 532 close to the electrode surface, which causes these electrons to rotate in the same direction as the positively charged particles subject to the Lawrence force. As described elsewhere, this electron-rich region can reduce the Coulomb barrier between fusion nuclei. In some designs, the electron-rich region may extend from about 100 microns to about 3 millimeters from the surface of the internal electrode.

In some designs, recombination of charged species occurs when positively charged particles move inward and contact internal electrodes or when positively charged particles encounter free electrons in an electron-rich region. In some designs, positively charged particles move along the Larmor radius 502 around the internal electrode. In some embodiments, the density of positively charged particles varies in the radial direction. For example, there can be a greater density of positively charged particles surrounding the annulus at the Larmor radius than near the outer electrode. This gradient of charged particles can lead to a velocity distribution within the annular region, where particles near the outer wall move more slowly, there is a higher density of neutral particles here due to centrifugal forces, and fewer positively charged particles drive the center. Particle movement.

In some embodiments, the internal electrode is composed of a separate material such as tantalum, tungsten, copper, carbon, or lanthanum hexaboride. In some designs, the internal electrode has a conductive core 520a coated with electron emitting and/or target material 520b. For example, the internal electrode may have a core made of an electrically conductive and heat-resistant material, such as tungsten, coated with lanthanum hexaboride, boron nitride, or another boron-containing material. In some designs, the diameter of the internal electrode is between about 1 centimeter and about 3 centimeters, and in other designs between about 4 centimeters and about 6 centimeters. In some designs, the internal electrodes have a tiny cross-section, such as filaments or wires. In such embodiments, the diameter of the internal electrode may be less than about 0.5 millimeters, less than about 0.1 millimeters, or less than about 0.05 millimeters. In some designs, the length of the internal electrode in the z-direction is about 3 cm to about 10 cm. In some designs, the internal electrodes may be smaller in the z-direction, such as less than about 3 centimeters, or less than about 1 centimeter. In some embodiments, the inner electrode may be longer in the z-direction, such as longer than about 20 centimeters. In some designs, the constrained area in the z direction (the length over which the inner and outer electrodes overlap) for a reverse polarity reactor may be limited by the power source that applies charge to the inner and/or outer electrodes. In some designs, the length in the z direction may depend on the gas pressure within the confinement area. In some designs, if the gas pressure is reduced to very low values, this allows for increased length in the z-direction, potentially reducing the power required to generate the plasma within the annulus.

Figure 19a depicts several methods of actively cooling internal electrodes. In some designs, the internal electrode 1910 has an internal passage 1928 through which fluid can carry away heat. For example, water can be pumped into the internal channels to remove heat from the internal electrodes. In some designs, the internal electrodes may be bonded to a thermally conductive, insulating ceramic block 1923. Ceramic blocks may be made of materials such as aluminum oxide. Heat is dissipated through the ceramic block, removed from the tail end of the internal electrode to which it is connected heat. In some designs, the ceramic block has open holes to support internal electrodes. In some designs, set screws are used to secure the internal electrodes to the ceramic. In some designs, the heat conducted through the ceramic block is used to generate electricity, such as by connecting a thermoelectric generator or heat exchanger to the ceramic block.

In some embodiments, if the target material is consumed or the electrode is damaged, the internal electrode can be replaced. For example, the boron-coated filament used as the internal electrode can be replaced when the boron coating is consumed or when the filament breaks.

In some embodiments, the length of the inner electrode exceeds the annular area (determined by the z-direction edge of the outer electrode). In some designs, the position of the internal electrode is varied in the z-direction via a linear actuator. For example, if the internal electrode is a wire, the wire can be routed through the annular area to prevent the internal electrode from melting during operation of the reactor, or to replace a portion of the wire in designs where target material (e.g., boron coating) is consumed.

In some embodiments, the width of the internal electrode varies in the z-direction. Figure 19b shows that the inner electrode 1920 extends beyond the outer electrode 1910 and is held in place by an extended sleeve 1921 that can serve as an extension of the inner electrode. Sleeve 1921 may be made of conductive materials such as copper, stainless steel, and tantalum. In some designs, voltage can be applied to the inner electrode through the sleeve; this can reduce resistive heating of inner electrodes with small diameters. In some designs, the diameter of the sleeve may be much larger than the diameter of the inner electrode. For example, the sleeve may be greater than about 10 centimeters in diameter and the inner electrode less than about 0.5 millimeters in diameter. In some configurations, a set screw may be used to secure the inner electrode to the sleeve. In some embodiments, the sleeve may be threaded directly into the sleeve. These and other attachments make the inner electrode 1920 replaceable, while the sleeve 1921 is permanent. In some designs, the sleeve can be coated with target material such as boron. In some designs, as shown in Figure 19a, the sleeve can be cooled from the inside.

As with the reactor of the first embodiment, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes may be limited by the amount of plasma that the power supply can generate within the confinement area. In some designs, the outer electrode may be structurally similar to the outer electrode described in the first embodiment. In some designs, the outer electrode may have an outer insulating layer. For example, if an alternating signal is applied to the electrodes of the reactor, or if the reverse polarity reactor is part of multiple reactor modules that need to be electrically isolated from each other. Typically, the support structure of the inner and outer electrodes may contain electrically insulating material to insulate the electrodes from the reactor shell and prevent alternating current between the electrodes. In some designs, the external electrode is a sheet of metal (e.g., copper) that is made into a cylindrical shape inside a quartz tube. In some designs, the outer electrode is a solid tubular structure located within an insulating structure. In another embodiment, the electrode is prepared by coating the inner surface of a quartz tube with a metallic conductive coating.

As noted elsewhere, only a small number of ions or positively charged particles are needed to drive a large number of neutral particles to spin. The concentration of neutral particles increases in the radial direction due to the confining walls connected to the external electrodes. At the same time, the rotating neutral particles are not affected by the radial electric field or the axial magnetic field. Due to random collisions with the outer walls and other particles, neutral particles can be deflected into electron-dense regions, and in some designs, neutral particles can hit the target material on the inner electrode, causing fusion to occur. Similarly, in some designs, positively charged particles may be deflected into the internal electrodes that generate the fusion reaction, where proton-boron 11 polymerization occurs.

In some designs, counter-field polarity reactors operate in constant voltage mode. For example, a voltage is applied to the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode so that a constant or substantially constant voltage between the electrodes is maintained during operation of the reactor. In another mode of operation, the reverse electric field polarity reactor operates in constant current mode. Operating at constant current is advantageous when the internal electrodes are small and prone to failure due to resistive heating. In some designs, the reactor is initially controlled using constant voltage mode and then transitions to constant current mode operation.

In some configurations, an energy storage device, such as a capacitor or battery, is used to apply an electrical potential to the inner and/or outer electrodes to initiate a fusion reaction. In some designs, circuitry regulates the current and/or voltage provided by the energy storage device. In some designs, an energy device (eg, a capacitor) is connected to the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode and discharges until the energy storage device is no longer able to generate an electric field strong enough to support the fusion reaction. In some designs, the reactor is configured with an additional energy storage device that is charged by the electrical energy produced by the fusion reaction as the first energy storage device discharges. In some designs, an energy storage device such as a capacitor or battery is used to apply a potential to the inner and/or outer electrodes to initiate the fusion reaction. In some designs, circuitry regulates the current and/or voltage provided by the energy storage device. In some designs, an energy device (eg, a capacitor) is connected to the internal electrode and/or the external electrode and discharges until the energy storage device can no longer generate an electric field strong enough to support a fusion reaction. The regulator then switches the charge and discharge modes of the energy storage device so that the fusion reaction can be maintained.

In some designs, the power source is not connected to the inner and/or outer electrodes, and the fusion reaction can continue to occur for a period of time (eg, about 10 seconds) before the potential difference between the electrodes is insufficient to sustain the reaction. When the electric field becomes too small to sustain the fusion reaction, the voltage or current source can be reconnected to apply a negative potential to the internal electrodes.

Prior to operation of the reverse polarity reactor, the gas pressure in the annular region may be about 1 atmosphere or more. In some designs, such as when the inner electrode is elongated in the z-direction, the inner electrode may have low gas pressure to reduce the power required to initiate the fusion reaction. In some designs, the gas pressure within the annular region can be reduced to less than 1 Torr or less than 10 millitorr before operating the reactor. In some designs, the gas pressure within the annulus can be adjusted via inlet and outlet valves to control the rate at which the fusion reaction occurs.

For reverse polarity reactors, the magnetic field in the confinement region is sometimes greater than about 0.5 Tesla, sometimes greater than about 1 Tesla, sometimes greater than about 3 Tesla. In some embodiments of reverse electric field polarity reactors, the magnetic field is substantially non-perpendicular to the electric field between the inner and outer electrodes. In some embodiments, the magnetic field is non-uniform over the confinement area. The magnetic field in the confinement region can be adjusted by adjusting the position and orientation of the magnets and/or electrodes. In some designs, nonuniform magnetic fields may increase the rate at which ions and neutral particles collide with the internal electrodes. In general, the applied magnetic field and/or the potential applied to the electrodes can vary depending on the reactor geometry, reactant gas composition, and reactant gas pressure.

During operation, due to centrifugal force, the density of particles near the outer wall, especially those with higher mass, is greater. This may help extract fusion products from the annular region with higher mass than the spinning reactants. For example, when a fusion reaction produces alpha particles containing rotating hydrogen species, the alpha particles can be concentrated near the outer wall and then removed through an outlet valve. In some designs, the fusion products can be pumped to another reactor and continue to be used as reactants. For example, alpha particles or helium atoms produced in a reactor with reverse electric field polarity can be moved to another reactor to support the helium-helium fusion reaction.

Reverse field reactor example

Another reactor embodiment having a reverse field configuration is described above with reference to Figures 6a-d. This configuration uses a Lawrence twist to drive and maintain the rotational motion of the particles in the annular space. In general, a reverse field can be applied to many of the reactors described herein, with the positions of the magnetic and electric fields being shifted.

Permanent magnets (616 and 626) made of magnetic material such as those described in the first embodiment may be used to apply a magnetic field in the radial direction. In some designs, the permanent magnets may be replaced by electromagnets with multiple azimuthal offsets of a radially oriented axis, such as a magnetic field oriented substantially in the r direction applied throughout the annulus. In some designs, the surface of the restraining wall may have a layer or Multiple layers of protective magnetic material. For example, aluminum or tantalum layers can provide protection for external or internal magnets. In some designs, the protective layer may contain target materials for fusion reactants or electron emitters. In some designs, the confinement wall can have an internal cooling system that keeps the material below its melting point and prevents the magnet from demagnetizing.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes is sometimes constrained by the power available to the ionized gas in the annular space. Similarly, in the reverse field configuration, the confinement area separating electrodes 660a and 660b in the z-direction is also limited. For example, in some designs, the spacing between electrodes ranges from about 1 millimeter to about 50 centimeters, and in other designs, the spacing between electrodes ranges from about 5 centimeters to about 20 centimeters.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the length of the annular space in the z direction may sometimes be limited by the strength of the permanent magnet. Similarly, in a reverse field configuration, the gap in the r direction may be limited by the strength of the magnetic field generated near the confinement wall surface. In some designs, radial clearance may be limited to about 10 cm or less, to about 5 cm or less. In some designs, the gap may be larger when the magnet 616 itself provides a strong enough magnetic field near the confinement surface; for example, in some designs the gap may be greater than about 10 centimeters. In some designs, internal magnets are not required.

