TW201947609A - Reducing the coulombic barrier to interacting reactants - Google Patents

Abstract

Methods, apparatuses, devices, and systems for producing and controlling and fusion activities of nuclei. Hydrogen atoms or other neutral species (neutrals) are induced to rotational motion in a confinement region as a result of ion-neutral coupling, in which ions are driven by electric and magnetic fields. The controlled fusion activities cover a spectrum of reactions including aneutronic reactions such as proton-boron-11 fusion reactions.

Description

   Technical solution to reduce Coulomb barrier between interacting reactants   

The present invention relates to an inter-nuclear reaction and a reactor for initiating and maintaining the inter-nuclear reaction.

Since the 1950s, the scientific and technological community has been working to achieve controlled and economically feasible nuclear fusion. For many reasons, nuclear fusion is a very ideal source of energy, but after billions of dollars and decades of research, the idea of turning nuclear fusion into a sustainable and clean energy source has become a yellow dream. Our challenge is to find a way to maintain fusion reactions in an economical, safe, reliable and environmentally friendly manner. This challenge proved extremely difficult. The prevailing view of this technology is that there are 25-50 years to go before fusion becomes a viable option for power generation-like the old joke "fusion is the energy of the future-and it will always be in the future" Next ITERation? ", Sep. 3, 2011, The Economist).

Previous research on large-scale fusion has focused on two methods: inertial confinement fusion (ICF) and magnetic confinement fusion. The ICF attempts to initiate fusion reactions by compressing and heating needle-sized, pellet-shaped fusion reactants, such as a mixture of deuterium and tritium. The fuel is excited by passing a high-energy laser beam, electron beam or ion beam to the fuel target, causing the heated outer layer of the target fuel to explode and generate a shock wave, which propagates inward through the fuel particles, compresses and heats the fusion reactants, Thus triggering a fusion reaction.

At the time of filing this patent application, the most successful ICF project was the National Ignition Facility (NIF), which cost close to $ 3.5 billion and was completed in 2009. NIF has reached a milestone, enabling fuel particles to emit more energy than input, but as of 2015, NIF experiments can only reach about 1/3 of the energy required for ignition. Regarding sustainable response, the longest duration of ICF fusion reaction is 150 picoseconds. Even if ICF's efforts achieve ignition conditions that make it a viable energy source, many obstacles remain. For example, there is a need for a solution that removes heat from the reaction chamber without disturbing the fuel target and drive gear, and a solution that mitigates the short life of the fusion device due to the radioactive byproducts of the fusion reactants: deuterium and tritium reactions Generate neutrons.

The second main research area, magnetically constrained fusion, attempts to induce fusion by confining thermal fusion fuel in the form of plasma using a magnetic field. This method aims to prolong the time of close contact of ions and increase the possibility of fusion. The magnetic fusion device applies a magnetic force to the charged particles, so that when balanced with the centripetal force, the particles move in a circular or spiral path within the plasma. The magnetic confinement prevents hot plasma from contacting its reactor wall. In magnetic confinement, fusion occurs entirely within the plasma.

Most research on magnetic confinement is based on the Tokamak design, in which thermal plasma is confined within a toroidal magnetic field. The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) in Princeton, New Jersey is the world's first magnetic fusion device to perform extensive scientific experiments with a plasma consisting of 50/50 deuterium / tritium. Built in 1980, it was initially expected that TFTR would eventually achieve fusion energy, but ultimately failed to achieve this goal, and it closed in 1997. To date, the longest plasma duration of any tokamak is 6 minutes and 30 seconds, held by France's Tore Supra tokamak. Current efforts in magnetically constrained fusion are focused on the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), a tokamak reactor that began construction in 2013. As of June 2015, the construction cost has exceeded $ 14 billion, and it is expected to be completed by 2019. The facility is expected to conduct deuterium and tritium tests from 2027. The cost of the project is currently estimated at more than $ 50 billion, and costs may continue to rise. Recently, the Senate-funded Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development issued a recommendation that the United States withdraw from the ITER project. Due to market reality and the inherent limitations of Tokamak fusion power generation design, many analysts doubt that fusion reactors such as ITER will become commercially viable devices.