Wave Particle Example

The second type of reactor configuration, referred to here as the wave-particle embodiment, is briefly described below and is illustrated in Figures #7a and #7b. In wave particle embodiments, charged particles are driven into rotation by oscillating electrostatic fields. Neutral particles are pushed by charged particles. The electric field is generated by applying a charge to another electrode in the azimuthal direction located on the confining wall, the inner wall, or the connected annular region. Since this embodiment does not require a magnetic field, there are no limitations in the magnet structure. For example, the radius of the reactor may be larger than feasible with ring or disk magnets. Furthermore, since this embodiment does not require Current flows between the inner and outer electrodes, so the structural constraints imposed by concentric electrodes are also absent. In some embodiments of wave-particle designs, the radius of the confinement wall may be greater than about 2 meters, in some designs greater than about 10 meters, and in some designs greater than about 50 meters. Contrary to some embodiments of Lorentz twisters, the length of the reactor in the z-direction is not limited by the strength of the permanent magnet, as may be the case with concentric electrode embodiments. In some embodiments, the length of the annular region in the z-direction may be greater than about 1 meter, in some designs greater than about 10 meters, and in some designs greater than about 100 meters. In one embodiment, there is curvature in the z-direction of the reactor such that the confinement walls form a torus shape. In general, reactor size constraints can control reactor energy requirements and production costs. In wave-particle embodiments, the rotating particles can be controlled by affecting the number and size of azimuthally offset electrodes in the annular region. The relatively large number of electrodes along the confinement wall allows the electric field lines to be finely modulated, thereby increasing the efficiency with which the electric field is used to move charged particles. In some designs, this is because the dynamically changing electric field drives the particles primarily in the azimuthal direction rather than radially. Typically, the reactor will have at least three azimuthal electrodes. Some reactors may have at least five azimuthally independent electrodes, and some reactors may have more than about 50 azimuthal electrodes. In some designs, the number of electrodes varies depending on the size of the reactor. For example, a reactor with a radius of about 1 meter has about 20 to about 40 individual electrodes at azimuths along the confinement wall, while a reactor with a radius of about 2 meters can have about 40 to about 80 individual electrodes at azimuths. In some designs, the ratio of the reactor circumference (in meters) to the number of independent internal or external electrodes in azimuth is between about 3 and about 150, and in some designs the ratio is between about 20 and 100 between.

In some designs, the electrodes are separated by an electrically insulating material such as aluminum nitride or boron nitride. The insulation is thick enough so that electrical breakdown does not occur. The minimum thickness can be determined by the dielectric strength of the insulating material and the voltage applied to the electrodes. In some designs, electrically insulating materials Materials include target materials (fusion reactants such as boron-11) and/or electron emitters.

In some designs, reactor efficiency can also be improved when the electrodes have a narrower width in the azimuthal direction and are separated by electrically insulating material. In some designs, the electrically insulating material may also be the target material or electron emitter. In some designs, the electrode width in the azimuthal direction may be less than about 10 centimeters, in some designs less than about 5 centimeters, and in some designs less than about 2 centimeters. In some embodiments, the reactor uses only azimuthally independent electrodes along the confinement wall. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the reactor utilizes only internal electrodes, or only electrodes incorporating annular regions in the z-direction. In designs where the electrodes themselves do not define the confinement wall, the surface of the confinement wall may be made of the target material or electron emitter. For example, in some designs, the electrodes are separated from the annular region by a sleeve containing strips of lanthanum hexaboride.

In some designs, the confinement walls are configured with thermal management elements such as heat exchangers (eg, cooling jackets). The heat exchanger may be used to prevent overheating of the electrodes and/or to feed heated fluid to a heat engine to generate electrical or thermal energy. In some designs, heat can be removed from the reactor by passing a fluid, such as water, through channels in the confining walls. For example, the insulating material of azimuthally separated electrodes may have internal channels for fluid flow.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes is sometimes limited, which is the limited power available for gas ionization in the annular region. In wave-particle configurations, gaps between adjacently positioned electrically isolated electrodes can also be constrained. For example, in some designs, the spacing between electrodes ranges from about 1 millimeter to about 50 centimeters, and in other designs, the spacing between electrodes ranges from about 5 centimeters to about 20 centimeters.

In some designs, wave particle reactors have more than one mode of operation. For example, a first stage can be used to start or impact the plasma, and then a second stage can be started to drive the ions (indirectly driving the neutral particles). For example, it can be applied radially between the inner and outer electrodes. A radio frequency electric field is applied to create a weakly ionized plasma to prepare the reactor for operation. Once the plasma is generated between the inner and outer electrodes, the reactor can be switched to another mode in which drive signals are sequentially applied to the azimuthally distributed electrodes to drive the rotation of charged and neutral particles. (In some designs, wave-particle reactors have multiple modes of operation. For example, the first phase can be used to start or strike the plasma, and the latter phase can be used to drive ions (and indirectly neutral particles) in the rotational direction. .For example, a reactor can be prepared for operation by applying an RF electric field radially between the inner and outer electrodes to generate a weakly ionized plasma. Once the plasma is generated between the inner and outer electrodes, the reactor can Transition to a mode in which drive signals are sequentially applied to azimuthally distributed electrodes to drive the rotation of charged and neutral particles.)

The frequency of the oscillatory signal used to apply to the azimuthally distributed electrodes to drive the rotation of ions and neutral particles depends on the reactor configuration and the preset rotation speed selection. For example, the drive signal may be applied in the range of approximately 60 kHz to 1 MHz, and in some designs between approximately 60 kHz and 1 GHz. In some designs, the frequency of the drive signal may start low and then increase gradually or suddenly. For example, the drive signal may start at a relatively low frequency, such as 60 kHz, and eventually reach a frequency of 100 MHz.

In some designs, the drive signal uses a controlled voltage to charge. To avoid arcing between the electrodes, it is ideal to use high voltage and low current, rather than high current at low voltage. In some designs, drive signals between about 1 kilovolt and about 100 kilovolts are applied to individual electrodes in the azimuth angle. In some designs, the drive signal may apply more than 100 kilovolts to the electrodes.

Using electrostatic forces, it is possible to achieve rotational speeds with wave-particle embodiments that exceed what is typically achievable in Laurence-driven reactors of similar configuration (e.g., close to the confinement half diameter). In some designs, the electrostatically driven reactor can drive rotation of the gaseous material at a rate of at least about 1000 revolutions per second, and in other designs at least about 100,000 revolutions per second. In wave-particle embodiments, a control system can be used to control how charge is applied to the electrodes. In some designs, the control system uses the detection speed determined using a high-speed camera or another sensor as feedback to adjust the sequence of charges applied to the electrodes. In some designs, the control system uses detection speed determined using a high-speed camera or other sensor as feedback to adjust the sequence of charges applied to the electrodes. Generally, the azimuthal independent electrodes may have a similar structure and may be made of the materials of the above embodiments.

hybrid design reactor

Another general reactor structure, here called a hybrid reactor type, is briefly described with respect to Figures 6a to 6f. This configuration uses a Lawrence swivel and a wave-particle drive to maintain the rotational motion of the particles in the annular space. Some of the designs of the first embodiment described above can be applied when operating the Lawrence reactor in a mixing reactor. Similarly, some structures of the wave-particle embodiments described above may be applied when operating with a hybrid design of azimuth electrodes.

As described in the reverse field embodiment, a radial magnetic field is applied using permanent magnets (616 and 626) made of the magnetic material described in the first embodiment. In some designs, the permanent magnets can be replaced by multiple electromagnets with radially oriented axes offset along the azimuth angle, so that the magnetic field is substantially along the r-direction throughout the entire confinement area. In some designs, the confinement wall surface may contain one or more layers of protective magnetic material. In some designs, the protective layer may contain target materials for fusion reactants or electron emitters. In some designs, the confinement wall can have an internal cooling system that keeps the material below its melting temperature and prevents the magnet from demagnetizing.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes is limited by the power available to ionize the gas in the annular region. Similarly, in a mixing reactor In embodiments, the constrained or annular area separating electrodes 660a and 660b is limited in the z direction. For example, in some designs, the electrodes are spaced apart from about 1 millimeter to about 50 centimeters, and in other designs, the electrodes are spaced apart from about 5 centimeters to about 20 centimeters.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the length of the annular region in the z direction is sometimes limited by the strength of the permanent magnet. Similarly, in hybrid designs, the r-direction clearance may sometimes be limited by the need to generate magnetic field strength near the surface of the confinement wall. In some designs, radial clearance may be limited to about 10 cm or less, or about 5 cm or less. In some designs, when magnet 616 provides a strong enough magnetic field near the confinement surface, the gap may be larger; for example, in some designs, the gap may be greater than about 10 centimeters. In some designs, internal magnets may not be required.

In a hybrid design, a control system is used to control the signals applied to independent electrodes distributed azimuthally. In some designs, the control system may receive feedback from the sensors to adjust the sequence of charges applied to the electrodes. Generally, the electrodes (660a and 660b) may have a similar structure and may be made of materials suitable for manufacturing the electrodes as described in the first embodiment.

In some designs, the mode of the hybrid design reactor is switched during or before the fusion reaction. For example, a reactor could use a Lawrence twister to maintain particle rotation before switching to a wave-particle drive. Under certain conditions, Lawrence force driven rotors are more efficient at initiating particle rotation in the annulus. Once the particles in the annular space rotate at a certain speed in the reactor and there is no longer an advantage in continuing to use the Lawrence rotor, you can switch to the wave-particle drive operation mode. In some designs, higher particle velocities and more energy production can be achieved by switching to a wave-particle drive mode of operation. In some designs, by switching to a wave-particle drive mode of operation, the energy generated can be tuned with high precision by adjusting the sequence of drive signals applied to the azimuthally distributed electrodes (660a and 660b). using electromagnetic In some embodiments where the electric field is generated by the volume, the current source used to control the magnetic field may be terminated when the reactor enters a wave-particle mode of operation. This can be used to prevent the Lawrence force from acting on charged particles in the z direction.

electron emitter

As described elsewhere herein, the confinement wall is sometimes made at least partially of an electron-emitting material, referred to herein as an electron emitter. These materials emit electrons from thermionic ions above a certain temperature. For example, some boron-based electron emitters have emission temperatures in the range of about 1800 Grams to about 2000 Grams. In some designs, the electron emitter may be in powder form that is compacted, sintered, or otherwise transformed into a form suitable for placement within the annular region. In some designs, physical vapor deposition may be used to sinter or deposit the electron-emitting material onto the confining walls of the reactor. In other designs, the electron emitter may be forged into a structure that forms part of the confinement wall, or may be attached to the confinement wall.

Some electron emitters are low work function materials that do not degrade at high temperatures and other conditions within the reactor. Examples of electron emitters include oxides and borides such as barium oxide, strontium oxide, calcium oxide, aluminum, oxides, thorium oxide, lanthanum hexaborate, cerium hexaboride, strontium hexaboride, strontium hexaborate, hexaboride Yttrium hexaboride, yttrium hexaboride, samarium hexaboride and thorium hexaboride. In some designs, the emitters can be transition metals such as carbides and borides, such as zirconium carbide, hafnium carbide, tantalum carbide, and hafnium diboride. In some designs, the emitters may be polymerization reactants, such as ⁶ Li, ¹⁵ N, ³ He, and deuterium. In some designs, the electron emitter may be a compound containing fusion reactants. For example, lanthanum hexaboride can serve as an electron emitter and target material for proton-boron 11 fusion. In some designs, fusion reaction products can be used as electron emitters. In some designs, the electron emitter may be a composite of two or more materials, at least one of which has a low work function and emits electrons during operation.

In some designs, the electron emitter is attached as a solid element in the confining wall of the reactor. In some embodiments, the electron emitter is a thin sheet or flat structure connected to the confinement wall, and the bulge is not obvious in the annular region. Figure 20a depicts a cross-section of an electron emitter. In some embodiments, these electron emitters are attached to the surface of the confinement wall using mechanical fasteners such as clips or screws. In some designs, the electron emitter is located in a slot within the confinement wall and is held in place by friction. For example, the electron emitter can be fixed with grooves or clamps. In some designs, the emitter is attached to the wall using heat, adhesive, or other processes. In some designs, the electron emitter thickness is less than about 1.2 centimeters, in other designs less than about 6 centimeters, and less than about 3 centimeters. The size of the sheet structure in the azimuthal or z-direction is limited by the size of the reactor. Figure 20b depicts several configurations in which electron emitters 2036 can be distributed symmetrically along the surface of confinement wall 2010, and in some configurations the electron emitters can be located in only a few specific areas.

In certain embodiments, when emitters are disposed on the surface of the confinement wall, they are heated by friction and/or plasma heating during reactor operation. In some designs, additional methods can be used to add energy to the electron emitter to increase the rate of electron emission. Additional methods can be used to heat the emitter during initial operation of the reactor while the reactor is still relatively cool. In some designs, additional methods of increasing electron emission can be used to control the rate of the fusion reaction.

In some embodiments, electron emitters on the confinement wall are electrically connected to a power source to enhance electron emission. For example, in some embodiments, electrical current is passed through filaments within the electron-emitting material to provide resistive heating. In some designs, the filament is made of a refractory metal such as tungsten. In some designs, such as when the confinement wall is grounded, the electron emitter can be connected to the The grounded portion of the restraining wall separates. In some designs, direct current is applied to the filament. In some designs, electron emission is further improved or controlled by applying alternating current to the electron emitter; such as current with an RF or microwave signal.

Figures 21A-b depict the use of resistive heating to control electron emission in a concentric electrode reactor. Figure 21a is a z-direction view of the reactor with an internal electrode 2120, an external electrode 2110 separated from the internal electrode by an annular region 2140, and an electron emitting device 2136 placed along the confinement wall 2112 powered by a power supply 2135 . Figure #100b is an enlarged view of the electron emitting device on the confinement wall. The electron emission device includes an electron emitter material 2130, such as lanthanum hexaboride, heated by a filament 2134. In some designs, the device may include insulating layers 2137 and 2138 that may provide electrical and/or thermal isolation from the external electrodes and/or confinement walls (assuming they are different). These insulation layers can be made of ceramic materials such as zirconium oxide, aluminum oxide, zinc nitride and magnesium oxide. In some embodiments, the position of the electron-emitting device may be adjusted during operation of the reactor. For example, to increase electron emission caused by frictional heating of rotating matter, an actuator can be used to move the device radially inward into the annular region. Alternatively, to limit the reaction, the device can be pulled away from the annular region to limit the release of electrons.

In some embodiments, the electron emitter may have a sharp point or tapered structure at one end to promote field electron emission. For example, when an electron emitter is supplied with a potential, a strong electric field generated near a point may cause field electron emission to be concentrated at that point due to the narrowed geometry.

In some embodiments, one or more lasers are used to increase or control the electron emission of the emitter. As shown in Figure 22, the reactor 2200 can be equipped with a laser 2231 to guide the light in the annular area 2240 to the electron emitter 2230. As shown, light from the laser can pass through or along internal electrode 2220 via insulated optical fiber 2239. Lasers can be used for hot electrons The emitted emitter can also act on other materials of the confinement wall to exhibit photoelectric effects. For example, metals and conductors can exhibit the photoelectric effect when the current does not neutralize the photons produced by the impact, thereby creating an imbalance. Although Figure 22 depicts a first embodiment, in a reverse polarity embodiment, the laser can be used on the internally negatively charged electrode to increase electron emission.

gas supply system

The reactor may have one or more gas valves for introducing fusion reactants and removing fusion products. In some designs, standardized air valves may be used. For example, gas valves used in low-pressure deposition and etch chambers may be suitable for use in reactors. In some designs, gaseous reactants are released into a confined region somewhere inside the device; for example, the reactant species can pass through internal electrodes. In some designs, a gas valve may be located at one end of the confinement region in the z direction, in other designs gaseous reactant species are introduced into the confinement region through a valve located within the confinement wall. The outlet valve for the fusion products can be placed in a similar position to the feed valve. When fusion products are removed during reactor operation, the outlet valve may be located on or adjacent to the confinement wall, but offset from the confinement region in the z direction. In some designs, the inlet and outlet valves may need to be electrically isolated from the electrodes to avoid shorting to ground.

The inlet and outlet valves can also be equipped with a vacuum pump system to account for the flow of gaseous materials in and out of the reactor. In some designs, the valve may include a flow meter that controls the amount of gas added or removed from the reactor. In some designs, a flow meter can be connected to the reactor's control system to limit the amount of hydrogen or reactant species put into the chamber. In some designs, the gas inlet introduces neutral particles near the confinement region, and the gas outlet removes neutral particles outside the z-direction fusion region of the reactor. In some designs, the pumping system controls the neutral particle distribution along the z-direction of the reactor to remove neutral particles that may reduce the efficiency of converting fusion product (eg, alpha particles) kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Although the embodiments discussed describe gas species, in other embodiments, the fusion reactants are introduced into the annulus in liquid form. In some designs, instead of filling the annular region with fusion reactants in gaseous form, the annular region can be filled or partially filled with liquid fuel. For example, liquids containing hydrogen ions such as liquid hydrogen, ammonia, alkanes such as butane or methane liquids and liquid hydrides can be used as liquid fuels. In some designs, liquid fuel may evaporate rapidly upon entering the chamber. In some designs, the pressure within the reactor can be controlled by adding liquid fuel to the reactor. .For example, by using the temperature difference and the known volume of the annular region, the pressure within the constrained region can be calculated using the ideal gas law. In some designs, gaseous reactant pressures within the reactor can be carefully monitored so that high neutral particle densities are maintained without affecting the structural integrity of the reactor.

When the reactor is a Lawrence rotor, the liquid fuel can be added in sufficient quantity or under hot conditions so that the liquid does not evaporate immediately upon entering the reaction device. In this design, an electric current can be passed through the liquid fuel by applying a potential between the electrodes. In some designs, the liquid is inoculated with charged particles such as potassium. In designs where magnetic fields are present, the Lawrence force drives neutral and charged particles in the liquid fuel to spin. As the kinetic energy of the rotating column increases, liquid near the boundary layer along the confinement wall may evaporate, releasing hydrogen or another reactive gas that may fuse with the target material on the confinement wall. For example, proton-boron 11 fusion may occur when hydrogen is released from a liquid fuel with confining walls containing lanthanum hexaboride. In some designs, the gaseous layer created between the rotating liquid and the confining wall may create a sliding layer that causes the liquid in the annular region to rotate faster by reducing the force between the liquid and the wall. In some designs, the liquid can absorb heat and reduce the likelihood of the electrode melting. Because liquids may have a high density of fusion reactants compared to gases, liquids can be used for long periods of time without needing to be replaced. Although not limited to the use of liquid fuels, in some designs a safety valve can be used to release gas from the reactor if the pressure exceeds a threshold. In some designs, such as transportation applications, the fusion reactants can be stored in liquid form and delivered to the reactor as a liquid or gas. By storing fusion reactants in liquid form, the fuel supply is small and compact.

In some designs, liquid fuel can be supplied to the reactor through a pressurized tank. In some designs, fusion reactants (such as hydrogen) can be stored in small capsules. For example, hydrogen can be stored in glass capsules and fed to the reactor through ports in the confining walls. In some designs, hydrogen can be provided in pressurized form (eg, several atmospheres), and in some designs, hydrogen can be provided in liquid form. In designs where the reactor is already operating, the temperature within the reactor can melt the shell of the gas capsule, allowing the fuel to be released immediately or over a short period of time (e.g., minutes). In some designs, such as when the reactor is cooled and not operating, a laser (shown in Figure 22) can be used to destroy the capsule material and release the reactants or fuel. In designs such as automotive applications, using capsules to store small amounts of hydrogen fusion reactants can reduce or eliminate the hardware (e.g., pressurized tanks) required to safely store the reactants.

In some designs, hydrogen-containing solid compounds may be added to the reactor as fusion reactants. For example, when hydrogen fuel is consumed in the reactor, polymer fuel blocks made of polyethylene or polypropylene may be provided to the reactor through ports in the confining wall. Once inside the reactor, the high temperatures caused by reactor activation (such as the laser shown in Figure 22) are sufficient to decompose the polymer to release hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, ammonia borane (also known as borane ammonia) can be used as a hydrogen fuel. When the reactor reaches a temperature greater than about 100 degrees Celsius, ammonia borane releases molecular hydrogen and gaseous boron nitrogen compounds. In some designs, ammonia borane or boron-nitrogen compounds can serve as electron emitters, and in some designs, boron atoms from ammonia borane can undergo fusion fusion reactions with hydrogen atoms during operation. In many applications (eg, automotive applications), the use of solid fuels can reduce or eliminate the hardware for storing gaseous or liquid fuels for safety and increased convenience.

cooling system

In some designs, in order for the reactor to continue operating, the reactor must be cooled to prevent the electrodes, magnets, and/or other components from overheating. In some embodiments, the reactor can be cooled by complete immersion in liquid. In some embodiments, the reactor includes a heat sink that draws heat from the reactor by conduction and transfers it to a fluid medium such as air or a liquid coolant. As an example, a heat exchanger can be used. Fans or pumps can be used to control flow conditions and help transfer heat to the fluid medium. Based on the temperature monitored within the reactor, the fluid velocity can be adjusted, regulating the fluid flow between laminar and turbulent flow. In some embodiments, the fluid passes through a cooling jacket outside the reactor, and in some designs, cooling tubes can be used to cool components within the reactor. As described elsewhere in this article, radiators can be used to transfer heat to a fluid that generates electrical energy in a heat engine. Liquids that can be used to cool the reactor include water, liquid lead, liquid sodium, liquid bismuth, molten salts, molten metals and various organic compounds, including some alcohols, hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons.

power supply

The reactor may include one or more power supplies for providing electrical current to electrodes, electromagnets, and other electrical components. The power supply can control the current and/or voltage of two terminals (eg, concentric electrodes). In some embodiments, the power supply is capable of providing a maximum voltage of about 200 volts to about 1000 volts. For example, in some embodiments, the power supply can provide up to 600 volts to the electrodes. In some embodiments, a small-scale reactor may be capable of providing a current of about 0.1 amps to about 100 amps and/or providing a power of about 1 kilowatt. For some moderately sized installations, the reactor may provide a current of about 1 A to about 1 KA and/or a power of about 5 KW. In some large-scale installations, the reactor may provide currents from about 1 A to 10 kA and/or provide hundreds of kilowatts of power.

Depending on the operating mode of the reaction device, the power supply can be used to provide DC or AC Current. In some embodiments, alternating current is applied to the electrodes to break down the plasma. In some designs, the voltage required to break down the plasma in the annular region may be about 10% less than a DC current rushing through the plasma. In using an AC signal to breakdown the plasma, the power supply provides an alternating current or potential signal at a frequency greater than about 1 kilohertz, or in some designs greater than about 1 megahertz.

In some configurations, such as when electromagnets are used to provide an axial magnetic field, alternating current can be applied to the electromagnets and electrodes. In some designs, an alternating signal can be applied to the electrodes and electromagnets with the same frequency but out of phase. In some designs, the power source may apply a current or voltage signal to the electrodes or electromagnets at greater than about 500 Hz or greater than about 1 kHz. In some designs, the electromagnet operates at the same frequency as the AC current applied to the electrodes, which keeps the particles spinning. In some designs, a commercially available power supply can be used to apply a current or voltage signal to the electrodes of the reaction device or electromagnet. Suitable power suppliers include Advanced Energy Industries and TDK-Lambda American.

sensor

When operating a reactor, various parameters can be monitored to control the rate of energy output, improve efficiency, prevent component failure, etc. For example, the temperature of the reactor can be monitored to ensure that components of the reactor do not exceed rated maximum temperature values. If the permanent magnet is overheated, it may demagnetize, and if the electrodes or any other parts are overheated, they may melt. .In some designs, reactor operation reaches higher temperatures. For example, some electron emitters must acquire sufficient thermal energy to release electrons into the annular region. The temperature within the reactor can be monitored using sensors such as thermocouples, infrared images, and thermistors. In some designs, the temperature inside the reactor can be inferred by measuring the temperature elsewhere within the reactor. For example, the inner part of the external electrode The temperature of the surface can be inferred by monitoring the outer surface temperature of the external electrode. In some designs, where the temperature is measured indirectly from an external location, a low-cost temperature sensor can be used, such as a silicon strip temperature sensor.