The University of Maryland Maryland Centrifuge Experiment (MCX) is studying an alternative form of magnetic confinement. It will test the concepts of centrifugal restraint and speed shear stability. In this experiment, in a design where a magnetic field is present, the capacitor is discharged from the cylindrical cathode to the surrounding vacuum chamber by hydrogen. The orthogonal electric and magnetic fields (denoted as J × B) generate a force that drives the thermally ionized plasma (> 10 ⁵ K) to rotate around the discharge electrode. Due to the significant change in plasma boundary temperature, it is inevitable that there are cold neutral substances that significantly affect the plasma flow. Research has focused on the effects of neutral particles, and they believe that "hindering the required plasma rotation" is required for fusion conditions. A "neutral substance" or "neutral particle" is an atom or molecule with a neutral charge, that is, they have the same number of electrons and protons. This number is the number of atoms in the design of the atom. Ionic or ionized atoms or other particles have a charge, that is, they have at least one electron or more protons than electrons.

Rotating plasma devices that do not employ high ionization plasmas have been considered for nuclear fusion research, but neutral particles have been considered an obstacle to achieving fusion conditions. Due to restrictive effects including neutral resistance and instability, a researcher in the field believes that although "not entirely impossible, it is still not possible to have fusion reactors that rely on rotating plasma alone to achieve self-sustainment." Article: ROTATING PLASMAS ", Lehnart, Nuclear Fusion 11 (1971)).

0.7，美國國家點火裝置最近聲稱已經實現了Q>1(忽略了其雷射器的非常大的能量損失)。Q=1的條件，稱為“損益兩平”，表示通過聚變反應釋放能量值等於能量輸入量。實際上，用於產生電力的反應堆應該顯示出遠大於1的Q值，使其在商業上可行，因為只有一部分聚變能被轉化為有用的形式。傳統思想認為，只有不存在大量中性粒子的強電離等離子體具有達到Q>1的可能。這些條件限制了在聚變反應器中可以實現的顆粒密度和能量約束時間。因此，該領域將勞森(Lawson)判據視為受控聚變反應的基準---這一基準，在考慮到所有能源投入時，尚沒有人能實現。對於勞森判據或大體上相似的範式的追求，已導致聚變裝置和系統龐大、複雜、難以管理，昂貴，當然在經濟上就是不可行的。勞森判據的公式是三重向量積，如下所示：

All credible previous methods face constraints and engineering issues. The total energy balance of the fusion reactor Q, defined as _{follows: Q = E fusion / E in} , the total energy E _fusion which is released by a fusion reaction, and E _in the energy generated is used in the reaction. The goal is to get a Q value greater than 1 or greater than the unit, thereby creating a usable energy source. Officials from United Airlines (JET) claim Q has been achieved

0.7, the US National Ignition Device recently claimed to have achieved Q> 1 (ignoring the very large energy loss of its laser). The condition of Q = 1, called "profit and loss", means that the energy released through the fusion reaction is equal to the energy input. In fact, the reactor used to generate electricity should show a Q value much greater than 1, making it commercially viable because only a portion of the fusion energy can be converted into a useful form. Traditional thinking holds that only strong ionized plasmas without a large number of neutral particles have the possibility of reaching Q> 1. These conditions limit the particle density and energy confinement time that can be achieved in a fusion reactor. Therefore, the field regards the Lawson criterion as the benchmark for controlled fusion reactions-a benchmark that has not been achieved when all energy inputs are considered. The pursuit of Lawson's criteria or a generally similar paradigm has resulted in fusion devices and systems that are large, complex, difficult to manage, expensive, and certainly not economically feasible. The formula for Lawson's criterion is a triple vector product as follows:

Lawson criterion Although not discussed in detail herein; in essence, indicates that Lawson criterion, ignition condition is reached, the particle density (n-), temperature (T)) and time constraints (τ _E) must be greater than a number This number depends on the energy of the charged fusion product ( E _ch ), the Boltzmann constant ( k _B ), the fusion cross section ( σ ), the relative velocity ( υ ), and the temperature. For the deuterium-tritium reaction, the minimum value of the triple product occurs at the temperature T = 14keV, and the value of the triple product is about 3 x 10 ²¹ keV s / m ³ (J. Wesson, "Tokamaks", Oxford Engineering Science Series No 48, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2nd edition, 1997.) In fact, this industry benchmark indicates that using deuterium-tritium fusion reactions requires temperatures in excess of 150 million degrees Celsius to achieve a positive energy balance. For proton-boron 11 fusion, Lawson's criterion indicates that the required temperature must be increased significantly. More specifically, n τ ~ 10 ¹⁶ cm ^-3 / s, hundreds of times higher than deuterium and tritium fusion [from Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion: Fundamentals and Applications by George H. Miley and S. Krupaker Murali].

One aspect of Lawson's criterion is based on the premise that thermal energy must be continuously added to the plasma to replace the lost energy, maintain the plasma temperature, and maintain its full or high ionization. In particular, the main source of energy loss in traditional fusion systems is due to the radiation induced by the electrons and the cyclotron motion when mobile electrons interact with ions in the thermal plasma. Lawson's criterion was developed for fusion methods, where electron radiation loss is an important factor due to the use of hot and highly ionized plasmas with high-speed moving electrons.

Because traditional thinking holds that high temperature and strong ionizing plasmas of neutral particles that are not significantly present are needed, it is further believed that inexpensive physical restraint reactions cannot exist. Therefore, the most widely used methods involve complex and expensive schemes to control the reaction, such as with magnetic restraint systems (e.g., ITER tokamak) and inertial restraint systems (e.g., NIF laser).

In fact, at least one source acknowledges that it is impossible to include fusion reactions with a physical structure: "The simplest and most obvious way to provide plasma confinement is through direct contact with the material wall, but for two fundamental reasons It's impossible: walls cool the plasma, and most wall materials melt. Let's recall that fusion plasma here requires a temperature of ~ 10 ⁸ K, and metals usually melt at temperatures below 5000K. (" Principles of Fusion Energy, "AAHarms et al.). The need for extremely high temperatures is based on the belief that only charged high-energy ions can fuse and that Coulomb repulsion limits fusion events. Existing teaching in this field depends on absolute Most studies and projects make this basic assumption.

In very few designs, researchers will consider ways to reduce Coulomb barriers or repulsive forces (the nucleus that repels their interactions) to reduce the energy required to initiate and maintain fusion. These methods and the methods described above are largely ignored because they are not feasible.

In the 1950s, Luis Alvarez used the hydrogen bubble chamber at the University of California, Berkeley to study muon-catalyzed nuclear fusion. Alverez's work ("Catalysis of Nuclear Reactions by μ Mesons." Physical Review. 105, Alvarez, L.W .; et al. (1957)) demonstrated that nuclear fusion occurs at temperatures significantly lower than those required for thermonuclear fusion. In theory, it is proposed that fusion occurs even at room temperature or room temperature. In this process, a negatively charged muon replaces an electron in a hydrogen molecule. Since the mass of the muon is 207 times larger than that of the electron, the hydrogen nucleus is nearly 207 times larger than the atomic molecule. When the nuclei are close together, the probability of nuclear fusion increases greatly, until a large number of fusion reactions may occur at room temperature.

Although muon-catalyzed fusion has received some attention, efforts to use muon-catalyzed fusion as an energy source have not been successful. The current technology for generating a large number of μ mesons requires a large amount of energy, far exceeding the energy generated by the catalytic nuclear fusion reaction, and thus cannot achieve a profit and loss level or Q> 1. In addition, each μ meson "sticks" to alpha particles produced by a deuterium nucleus (a deuterium nucleus) and a tritium nucleus (a tritium nucleus) (so that a "stuck" μ meson is detached from the catalytic loop) with only a 1 probability %, Which means that each muon can catalyze only a few hundred deuterium-tritium fusion reactions. Therefore, these two factors-the muon is too expensive to produce easily and the muon is too easy to stick to alpha particles-the muon-catalyzed fusion is restricted to the laboratory. In order to generate useful muon-catalyzed fusion reactions, the reactor will need a cheaper, more efficient source of muons and / or a way that each muon catalyzes more fusion reactions. So far, no feasible method has been found, even theoretically.

In March 1989, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons submitted an article to the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, which reported that they had discovered a way to reduce Coulomb barriers by what is now commonly referred to as "cold fusion". They think they have observed a large amount of heat from nuclear reaction byproducts and small benchtop experiments involving heavy water electrolysis on the surface of a palladium electrode. One explanation for cold fusion is that hydrogen and its isotopes can be absorbed at high densities in certain solids, such as palladium. The absorption of hydrogen produces a high partial pressure, which reduces the average interval of hydrogen isotopes, which reduces the barriers. Another explanation is that the electron mask of the nuclei in the palladium lattice is sufficient to lower the barrier.

Although the results of the Fleischmann-Pons survey received a lot of attention initially, the acceptance of the scientific community was largely crucial because a team at Georgia Tech quickly discovered the problem with their neutron detector, Texas A & M University found that their thermometers were badly wired. These experimental errors and many failed attempts by well-known laboratories to replicate the Fleischmann-Pons experiment, the scientific community has concluded that any positive experimental results should not be attributed to "fusion". Partly due to public concern, the United States Department of Energy (DOE) has organized a special group to review the theory and research of cold fusion. The U.S. Department of Energy first concluded in November 1989 and 2004 that the results to date do not provide convincing evidence that the phenomenon of "cold fusion" can produce useful energy.