In some embodiments, the gas pressure within the reactor can be monitored. By monitoring the pressure in front of the electron emitter, information can be obtained about the density of electrons as they are tightly concentrated on the confinement walls. The controller can use pressure measurements within the chamber to regulate the flow rate of gaseous species into and out of the annulus. In some embodiments, a camera that takes hundreds or thousands of images per second may be used to monitor the rotational speed within the constrained area. In some designs, measuring the rotation of materials within the reactor can be aided by the introduction of materials that fluoresce or have detectable optical characteristics such as argon or quantum dots. In some embodiments, the gas mixture in the confinement region can be monitored to determine fusion products, such as 4He and 3He. In some embodiments, detection of fusion products and reactants can be performed using an in-situ mass spectrometer (such as Hiden Analytical's residual gas analyzer, which can detect small amounts of deuterium in a gas sample), a spectrometer, or an NMR sensor. In some embodiments, the reactor may be equipped with a Geiger counter to detect radiation levels.

Figures 23a-c show examples of how nuclear magnetic resonance sensing can be used to determine the composition of gas reactants in concentric electrode embodiments. Figure 23a depicts the structure of the reactor with internal electrodes 2320, external electrodes 2310 and a substantially uniform and constant magnetic field 2391 in the z direction through the annular region. An axially applied magnetic field is used to align the nuclear spins of rotating matter and can be applied by a superconducting magnet as described herein. In some designs, the axial magnetic field is greater than about 0.1 Tesla, in some designs the axial magnetic field is greater than about 0.5 Tesla, and in some designs the axial magnetic field through the annular region is greater than about 2 Tesla .

When detection is required, the rotation of the nuclei of rotating matter within the annular region is perturbed by applying RF pulses in the azimuthal direction. Figure 23b depicts how an azimuthal direction time-varying magnetic field 2392 is generated by applying alternating current in the z-direction of the internal electrodes. In some embodiments, the alternating current through the center electrode is at a frequency between about 60 Hz and 1 MHz, and in other designs a frequency between about 1 MHz and about 1 GHz. After disturbing the arrangement of matter with a time-varying magnetic field, a detection coil as shown in Figure 23c is used to monitor the spin rate of the rearranged matter nuclei. Detection coil 2390 is substantially perpendicular to the long axis (z-axis) of the reactor and monitors the current through the coil via electromagnetic radiation absorbed and re-emitted by the rotating material. In some designs, detection coils similar to those used in medical MRI systems can be used.

control system

Monitored parameters can be input into a control system that maintains system component integrity and maintains the reaction device in a state suitable for the fusion reaction. The control system can control all parameters of the fusion reaction and, in some designs, can control other operations such as thermal energy collection or utilization processes for conversion into electricity or other useful forms of energy. In some embodiments, the control system maintains a balance between heat generation and heat extraction. For example, to maintain this preset and rated balance, the control system may control the electrical energy applied to the reactor electrodes (e.g., by modulating the pulses to lengthen or shorten the time period between each pulse and/or vary the voltage used to generate the plasma ), change the magnetic field (such as using an adjustable magnet combined with a superconducting magnet), and change the density of the reactants.

As discussed elsewhere in this article, some parameters may need to be within limited ranges such that both conditions are met. In some designs, the control system receives identification energy information and adjusts conditions accordingly. The control system may also have thresholds that, when met, initiate an automatic shutdown process to prevent damage to the reactor or operators. For example, the reactor can stop the fusion reaction if the temperature of the confinement wall exceeds a certain threshold or if the radiation reaches a threshold. The control system can stop the reactor by, for example, grounding all electrodes, closing gas input valves, and/or introducing an inert gas species such as nitrogen.

Control system 2462 can send control signals 2463 to adjust various parameter settings of reactor 2464 as needed to control energy output 2465. In some designs, the control system may provide closed feedback such as that shown in Figure 24. Based on the measured input parameters from the sensor 2460 and the expected energy output signal 2461, the control system 2462 can send control signals 2463 as needed to adjust various parameter settings of the reactor 2464 to control energy output 2465 or meet other specifications. Input parameters used by the controller can include temperature, pressure, flow rate, gas composition fraction (such as partial pressure), particle velocity, current discharge between electrodes, voltage, etc. In some designs, the control system utilizes historical data on one or more parameters. For example, while it may be important to know specific temperature values, it may also be important to know the rate and/or magnitude of temperature fluctuations. Reactor parameters that can be adjusted by the controller include applied current, applied voltage, applied magnetic field strength (in the design of the electromagnet) and gas flow rate (e.g. hydrogen flow rate). Typically, a controller delivers control signals to the associated configured reactor components. For example, a control signal can be passed to the power supply to instruct the power supply to apply a specified voltage. In some designs, it is also possible to set input parameters for the control system. For example, in determining what voltage should be applied, the controller may adjust the current and/or voltage applied to the electrodes. In some designs, the controller can be improved through machine learning so that the reactor becomes more efficient over time, independent of physical changes in the equipment (for example, when parts fail and are replaced) or expected energy demands.

Certain operating characteristics of the reactor can be independently controlled. For example, the flow of cooling fluid can be controlled using a control system independent of those responsible for regulating the reactor (eg, electrical current and gas flow rate). In another example, an electron-emitting device, as shown in Figure 21a, has a controller that receives the measured temperature of the electron emitter and determines the current to be applied to the filament to provide resistive heating.

The above control system can be controlled by computer software in an installed or integrated manner. Logic to achieve. There are many possible ways to control operations. Based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand how to implement control using hardware and/or a combination of hardware and software.

In some designs, the control system software code (such as Java, LabVIEW, MATLAB, C++ or Python) can be written in any suitable computer language and then executed by the processor, such as using a conventional or object-oriented language. Software code may be stored as a sequence of instructions or commands on a computer-readable medium such as random access memory (RAM), read only memory (ROM), a magnetic medium such as a hard drive, or a floppy disk or floppy disk such as a CD-ROM. Optical media for ROM. In some designs, the control system can be tested and designed using an FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) and then manufactured through the ASIC process. In some designs, the controller can be a single die that can securely store and execute control logic. Any such computer-readable medium can be located on a single computing device, and can exist on different computing devices within a system or network.

radiation mask

In some embodiments, such as when the reactor is non-neutronic or substantially non-neutronic, the reactor may require less shielding to reduce radiation exposure. When neutron radiation is a concern, the reactor may be equipped with appropriate shielding. Neutrons pass easily through most materials and the interaction is sufficient to cause biological damage. In some designs, the reactor can be placed in a neutron-absorbing enclosure. In some designs, the confinement walls of the reactor may include an outer layer for absorbing neutrons. In some designs, the masking layer may be made of concrete with a high water content, polyethylene, paraffin, wax, water or other hydrocarbon materials. In some designs, the masking layer may include lead or boron as neutron absorbers. For example, boron carbide can be used as a masking layer where concrete is not expensive. In some embodiments, the ends of the reactor in the z-direction may include Materials such as boron nitride not only absorb neutrons but are also thermal and electrical insulators. In some designs, electron emitters such as lanthanum hexaboride have the additional function of masking neutron radiation. In some designs, such as large reactor units, water, oil or gravel tanks can be placed over the reactor to provide an effective shroud. The thickness of the masking layer depends in part on what materials are used, where the reactor is located, the type of fusion reaction and the size of the reactor. In some embodiments, the masking layer is greater than about 10 centimeters, in some designs the masking layer is greater than about 100 centimeters, and in some designs the masking layer is greater than about 1 meter.

Replaceable components

Fusion reactors as described herein can be highly configurable and instrumentable, and most components can be replaced and/or disassembled. Some elements are permanent and do not wear out during the life of the reactor, others are replaced after a certain number of operating cycles or time. Under normal operating conditions, some parts of the reactor may eventually fail and need to be replaced. When operating conditions exceed certain thresholds, components can become damaged or wear out faster. For each replaceable component, there may be standard procedures for component removal, handling, and replacement, as well as a series of indicators and possible diagnostic procedures for estimating component wear. Under certain operating conditions, certain parts of the reactor may eventually fail and require replacement. For example, due to hydrogen embrittlement, the electrode may eventually lose its structural integrity, and the target material may eventually be consumed. In some designs, components such as internal or external electrodes may develop internal stresses and require replacement.

Fusion reactors as described herein can be highly composable and modular. In certain embodiments, one or more elements may be replaced and/or interchanged. Some parts are permanent and will not wear out during the life of the reactor, and some parts need to be replaced after a certain operating cycle or operating time. For each replaceable part, there may be procedures for removing, handling, refurbishing and/or replacing the part. Additionally, there may be one or more meters and Diagnostic instruments to indicate and/or determine the extent of component consumption.

Examples of replaceable components include one or more electrodes in the reactor, the fusion reactant, the fusion reactant in the container (such as a hydrogen tank), and the energy conversion device associated with the reactor.

Indications that a part should be replaced include a decrease in electrode conductivity, the age of the part, and the optical properties of the part (e.g., changes in the surface of the part that can be detected optically). Mechanical failure can be determined by visual inspection or, in some designs, by monitoring measured parameters such as temperature, pressure, and conductivity of the electrodes. In some designs, the control system includes procedures for determining mechanical failures of electrodes or other components.

In some designs, the conductivity of the electrode may decrease over time. Due to the instability of the plasma, electrically insulating dielectric coatings can be formed on the electrodes. If the conductivity and/or conductivity of the electrodes is reduced, the reactor efficiency may be reduced and/or excessive power supply may be required. If no measures are taken to slow down the decrease in conductivity and/or conductivity of the reactor, electrical and/or thermal damage to the reactor may result. Although much of the discussion in this article involves determining the conductivity and/or conductivity of an electrode, it should be understood that conductivity varies at different locations in the electrode. For example, after prolonged operation, the conductivity of the surface of the electrode on the side where the reaction occurs may be much lower than the conductivity of the interior of the electrode. As another example, the conductivity of the original material in the electrode may remain essentially unchanged during operation, but the formation of a dielectric film on the reacting surface of the electrode will significantly reduce the overall conductivity of the electrode. Resistivity and/or resistance may be used instead of conductivity and/or conductivity.

Various techniques can be used to monitor electrode conductivity and/or conductivity to determine if the electrode requires attention or replacement. In one example, using the geometry of the electrode, the conductivity of the electrode can be determined by measuring the resistance between two points on the electrode surface when the reactor is not operating. This measurement can be performed manually during a routine system check, such as using a multimeter. In some settings In the meter, the reactor is equipped with a measuring circuit that automatically measures the resistance of the electrodes between operating cycles. In some designs, the reactor's control system can be designed to automatically determine the conductance of the electrodes from the measured resistance. Another way in which electrode conductivity can be determined is by performing a diagnostic loop in which the gaseous reactants in the confined region are replaced by another gas, creating a plasma within the confined region. For example, hydrogen can be replaced with argon, neon or nitrogen. The control system monitors the electrical properties of the plasma, measuring the voltage of the electrodes and the current flowing through them. Based on the electrical properties of the argon plasma, the conductivity of the electrode can be determined. For example, the conductivity of each electrode can be determined by comparing measured electrical properties of an argon plasma (or another plasma) to expected electrical properties. In some designs, the expected electrical properties of the plasma, such as an argon plasma, can be determined by simulation or by measuring the electrical properties on a new reactor without a dielectric coating.

The reactor electrodes can be predetermined for a conductivity or conductivity rating, beyond which the electrode needs to be repaired or replaced. For example, if the conductivity of an electrode is below about 80% of its preset value, the electrode can be replaced or processed to restore the conductivity back to the appropriate level.

In some embodiments, a cleaning cycle is performed when the electrode conductivity or conductivity drops below an acceptable level. For example, a cleaning cycle introduces a cleaning gas, such as argon, into a confined area and creates a plasma that removes some or all of the dielectric coating. In some designs, a weakly ionized plasma may be sufficient to remove the dielectric coating. In some designs, the argon gas can be fully ionized during the cleaning cycle. Depending on the chemical nature of the degradation, chemical remediation treatments may be applied. For example, if electrode degradation results from reduction initiated by hydrides or other forms of hydrogen, the damaged electrode can be treated with an oxidizing agent such as an oxygen-containing plasma.

In some designs, if the conductivity of the electrodes falls below a certain level (for example, around 50% of a preset value), the reactor may be determined to be unsafe to operate. This may indicate that the reactor has A thick dielectric film forms, requiring excessive, unsafe power from the power source. In some designs, the control system or safety system can shut down operations until affected electrodes are replaced or restored. In some designs, the reactor control system includes programming to determine mechanical failure of electrodes or other components and then trigger an alarm or automatically shut down the reactor.

In some embodiments, one or more electrodes or magnets in the reactor contain a protective or sacrificial layer. In some designs, this consumable layer is a sleeve (eg, a sleeve that forms the inner surface of the restraint wall) that can be replaced at design intervals. In some embodiments, metal components such as electrodes or ferrules may be removed for repair and, for example, annealed to eliminate internal stresses that may occur due to thermal loops. In some designs, for example, when a part undergoes hydrogen embrittlement, the part can be removed and the part material processed to make a new part. In some designs, brittle parts, such as tantalum electrodes, can be restored to a ductile state by annealing under vacuum. For example, in some designs, embrittled components can be restored by annealing under vacuum at about 1200 degrees Celsius.

The target material (fusion reactant) may eventually be completely consumed and need to be replaced. For example, some embodiments use lanthanum hexaboride, which contains boron-11 as a reactant required for the proton-boron-11 fusion reaction. Once exhausted, this material needs to be replaced. Lanthanum hexaboride may also become brittle and fail due to thermal cycling, which may result in a reduction in the reactor's ability to sustain a productive fusion reaction; if the lanthanum hexaboride component (such as a specimen placed on the confinement wall) is removed By rotating the path of the particles, the failure of the lanthanum hexaborate to no longer have enough boron-11 may result in a reduction in the amount of polymerization and the reaction rate will be reduced. In some designs, the control system may notify the operator that a power drop will occur corresponding to target material that has been depleted or moved out of the confinement area. In some designs, the control system may notify the operator when a consumable material such as lanthanum hexaboride has reached its predetermined usage limit and should be replaced.

Example

The following examples represent some embodiments implemented in accordance with the basic principles described herein.

1.) Negative electrode (external electrode)

The outer electrode, sometimes called a "shield," consists of a cylindrical metal ring with multiple attachment points for holding lanthanum hexaboride or other target material. Due to the high heat resistance of refractory metals, the composition of the shield is usually refractory metals such as tantalum (Ta) or tungsten (W). However, some embodiments of the reactor use lower melting point metals, such as Alloy 316 stainless steel. These embodiments may include a liquid cooling circuit to prevent the shield from reaching the melting temperature of the alloy. As mentioned before, the outer electrode may be a more negative electrode or a positive electrode.

Conductivity

By harnessing electricity from an external power source, a plasma is struck between the positive and negative electrodes in the reactor. The process is mediated by the voltage across the two electrodes and the current passing through the electrodes and plasma. The voltage required to hit the plasma and start the fusion reaction is directly related to the conductivity of the two electrodes. As mentioned above, an insulating coating can be formed on the negative electrode, thereby affecting the conductivity of the electrode.

The method used to instantly determine the conductivity of an external electrode is to use a digital multimeter to measure the resistance between two points. In some embodiments, the measured resistance value is entered into assessment (QA) software, which displays the conductivity and operating status of the external electrode.

A second analytical method used to determine conductivity is to impinge a glow discharge argon plasma in a reactor. This is achieved by controlling the software to monitor the electrical characteristics (voltage and current) of the argon plasma at any time. Through internal calibration comparisons, the control software determines the electrode's conductivity and sends the data to the evaluation (QA) software.

If the assessment (QA) software indicates that the conductivity of the composition metal is less than 80% of the standard rating, the AR unit is considered to be no longer operating optimally and has entered a non-optimal operating state. If the conductivity is less than 50% of the standard rating, the AR reactor is said to be operating in an unsafe condition because this will provide the power supply with too much power and create potential electrical and thermal hazards. If the conductivity is 0%, it indicates that a complete insulation layer has formed on the negative electrode and the system is inoperable.

Action: Continue operating the unit normally.

Non-optimal operation: Use the provided control software to run an argon purge loop on the AR reactor. Repeat until conductivity returns to "best operating" range. If the conductivity does not improve, perform the "Unsafe Actions" below.

Unsafe Handling: External electrodes should be cleaned.

structural integrity

The mechanical structure of the guard may be damaged, deformed or brittle. This can be due to many different reasons.

Failure of the cooling system or incorrect operation of the cooling system can cause extreme temperatures within the reactor to exceed safe operating values. These extreme temperatures can cause thermal shock to cause cracks on or in the shroud. Additionally, if these extreme temperatures approach the melting point of the shield material, the shield itself will begin to deform and melt.

An immediately actionable diagnostic method for testing structural integrity is visual inspection of the control software's abnormal temperature alarm prompts. The control software can monitor the temperature of several different components of the device and check that each component remains within safe command parameters. If the temperature of any such component exceeds safe operating values, a temperature indicator alarm may be triggered. In extreme designs (e.g. an overheating condition that persists for too long), the system may shut down on its own and require a mandatory visual inspection of the integrity of the shield. If the shield is damaged, it can be sent to the QA team for inspection and analysis analysis.

2.) Positive electrode (internal electrode)

The outer electrode, sometimes called a "shield," consists of a cylindrical metal ring with multiple attachment points for holding lanthanum hexaboride or other target material. Due to the high heat resistance of refractory metals, the composition of the shield is usually refractory metals such as tantalum (Ta) or tungsten (W). However, some embodiments of the reactor use lower melting point metals, such as Alloy 316 stainless steel. High temperature center heads can run longer so they can be replaced less frequently. The center electrode rod is usually made of 316 stainless steel alloy because it does not experience the same extreme temperatures as the head.

In some embodiments, the center electrode rod is cooled with liquid water to prevent overheating. In embodiments utilizing high temperature heads, the heads are attached to the rods with molybdenum (Mo) screws. In embodiments utilizing a cryogenic head, the head is also water cooled and welded or welded to the rod so that the cooling circuit is continuous.

As is the case with the outer electrode, the conductivity of the inner electrode mediates the electrical behavior of the plasma. Changes in conductivity will lead to changes in the voltage required to break down and sustain the plasma for the fusion reaction. As mentioned above, the instabilities of the plasma and fusion reactions occurring within the reactor can lead to the accumulation of insulating coatings on the surface of the internal electrode, thereby affecting its conductivity.

The measurement technique used to determine the conductivity of the central electrode (various operating scenarios described above) is the same as that used for the inner electrode.

In terms of the structural integrity of the component, the inner electrode has the same operational risks as the outer electrode (or shield). , it may be damaged, deformed or embrittled; however, due to the presence of liquid cooling channels inside the inner electrode, there are methods for fault detection in addition to thermal monitoring of specific components by the control system.

If the temperature of the center electrode rod (or as described above as an alternative embodiment If the temperature of the liquid-cooled center electrode tip) approaches the melting temperature of the combined materials, the outer surface of the rod (or tip) will be damaged, allowing the water vapor and liquid water mixture to enter the vacuum chamber. This can occur due to failure or improper use of the cooling system, as well as the development of a sustained plasma arc on the center electrode rod (or head) itself. Once this happens, the pressure rises momentarily as water vapor enters the chamber through the breach. The control system detects this pressure rise and immediately shuts down the system with a false fault signal, ensuring that the necessary visual inspections are carried out immediately.

Lanthanum hexaboride (commonly known as LaB ₆ ) is a refractory ceramic material used in the scientific industry as an electron emitter due to its low work function. In the reactor, LaB ₆ is connected to the negative electrode through evenly spaced connection points along the inner wall. LaB ₆ contains the solid boron fuel required for the fusion reaction, which needs to be replaced once the fuel is exhausted.

There are two main isotopes of boron in nature (atomic numbers with the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons), ¹⁰ B and ¹¹ B. The most abundant of the two isotopes is 11B, which accounts for 80% of all boron found in this form. Since this is also the isotope required for fusion reactions to occur, it may be necessary to know the relative concentration of this specific isotope in the LaB6 fuel. There are many methods for detecting concentration, including inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), etc.

In some embodiments, there is no on-site technical diagnostic capable of measuring the boron isotope composition of LaB ₆ , in which case the sample needs to be sent to a third party diagnostic laboratory for analysis.

Due to the ceramic nature of the compound, it is very brittle and highly susceptible to thermal stress. Unstable reactions occurring within the reactor, as well as the rapid heating and cooling present in various components such as the center electrode and shield, can cause the structural integrity of LaB ₆ to be compromised. It has been observed in several embodiments of the reactor that the LaB ₆ fuel will likely crack over time, thus requiring replacement.

One field-implementable diagnostic for determining the structural integrity (and consumption) of lanthanum hexaboride fuel is visual inspection. Certain alarm settings in the control software settings indicate the need for a visual inspection of lanthanum hexaboride. Because the fusion reaction occurs where the lanthanum hexaboride is located, the entire output power (measured by the control software) is extracted from these locations. If the reactor's steady-state power output drops by more than 20%, it indicates that there may be a problem with one of the lanthanum hexaboride chips that triggers a power indicator alarm on the software. This type of alarm indicates that a visual inspection of the lanthanum hexaboride part is required.

As described herein, a reactor produces energy in one or more forms; often multiple forms of energy are produced simultaneously. When operating, most reactors produce thermal energy. Radiated energy can also be generated over a broad or narrow frequency range. For example, excited species within the reactor (eg, electronically excited hydrogen atoms) produce radiation in one or more frequency bands. Typically, the reactor is operated in a mode that requires and/or generates a plasma which, in its presence, generates radiant energy. In addition, many reactions produce charged species with high kinetic energy (eg, such as alpha particle plasma). Reactors can also generate mechanical energy through pressure changes or oscillations.

Any one or more of these energy forms can be converted into different energy forms that can be used in specific applications. Accordingly, in certain embodiments, an energy conversion device or element is connected to the reactor. In some designs, an energy conversion device converts thermal energy from the reactor into electrical energy (eg, a thermoelectric device). In some designs, an energy conversion device converts thermal energy from the reactor into mechanical energy (eg, a heat engine). In some designs, energy conversion devices convert electromagnetic radiation from the reactor into electrical energy (eg, photovoltaic devices). In some designs, the energy conversion device converts the kinetic energy of charged reaction products (eg, alpha particles) or ionized fusion reactants (eg, protons) into electrical energy. In some designs, an energy conversion device converts mechanical energy from the reactor into electrical energy (eg, a piezoelectric device).