Another attempt to lower the Coulomb barrier is to use an electron mask in a solid matrix. First, an electronic mask was observed in the stellar plasma. If the mask factor is changed by only a few percentage points, the fusion rate will change by five orders of magnitude (Wilets, L., et al. "Effect of screening on thermonuclear fusion in stellar and laboratory plasmas "" The Astrophysical Journal 530.1 (2000): 504.). Wilets found that the rate of thermonuclear fusion in the plasma is controlled by barrier penetration. The barrier itself is controlled by Coulomb exclusion by the fusion core. Because the barrier potential appears in the exponent of the Gamow formula, the results are very sensitive to the masking effect of electrons and positive ions in the plasma. The mask reduces the barrier, which increases the fusion reaction rate; the more charged the nucleus, the more important the mask is.

Robert Indech's US Patent Publication No. US2005 / 0129160A1 provides an example of an attempt to use this electronic masking effect to generate ignition conditions. In this application, Indech describes a positively charged repulsive electron shield between two deuterons located near the tip of a microconical structure when electrons are concentrated on top of the conical structure due to the applied potential. As disclosed, these cones are arranged on a 3 cm x 3 cm surface.

Although Indech et al. Have realized that a potential electronic shield reduces the Coulomb barrier of a fusion reactor, any effort that has been successful is doubtful. Most of these efforts seem to come up with ignition methods rather than continuous and controlled fusion reactions. Despite efforts in various methods of ICF, magnetically constrained fusion, and reducing Coulomb barriers, there are currently no commercially viable fusion reactor designs.

The present disclosure relates to various aspects of the design and operation of a reactor. In particular, through the design and operation of the reactor, an electronic mask is used to reduce the Coulomb barrier between the two fusion cores. The electronic mask is provided in the electron-rich region, thereby promoting the occurrence of fusion reactions.

One aspect of the present disclosure relates to a reactor containing the following features: (a) at least partially enclosing a constrained area, and charged particles and neutral particles rotate within the constrained area; (b) a plurality of adjacent or close to the constrained area (C) a control system, including a voltage source and / or a current source, applying an electric potential between at least two of the plurality of electrodes, wherein the applied electric potential is generated in the confinement region alone or together with a magnetic field An electric field that drives and / or maintains the rotational motion of the charged particles and the neutral particles within the constrained area, and (d) reactants placed in or adjacent to the constrained area during operation, Repeated collisions between the neutral particles and the reactant produce an interaction of the reactants that releases energy and produces a product having a nucleus quality different from that of the neutral particle nuclei and the reactant, wherein the electron-rich region is The number of electrons is at least about 10 ⁶ / cm 3 higher than the number of positively charged particles.

In some embodiments, the plurality of electrodes are distributed along the azimuth angle around the confinement region, wherein the control system causes charged particles and electrically neutral substances to rotate in the confinement region by applying a time-varying voltage to the plurality of electrodes. In some embodiments, the interaction between the electric field in the reactor and the applied magnetic field through the confinement region causes the charged and neutral particles in the confinement region to rotate.

During operation of the reactor, the electron-rich region has one or more of the following features: the electric field strength (i) at least about ¹⁰⁶ volts / meter, (ii) the average electron temperature is from about 10,000 grams to 50,000 grams Kelvin Kelvin (Iii) the electron density is about 10 ¹⁰ cm ^-3 to about 10 ²³ cm ^-3 , (iv) the ratio of electrons to positive ions is between about 10 ⁶ : 1 and 10 ⁸ : 1, (v) the neutral substance The average energy is between about 0.1eV and 2eV, and (vi) the density of the neutral substance is at least about 10 ¹⁶ / cm ³ (in some designs, between about 10 ¹⁶ / cm ³ and 10 ¹⁸ / cm ³ ) And / or (vii) the distance extending from the beam wall into the confinement region is about 50 nanometers to about 50 micrometers.

In some embodiments, the reactor includes an electron emitter in or adjacent to the confinement region, and during operation, the electron emitter generates electrons in the confinement region. An electron emitter is attached to or embedded in the confinement wall. In some designs, one or more insulating layers between the confinement wall and the emitter, the insulating layer providing thermal and / or electrical insulation. The insulating layer is formed of any one or a combination of zirconia, alumina, zinc nitride, and magnesium oxide. In some designs, at least one point of the electron emitter is raised into the constrained area, thereby increasing the generation of electrons.