Various energy conversion devices may be used to convert the thermal energy generated by the reactor into mechanical and/or electrical energy. For example, a thermoelectric generator can be thermally coupled to the reactor to produce electrical energy. The thermoelectric generator can deliver thermal energy from the reactor by, for example, being placed on a confinement wall or through a heat transfer device such as a heat pipe. In another example, the reactor may convert thermal energy into mechanical energy via a heat engine (eg, moving a piston or rotating a crankshaft). In some embodiments, the reactor is equipped with a Stirling engine. In some embodiments, the reactor may be equipped with a heat engine, such as one using a Rankine cycle, in which the working fluid undergoes a cyclic phase change. If electrical energy is required, the heat engine can be equipped with a generator that converts a rotating crankshaft or oscillating piston into electrical energy.

Some energy conversion devices can convert electromagnetic radiation or radiant energy generated by the reactor into electrical energy. For example, photovoltaic cells can be mounted on one end of the reactor's confinement area to convert radiant energy into electrical energy. In some designs, the reactor may include a transparent barrier to provide thermal protection and/or optical means to concentrate radiant energy onto the photovoltaic cells. In some designs, the photovoltaic cell can be tuned to a coordinated energy gap with a narrow band of wavelengths of radiant energy emitted by the reactor (e.g., corresponding to hydrogen).

The reactor may also be configured with elements that convert the kinetic energy of the charged particles produced by the reactor into electrical energy. For example, positively charged particles (such as alpha particles) can be forced through a reverse electric field generated by one or more electrodes, thereby slowing them down. As the particles decelerate, an electric current is generated in a circuit connected to a positively charged electrode. In some designs, alpha particles emitted from the reactor can be directed to these electrodes by an applied magnetic field. In some designs, the reactor can be connected to a magnetohydrodynamic generator (MHD generator) to convert the kinetic energy of the plasma produced by the fusion reaction into electrical energy.

In some designs, the reactor may use a single energy conversion device (or energy conversion module) to convert the energy generated by the reactor into mechanical energy and/or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the reactor may use a plurality of energy conversion devices (or energy conversion modules) to convert the energy generated by the reactor into mechanical energy and/or electrical energy. Since reactors can produce multiple forms of energy, different types of energy conversion devices can be combined to increase the total mechanical and/or electrical energy produced. In some designs, adding a second energy conversion device may not reduce the energy output of the first energy conversion device because the different devices convert different forms of energy. For example, in some embodiments, the reactor can generate electrical energy from photovoltaic cells that convert radiant energy and a thermoelectric generator that converts thermal energy. In this embodiment, the presence of photovoltaic cells may not reduce the electrical energy produced by the thermoelectric generator, and vice versa. In some embodiments, a reactor may be equipped with multiple energy conversion devices to convert the same type of energy. For example, in some designs, the reactor can be equipped with a Stirling engine as well as a thermoelectric generator, both of which utilize thermal energy. In this example, the thermoelectric generator can capture thermal energy that is not converted into mechanical and/or electrical energy by the Stirling engine. In summary, any combination of energy conversion devices or modules described herein can be used to generate mechanical and/or electrical energy.

Shell

Although not shown, the reactor may include an enclosure that isolates the annular area from the surrounding environment. In some designs, the dimensions of the enclosure depend in part on the outer dimensions of the restraining wall. In some embodiments, the confinement wall defines the boundary of the housing in the r-direction, and flanges at both ends of the confinement wall in the z-direction isolate the annular region from the external environment. In some embodiments, the entire system including the control system, power supply, magnets and energy conversion device is placed within the housing. The choice of material for the housing depends on the purpose of the housing. For example, enclosures may be required to provide biological shielding, thermal isolation, and/or to achieve low-pressure operating conditions. In some designs, the enclosure can have a layered structure, where each layer provides a different function. For example, the housing may include hydrocarbon materials for biomasking and Ceramic layer that provides thermal insulation. In some designs, multiple enclosures may be used. For example, a first shell may include a flange that seals the annular area in the z-direction, thereby creating a vacuum chamber, while a second shell surrounds the entire reactor. Based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein, one of ordinary skill in the art will be aware of ways and/or methods to construct an enclosure suitable for reactor applications.

program conditions

Multi-level operations or reactions

In some designs, the energy output and efficiency of the reactor are improved when operating in multiple stages. In some designs, the reactor may have one or more preliminary stages that allow conditions within the reactor to allow fusion reactions to occur. For example, preparatory stages in a multi-stage process can be used to increase the temperature of the electron emitter, cool the temperature of the confinement wall, generate a plasma within the annular region, or change the gas pressure within the annular region. Figure 25 depicts a multi-stage flow diagram that may be used to operate a reactor. In the first run, 2501, the electron emitter is heated until it reaches the temperature at which electrons are emitted. After heating the electron emitter in 2501, alternating current is applied between the electrodes of the reactor to create a weakly ionized plasma.

After igniting a plasma in the ring, the reactor can immediately transition to a stage of spinning charged particles and sustain the fusion reaction. In some Lawrence twists, a uniform magnetic field is applied while a direct current is applied to the electrode quotient. Alternatively, in embodiments where an alternating magnetic field is applied in the z-direction, it is meant that an alternating current is applied to the electrodes at the same frequency as the magnetic field oscillates. In some designs, the alternating magnetic field can be applied by applying an alternating current to an electromagnet (such as a superconducting magnet) or a physically moving permanent magnet, such as a swivel with magnets mounted on either side of the annular area. In some designs, the spin of neutral and charged particles is kept in the same direction by alternating electric and magnetic fields at the same frequency. For example, in some designs, the electric and magnetic fields can oscillate at a frequency between about 0.1 Hz and 10 Hz, and in some cases about 10 Hz to about 1 kilohertz, in Greater than kilohertz in some designs.

In a wave-particle embodiment, an electrical signal can be applied sequentially to electrodes on the outer edge of the annular region, causing the particles to start rotating. For example, the drive signal may start at a low frequency, for example, about 60 Hz, and then rise to a high frequency, for example, about 10 MHz. In some designs, there are similar multi-stage methods for terminating the fusion reaction. In some designs, the reactor has an idle operating phase between when the fusion reaction is stopped and then resumed. During reactor operation, parameters can be closely monitored. In a reactor utilizing the Lawrence force to rotate charges, the current density in the annular region near the confinement wall is from about 150 A/m2 to about 10 kA/m2, such as from about 150 A/m2 to about 9 kA/m2. A/m2. In some designs, the current density near the confinement wall is from about 150 A/m2 to about 700 kA/m2. In some cases, the current density near the confinement wall is about 400 A/m2 to about 6000 kA/m2. In some designs, a sufficiently strong electric field is maintained near the confinement wall to operate the reactor. For example, in some designs the electric field is greater than about 25 volts/meter, in some designs greater than about 40 volts/meter, and in some designs greater than about 30 volts/meter.

In some multistage operations, the reactor can periodically alternate the direction of the charged particle rotation. In some designs, the chance of a collision between two spinning fusion reactants can be increased by alternating the direction in which the charged particles spin. In some designs, the direction of rotation can be alternated to increase or control the fusion rate in the reactor. In some embodiments, by alternating the direction of rotation, the fusion reaction occurs within the annulus rather than on the confinement surface, thereby reducing the fusion reaction rate on the confinement wall. This may be beneficial in reducing heat to the confinement wall if it becomes too hot. In the design of the Lawrence twist, the direction of rotation can be alternated by varying the alternately applied electric and/or magnetic fields. For example, if you alternate the magnetic field while maintaining the electric field, the Lawrence forces on the charged particles will also alternate directions. In some designs, the applied electric field and the applied magnetic field alternate at a frequency between about 0.1 Hz to about 10 Hz, in some designs about 10 Hz to about 1 kHz, in Greater than about 1kHz in some designs. This may help concentrate electrons in electron-rich regions, concentrating rotating particles in close proximity and, in some designs, increase the number of fusion reactions.

gas conditions

In designs that introduce gas into a confined region, for example, in hydrogen or helium reaction gases, it may be beneficial to have a certain purity of the reaction gas. In some designs, impurities in the reaction gas volume can reduce the reaction rate and overall energy output. In designs where the reactant gas is readily available in pure form, the reactant gas purity is at least about 99.95% to 99.999% by volume. This means that the impurities in the reactor are less than 10 per million volume.

In some designs, deuterium, a naturally occurring isotope of hydrogen, may be found in the hydrogen reaction gas. For example, there may be deuterium-containing impurities in the hydrogen tank and are therefore potentially dangerous when present in large quantities in the reaction gas. If too much deuterium is present in the fuel, fusion reactions other than proton-boron 11 may occur within the reactor. In some designs, these other reactions may release radioactive by-products. In order to monitor the amount of deuterium in the reaction gas, the reactor may be equipped with a sensor, for example, using an in-situ mass spectrometer, such as Hiden Analytical's residual gas analyzer, for monitoring the amount of deuterium in the hydrogen reaction gas.

The reactor can contain a molar ratio of ions to neutral particles, approaching 0%. After breakdown of the plasma, the molar ratio of ions to neutral particles in the rotating mass in the reactor is from about 1:1000 to about 1:1,000,000. In some designs, the molar ratio of ions to neutrals in the reaction gas changes with specific stages of the multistage process flow. For example, in the process shown in Figure 25, the molar ratio of ions to neutrals may be higher in stage 2502 after starting the plasma than in stage 2503 when the reactor is operating at steady state.

The reactor was equipped with gas inlet and outlet valves as described elsewhere. In principle, the flow through the gas inlet valve and/or the gas outlet valve can be controlled to maintain within the constrained area Required gas composition or gas pressure. , in some designs, the gas volume in the confined region may be replaced at a rate of less than about once per minute or about once per hour. In many embodiments, the gas valve may be sealed so that no fluid flows during reactor operation.

In some designs, the reactive gases are maintained at standard temperatures and pressures before generating the plasma in the confinement region. In some designs, such as when using a vacuum enclosure, a vacuum pump can be used to reduce the pressure to less than about 1 × 10 ^-2 Torr, and in other designs the confined area is less than about 1 × 10 ^-6 before breakdown of the plasma Trust. In some designs, to increase the density of neutral particles, the reactant inlet tube increases the internal pressure in the confined region to greater than about 0.1 Torr, and in other designs greater than about 10 Torr before breakdown of the plasma or during operation. Trust. During reactor operation, the particles are subject to centripetal acceleration that is a billion times greater than the acceleration due to gravity on the Earth's surface. In some designs, the gas pressure and/or density around the confinement wall can be monitored during operation of the reactor. If there is insufficient pressure to induce rotating matter near the confinement wall, the electron-rich region can diffuse further into the confinement region and fail to provide the desired electron masking effect. In some designs, gas pressure near the confinement wall can be monitored instantaneously. The temperature of the gas may be close to room temperature before the plasma is generated, and in some designs the gas is heated first. In some designs, the gas is heated to greater than about 1,80 degrees Celsius, and in other designs, the gas is heated to greater than about 2,200 degrees Celsius. During steady operation of the reactor, the gas temperature may be heated such that the gas in the confined region is in the range of about 400 degrees Celsius to about 800 degrees Celsius, and in some designs in the range of about 900 degrees Celsius to about 1,500 degrees Celsius.

As discussed elsewhere, the reactive gases can be delivered to the reactor by various mechanisms. In designs using feed valves, gaseous reactants can be delivered from a gas tank or a pressurized tank. In some embodiments, a reactive gas such as hydrogen can be diffused into the confinement region by diffusion from the confinement wall or a hydrogen absorbing material such as titanium or palladium.

Operating conditions for lowering the Coulomb barrier

As discussed elsewhere in this article, the fusion rate per unit volume per unit time can be expressed as: dN/dT=n ₁ n ₂ σ ν

where n ₁ and n ₂ are the densities of each reactant, σ is the reaction cross section at a specific energy, and ν is the relative velocity between the two interacting substances. The product ( σν ) can be increased by lowering the Coulomb barrier. In some designs, the reaction cross-section may be between about ^10-30 cm2 and about ^10-48 cm2, and in other designs, about ^10-28 cm2 and about ^10-24 cm2. In some designs, the relative velocity is between 10 ⁴ m/s and 10 ⁶ m/s, and in other designs between about 10 ³ m/s and about 10 ⁴ m/s. In some designs, the reduction of the Coulomb barrier can result in a reaction rate of about 10 ^{to 10 reactions} per cubic centimeter per second for fusion reactions along the confinement wall.

As discussed elsewhere, electron-rich regions can be formed near the confinement wall to provide a shadowing effect between colliding fusion nuclei. In some designs, electron emitters can be used to provide free electrons to this region. The electron emitter can be excited optically (eg using a laser), frictional heating of rotating particles and/or by Joule heating.

Within the electron-rich region, the electron density may range from about 10 ¹⁰ to about 10 ²³ per cubic centimeter, and in some designs the electron density is on the order of about 10 ²³ per cubic centimeter. In some embodiments, the neutral particle density in the electron-rich region may be in the range of about 10 ¹⁶ to 10 ¹⁸ per cubic centimeter, and in other designs, the neutral particle density in the constrained region is about 10 ²⁰ per cubic centimeter. of magnitude. The density of positive ions is much lower than the density of neutral particles in the electron-rich region. In some designs, the density of positive ions is from about 10 ¹⁵ per cubic centimeter to about 10 ¹⁶ per cubic centimeter. In some designs, the ratio of electrons to positive ions in the electron-rich region ranges from about 10 ⁶ :1 to about 10 ⁸ :1.

The radial thickness of the electron-rich region can be described as the region where the maximum electron gradient exists. In some designs, the electron-rich region ranges in size from about 50 nanometers to about 50 microns, and in some designs, the electron-rich region is from about 500 nanometers to about 1.5 microns.

Within the electron-rich region, for example, about 1 micron from the confinement wall, a strong electric field may exist. In some designs, the electric field strength within the electron-rich region (or confined region) is greater than 10 ⁶ volts/meter, and in other designs the electric field is greater than about 10 ⁸ volts/meter. In some designs, the electron temperature in this region ranges from about 10,000 grammes to about 50,000 grammes, and in other designs from about 15,000 grammes to about 40,000 grammes.

In some designs, if one parameter is constrained by physical limitations, that parameter may end up affecting other parameters within the electron-rich region. For example, the Lawson criterion involves the balancing of parameters.

In some designs, the parameters of the electron-rich region may depend in part on the targeted fusion reaction. For example, the parameter ranges are different in the p+11B reaction and the D+D reaction.

Another way to increase the probability of a fusion event is through spin orientation of the fusion reactants. Nuclear force has spin-dependent properties. When the spins are aligned, the Coulomb barrier between two fusion nuclei (eg, a deuteron and a deuteron's nucleus) decreases. Nuclear magnetic moments play a role in quantum tunneling. Specifically, when the magnetic moments of two fusion nuclei are parallel, there is an attraction between them. As a result, the total barrier between two cores with parallel magnetic moments is reduced and tunneling events are more likely to occur. In contrast, when two fusion nuclei have antiparallel magnetic moments, the barrier increases and tunneling is less likely to occur. When the magnetic moment of a particular type of nucleus is positive, fusion nuclei tend to align in the direction of the applied magnetic field. In contrast, when the moment is negative, the fusion nuclei tend to align antiparallel to the applied field. Most fusion nuclei, which are potential fusion reactants, have positive magnetic moments (p, D, T, 6Li, 7Li and 11B all have positive magnetic moments; 3He and 15N have magnetic moments). In certain embodiments, a magnetic field is provided at each point within the device in a direction generally aligned with the magnetic moment. This results in a reduction in the total energy barrier between the cores when the first and second working materials have the same positive or negative magnetic moments. This is believed to result in increased tunneling probability and the occurrence of fusion reactions. This effect may also be called spin polarization or magnetic dipole-dipole interaction. In addition, the rotation of the fusion core around magnetic field lines also helps determine the total angular momentum of the core. Therefore, the Coulomb barrier is further reduced when the cyclotron motion of the fusion core generates additional angular momentum in the same direction.

In some designs, the spin states of fusion reactants (eg, ¹ H and ¹¹ B) within the confinement region and along the confinement walls can be aligned by applying magnetic fields in the range of 1 to 20 Tesla. In embodiments where a magnetic field is used to provide the Lawrence force, the magnetic field may also align the spin states of the fusion reactants. The fusion reaction rate can be significantly enhanced by reducing the Coulomb barrier through a combination of electron masking and spin polarization (achieved by a strong magnetic field acting on the reactant fusion nuclei). The electrostatic attraction between two nuclei involves a spin-dependent period, which dominates at short distances (eg, less than 1 fm).

Helium-3, also known as He-3 and/or ^3He , is a relatively light, non-radioactive isotope of helium, characterized by a nucleus with two protons and one neutron. In regular helium, helium-4 has two neutrons. Although found as a trace element on Earth, helium-3, formed from the fusion of deuterium and hydrogen-1, releases large amounts of energy. Alternative artificial sources of helium-3 are needed, given that extraction of helium-3 from extraterrestrial sources, such as the moon, is still under development and may ultimately prove very expensive. Helium-3y has relatively stable decomposition physics, for example, because helium-3 itself is non-radioactive.

An energy-generating reaction involving helium-3 as a reactant is as follows: D+ ³ He→ ⁴ He+ ¹ p+18.35MeV

As shown above, the energy produced by the fusion of helium-3 and deuterium is 18.35 MeV, which corresponds to approximately 493 megawatt-hours, or 4.93×108W, for every 3 grams (eg, 1 mol) ^{of 3} He. h. ³ He is necessary for high power output with small amounts of reactants. However, the temperatures required for the fusion of deuterium and helium-3 are significantly higher than in more conventional nuclear fusion reactions due to the relatively high Coulomb barrier, such as the energy barrier due to electrostatic interactions between the nuclei of deuterium and helium-3.

However, as described in equation (1) above, the Coulombic barrier can be lowered to a greater extent for the fusion reaction to occur. As shown in Figure 1C, by applying a strong electric field 144 between the inner electrode 120 and the outer electrode 110, as previously described. The presence of the electric field 144 allows the fusion reaction to occur at substantially lower temperatures, such as approximately 2000 K (0.17 eV) through the various proven embodiments of the reactor discussed previously. Accordingly, reactors presented in various embodiments may be designed or configured to accommodate the production of helium-3, which may be beneficial for energy production in subsequent fusion reactions, as shown in the above equation.

Specifically, a reactor, such as one of the reactor embodiments already described herein, may be configured such that a gaseous reactant, such as gas or hydrogen, is immobilized in the target substrate, which may be similar to the boron-containing reactant described herein. In certain embodiments, the deuterium-containing target is provided in the form of palladium, titanium, tantalum, deuterated polyethylene (DPE), or other material that absorbs deuterium at high density. In certain embodiments, the atomic ratio of deuterium to target material (eg, palladium or titanium) in the acceptor is at least about 1:1. For example, titanium can adsorb deuterium in a ratio greater than 2:1. When deuterium is adsorbed, titanium can contain up to 10^23 deuterium atoms/cc. Fully deuterated polyethylene can contain up to 7X10^22 deuterium atoms/cc. Such levels of deuterium concentration may exist locally at the interface of the target substrate and the confinement region or throughout the entire substrate.

In certain embodiments, hydrogen and deuterium are provided within a confined region, such as in the gas phase. This configuration increases the possibility of D+D fusion.

Similar to the discussion about ion-neutral particle coupling in conjunction with Figures 2a and 2b, the charged particles (such as protons or hydrogen 2604 of the hydrogen-1 nucleus) shown in Figure 26a transfer kinetic energy to the surrounding neutral particles 2606. And, as mentioned before, electrons are emitted from a localized area inside the reactor, which is also where the fusion reaction of the expected species occurs, that is, the electron-rich region 2632 formed near the confinement wall 2610. The excess electrons lower the Coulombic barrier that needs to be overcome for the fusion reaction of ¹ H nuclei to occur with D contained on and/or within the confinement wall 2610, thereby increasing the likelihood that a fusion reaction will occur. Therefore, as previously discussed, at least some of the ¹ H nuclei at the electron-rich region 2632 near the confinement wall 2610 will continue to rotate around a magnetic field formed in a direction substantially perpendicular to the direction of current flowing through the annular region electrode within the reactor. Electrodes in an annular space within the reactor. The magnetic field causes the movement of charged particles, such as the ¹ H nuclei shown in 26a and 26b, which experience the Lawrence force in the azimuthal (or Θ) direction. In some embodiments, the inner electrode has a negative potential applied while the outer electrode is grounded (or held at a positive potential), thereby creating a negative electric field (eg, inward toward the inner electrode, ie, the r-direction). In this design, positively charged ions, such as ¹ H nuclei, will move in the negative r direction through the annulus 540 toward the inner electrode, contact D on and/or within the confinement wall 2610 and fuse to release energy. According to the following equation: D+ ¹ H→ ³ He+ γ +5.49MeV

Also shown in Figures 27a and 27b is the contact of rotation ¹ H with D on and/or within the confinement wall 2610 and the subsequent fusion reaction, generally similar to the process previously shown in Figures 3a and 3b. As shown in Figure 27a, ^1H approaches D embedded or otherwise within the confinement wall 2610, and subsequently undergoes a fusion reaction with it to produce ^3H , as shown in Equation 2 above and Figure 28a, and releases electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma rays radiation (represented by γ in the above reaction equation), and an energy of 5.49 MeV. In some embodiments, the confinement wall 2610 consists essentially of palladium (Pd) or some similar metal and/or a composite including palladium, as shown in Eq. A deuteride is formed and D is retained to facilitate fusion with ^1H .

In some embodiments, D on and/or within confinement wall 2610 may be fused with other D according to the reaction equation shown below: D+D→ ^3He +n+3.27MeV

Similar to what was discussed for ¹ H and D fusion reactions on and/or within the confinement wall 2610 shown in Figures 27a and 27b, the electron-rich region 2632 surrounding the confinement wall 2610 significantly reduces the Coulomb interaction between the D nuclei. Barrier. This allows the fusion reaction to occur at temperatures achievable by the reactor, i.e. in the range of approximately 2000K (0.17eV). In some embodiments, also shown in Figure 28b, the D self-reaction and the reaction of ¹ H with D occur simultaneously to supplement the energy production within the reactor until ¹ H and/or D── the fusion shown in the reaction above The necessary reactants for the reaction are basically consumed.

Some of ^{the 3He} produced may fuse with itself, for example, with other ^3He atoms before extracting ^3He from the reactor. This fusion reaction is shown in the following formula: ³ He+ ³ He→ ⁴ He+2 ¹ H+12.86MeV

However, this process can be reduced by extracting helium-3, for example by evacuating the reactor at the location of the helium-3 concentrate.

Collection of helium-3 produced by reactors

Inherent separation mechanisms resulting from reactor operation can be exploited to successfully extract and/or separate ³ He from ⁴ He and/or other gases in the reactor. For example, compared to ³ He, ⁴ He is more massive and therefore more likely to be concentrated at and/or near the external electrode 2910 (as shown in FIG. 29). Similar to what was shown and discussed previously in FIG. 5d, 4 He is subject to rotation to produce a direction. The center, a mixture of charged particles and various fusion products such as ³ He and ⁴ He, forces these particles and products to be distributed from the inside out according to their respective relative masses. Therefore, suitable collection devices may be placed at radial locations with higher percentage and/or concentration levels of helium-3, such as area 2912 in Figure 29. In order to extract the ³ He-rich components within the reactor, outlets can be provided at appropriate radial positions on one or both axial ends of the reactor.

Additionally, in various embodiments, the movement of helium-3 and/or helium-4 within the annular space 2940 of the reactor can be separated by a multi-stage collection system (not shown in the figure). The heavier of the two isotopes, helium-4, will move along the z-axis of the reactor at a slower rate than the lighter isotope, helium-3. The port connecting the collection system to the external electrode can be opened at the desired time, allowing the collection system to collect heavier isotopes such as helium-4. A compartment next to the compartment that receives helium-4 receives material from the sample section for recovering helium-4. In addition, the collection system can distinguish isotopes of different masses through circular valves with rings that can be aligned to facilitate their action.

In some embodiments, suitable collection mechanisms may include an outlet, a pressure vessel, and/or a phase separation device in fluid communication with the reactor at and/or near region 2912 to preferentially extract helium-3 from annular space 2940 . Containing a portion of the helium-4, the helium-3 is supplied to a storage and/or containment vessel for subsequent purification and/or processing.

Helium-3 isolation and purification

A gas and/or vapor purifier, along with its associated chromatography equipment, may be located downstream or with the vessel to receive and store the helium-3 extracted from the reactor. Such a device may be configured to identify and remove contaminants such as moisture, hydrocarbons and/or oxygen found in the helium-3 removed from the reactor to provide substantially pure helium-3, which may be used as a reaction Materials are fed to other fusion reactors to produce energy, as described above.

Additionally, in some embodiments, a storage device may be located further downstream of the purification device to receive and store substantially pure helium-3 for use. Envisioned storage devices include cryogenic separation and/or storage devices, such as cryogenic storage dewars, which allow for convenient long-term storage of vapors or liquids. Bulk form of helium-3. Additionally, mass spectrometers and/or associated atomic mass identification devices may be used alone or in combination with any one or more of pressure vessels or phase separation equipment, purifiers, chromatography devices, and/or storage devices for further extraction, purification and/or stored for later use, for example based on the mass of helium-3 relative to helium-4.

In some embodiments, helium-3 can spontaneously separate from helium-4 from a mixture containing both isotopes at low and/or very low temperatures below 0.8 K. Moreover, the liquid phase of both isotopes becomes superfluid, such as a fluid with a viscosity value of zero, allowing infinite flow at low temperatures without loss of kinetic energy; specifically, helium-4 becomes superfluid at temperatures below 2.17K Superfluid, Helium-3 becomes superfluid at temperatures below 0.0025K. Methods commonly used to filter such superfluids and associated cryogenic distillation protocols are disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 3,421,334 to JL McKinney et al., which relates to the separation of helium-3 and helium-4 by a combination of phase change and cryogenic distillation. Superfluid. Specifically, the disclosed method includes cooling a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 at a phase transition or lambda point. A compressor may be used for this cooling.

The separation methods disclosed herein include the use of a tabletop separator (TTS) that receives a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 gases directly from the reactor or first through a filtration and/or separation stage. The filtration stage may include means to filter trace amounts of hydrocarbons, water vapor and/or other contaminants introduced into the feed tube from various sources. The separation stage may include separation of relatively lighter gases, such as hydrogen and/or helium-3, using any method or combination of methods. And, in some embodiments, the table top separator (TTS) itself can be used as a means to enrich trace amounts of hydrogen in the helium-3 and helium-4 mixture extracted from the reactor. Hydrogen can be stored in dedicated storage units or returned to the reactor as fuel. Similarly, a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 can be directed to another dedicated storage unit or returned to a table top separator (TTS) for separation.

Other embodiments

A request that does not use "means" or "step" is not a "means plus function" or "step plus function" form. (See 35 USC §112(f)). Applicant's intention is that only the requirement to use "methods" or "steps" is to be construed in accordance with or in accordance with 35 U.S.C §112(f).

The present disclosure may be implemented in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics of the invention. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects as illustrative only and not restrictive. Therefore, the scope of the present disclosure is indicated by the appended claims rather than the foregoing description. All possible embodiments within the meaning and scope of the claims are to be considered included.

510:External electrode

520: Internal electrode

Claims (33)

A device for producing helium-3, the device comprising: a reactor, including: a confinement wall that at least partially surrounds a confinement area in which charged particles and neutral particles can rotate; a plurality of particles adjacent or close to the confinement area electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes include an anode and a cathode, wherein the cathode radially surrounds the anode, and wherein the hydrogen-1 gas in the confined region between the anode and cathode passes through applying a negative voltage to the cathode to cause emission from the cathode surface to be ionized; a control system including a voltage source and/or a current source configured to apply a potential between at least two of the plurality of electrodes, wherein the applied electric potential alone or together with a magnetic field generates an electric field in the confinement region, driving or maintaining the rotational motion of the charged particles and the neutral particles in the confinement region; and is provided in the confinement region Or a reactant adjacent to the constrained region. During operation, repeated collisions between the neutral particles and the reactant interact with the reactant, and the interaction releases energy and produces a characteristic different from the neutral particle. a product of a nuclear mass of a particle and a nuclear mass of a nucleus of said reactant, wherein said product includes helium-3, wherein said electric field within said confinement region reduces at least part of the repulsion between said charged particles or a Coulomb barrier such that a fusion reaction occurs between at least some of the charged particles and the reactants in the confinement region and produces helium-3, and wherein the charged particles include protons, and wherein the protons are in the Ionized hydrogen - 1 The gas rotates near the cathode surface and collides with the neutral particles in the confinement area, causing the neutral particles to rotate together with the protons through ion-neutral particle coupling. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the plurality of electrodes are azimuthally distributed around the confinement area, and wherein the control system is configured to induce the charged particles by applying a time-varying voltage to the plurality of electrodes and the rotational motion of the neutral particles in the constrained region. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the reactor is configured to induce the charged particles and the neutral particles in the confinement region through interaction between the electric field and the magnetic field applied within the confinement region. The rotational motion of particles. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising an electron emitter disposed in or adjacent to the confinement area, such that during operation, the electron emitter generates electrons in the confinement area. The device of claim 1, further comprising: a phase separation device connected to the reactor and allowing fluid communication therebetween, wherein the phase separation device receives a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4, and cools the mixture. The mixture is brought below the transition temperature so that the helium-4 assumes superfluid properties; and a filter that filters out the superfluid form of helium-4 from the helium-3 remaining in the phase separation device. The device according to claim 5, further comprising: A distillation device is connected to the phase separation device, wherein the distillation device receives helium-3 and helium-4 in vapor form to fractionate the two. The device of claim 6, wherein the rotational motion of the charged particles and the neutral particles in the confinement region causes similar rotational motions of helium-3 and helium-4, the rotational motions being consistent with their respective Mass is proportional, at least partially separating helium-3 and helium-4. The device of claim 1, wherein the centripetal force generated by the rotational motion of the helium-3 and helium-4 facilitates their separation. The device of claim 1, further comprising: a cryogenic storage device for collecting and storing helium-3, which receives helium-3 in vapor form from the reactor of claim 1. The device of claim 9, wherein the cryogenic storage device includes a cryogenic storage dewar having one or more pressure relief valves configured to remove helium-3 when the pressure therein becomes excessive. and helium-4 vapor is vented from the cryogenic storage dewar. The device of claim 1, further comprising: a port for selectively evacuating helium-3 based on its relative radial position within the reactor. The device of claim 1, wherein the charged particles include hydrogen-1. The device of claim 1, wherein the confinement wall is made essentially of palladium. The device of claim 13, wherein deuterium is a reactant embedded in palladium of the confinement wall, and wherein collisions of the charged particles with the deuterium produce helium-3. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the deuterium is provided from a source external to the reactor. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the electric field within the constrained region is limited to a defined radius extending radially outward from inner electrodes of the plurality of electrodes. The device of claim 16, wherein the environmental physical conditions within the constrained area and outside the limited radius are not conducive to the fusion of helium-3 itself to produce helium-4. The device of claim 1, further comprising: an energy conversion device configured to generate electrical energy from the heat released by producing helium-3. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein at least a portion of the electrical energy generated from the heat released from the production of helium-3 is fed back to provide power to the reactor. The apparatus of claim 3, wherein the magnetic field substantially axially surrounds inner electrodes of the plurality of electrodes. The device of claim 20, wherein the magnetic field is provided by a ring-shaped or disc-shaped permanent magnet, and the permanent magnet system is selected from the group consisting of: neodymium-iron-boron permanent magnet, samarium-cobalt permanent magnet, spiral Tube or ring electromagnets, or superconducting electromagnets. The device of claim 3, wherein the magnetic field is in an axial direction of the plurality of electrodes, and the electric field is in a radial direction of the plurality of electrodes. The device of claim 22, wherein the magnetic field and the electric field act together on the charged particles in a common azimuth direction, causing the charged particles to rotate in the common azimuth direction. The device according to claim 1, wherein the charged particles include negatively charged particles and positively charged particles. The device of claim 24, wherein the negatively charged particles include negatively charged clusters of electrons, negative ions and neutral atoms or compounds. The device of claim 24, wherein the positively charged particles include protons and orthohydrogen-1 molecules. The device of claim 1, wherein the ion-neutral particle coupling, the electric field and the magnetic field jointly result in the formation of dense neutral particles and protons, the neutral particles and the protons rotates with the electron space charge emitted by the cathode. The device of claim 1, wherein the electric field between the charged particles (including hydrogen-1) and the reactants (including deuterium) at or near the inner electrode of the plurality of electrodes increases the Gamow tunneling between hydrogen-1 and deuterium, thereby increasing the nuclear fusion reaction rate between hydrogen-1 and deuterium, thereby producing high-energy fusion products including helium-3. The device of claim 1, wherein a device for converting the charged particles, the neutral particles and the product into thermal energy is placed at either end or both ends of the reactor. The device of claim 1, further comprising: at least one mass spectrometer placed at one or more ends of the reactor, wherein the mass spectrometer separates and extracts helium-3 from the product. A method of producing helium-3 from a fusion reaction, the method comprising applying an electric field between at least two electrodes of a plurality of electrodes adjacent or proximate to a confinement region such that the applied electric field at least partially traverses the Confining a region and causing rotational motion of charged hydrogen-1 particles and neutral particles in the constrained region; wherein repeated collisions of the charged hydrogen-1 particles and deuterium placed in or close to the constrained region Producing an interaction that produces a product having a nuclear mass that is different from the nuclear mass of the particle and the fusion reactant, wherein the product includes a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4; and Depending on the relative radial position of helium-3 within the confinement region, helium-3 is removed from the helium-3 and said mixture of helium-4, wherein said plurality of electrodes includes an anode and a cathode, wherein said cathode radially surrounds said anode, and wherein in said confined region between said anode and said cathode hydrogen-1 gas, ionized by emission from the cathode surface by applying a negative voltage to the cathode, wherein the confined region contains charged particles and reactants, and the electric field within the confined region is reduced by at least partial repulsion or Coulomb barrier between the charged particles, thereby causing a fusion reaction to occur between at least some of the charged particles in the confinement region and the reactant to produce helium-3, and wherein the charged particles Particles include protons, and wherein the protons rotate near the cathode surface in the ionized hydrogen-1 gas, collide with the neutral particles in the confinement region, and cause ion-neutral coupling The neutral particles rotate together with the protons. The method of claim 31, wherein applying the electric field between at least two electrodes further comprises: applying a time-varying voltage to the plurality of electrodes to cause the charged particles and the neutral particles to Rotational motion in the constrained area, wherein the plurality of electrodes are azimuthally distributed around the restricted area. The method of claim 31, further comprising: applying a magnetic field in the confinement area, such that the interaction between the applied electric field and the applied magnetic field causes the charged particles in the confinement area and The neutral Rotational motion of the particle, wherein the plurality of electrodes are azimuthally distributed around the confinement area.

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