In some designs, the reactor includes an electron emitter in thermal communication with the filament, wherein the control system applies a current to the electron emitter through the filament. The reactor may include a temperature sensor configured to monitor the temperature of the electron emitter, wherein the control system is configured to apply a current to the filament based on the monitored temperature.

In some embodiments, the reactor has a laser, and the laser is configured to emit a light beam to the electron emitter or the constrained wall through the confinement region, so that the laser interacts with the electron emitter or the constrained wall, and the electrons are emitted to the confinement region. There may also be a temperature sensor, the temperature sensor monitors the temperature of the electron emitter, and the control system controls the laser emitted to the electron emitter based on the monitored temperature.

In some embodiments, the electron emitter is configured to move in and out of the confinement area during operation of the reactor. The control system controls the movement of the electron emitter within the restricted area, for example, controls the temperature of the electron emitter (eg, measured with a temperature sensor) and the generation of electrons.

The electron emitter includes boron or a boron-containing material. In some designs, the reactant comprises boron-11. In some designs, the nucleus quality of the product is greater than the nucleus quality of the neutral substance and the reactant. .

In some embodiments, the reactor may further include an energy conversion device that extracts thermal energy, kinetic energy and / or mechanical energy from a charged reaction product, and converts the thermal energy, kinetic energy, and / or mechanical energy Can be converted into electrical and / or mechanical energy available for use outside the reactor.

The present disclosure relates to a method of operating a reactor, the method comprising applying an electric potential between at least two of a plurality of electrodes in the reactor, which are characterized as follows: (a) a restraint wall, at least partially surrounding a restraint area, ( b) multiple electrodes, adjacent to or near the confinement area, (c) a control system, including a voltage and / or current source, applying a potential between at least two of the plurality of electrodes, wherein the applied potential is within the confinement area An electric field is generated, and (d) reactants disposed in or near the confinement region. The electric field in the confinement region acts alone or in conjunction with the magnetic field, causing and / or maintaining the rotational motion of the charged particles and neutral substances within the confinement region. In addition, the number of electrons in the electron-rich region near the confinement wall in the confinement region is at least about 10 ⁶ / cm 3 higher than the number of positively charged particles. Repeated collisions between neutrals and reactants produce interactions of the reactants that release energy and produce products with qualities that are different from the nucleus of any neutral substance and the nuclei of the reactants.

In some embodiments, the plurality of electrodes are distributed along the azimuth around the constrained area, wherein the control system causes a rotating motion of the charged particles and the charged neutral substance in the constrained area by applying a time-varying voltage to the plurality of electrodes. In some embodiments, the electric field in the constrained area works with the magnetic field to cause and / or maintain the rotation of the charged particles and neutral particles in the constrained area.

An electric potential is then applied between multiple electrodes, and the electron-rich region may have the following characteristics: (i) an electric field strength of at least about 10 ⁶ volts / meter, and (ii) the average temperature of the electrons is about 10,000 grammes to 50,000 grams ears In the text, (iii) the electron density is about 10 ¹⁰ cm ^-3 to about 10 ²³ cm ^-3 , (iv) the ratio of electrons to positive ions is between about 10 ⁶ : 1 and 10 ⁸ : 1, and (v) neutral The average energy of the substance is between about 0.1 eV and 2 eV, and (vi) the density of the neutral substance is at least about 10 ¹⁶ / cm ³ (in some designs, between about 10 ¹⁶ / cm ³ and 10 ¹⁸ / cm ³ ) And / or (vii) extends from the beam wall into the confinement region at a distance of about 50 nanometers to about 50 micrometers.

In some embodiments, the reactor includes an electron emitter in or adjacent to the confinement region, and during operation, the electron emitter generates electrons in the confinement region. In some designs, this method can control the generation of electrons in the constrained area.

For example, the reactor includes an electron emitter in thermal communication with the filament, wherein the control system applies an electric current to the electron emitter through the filament. In some designs, the generation of electrons in a constrained area is controlled by moving an electron emitter into or out of the constrained area. In some cases, the generation of electrons in the confinement area is controlled by controlling the laser from the electron emitter or the confinement wall.

In some designs, the nucleus quality of the product is greater than the nucleus quality of the neutral substance and the reactant. Interactions are fusion reactions-in some designs, the fusion reaction is a neutron-free reaction. In some embodiments, the fusion reaction occurs in the electron-rich region at a rate of about 10 ¹⁷ to about 10 ²² per cubic centimeter per second. In some designs, neutral substances include neutral hydrogen, deuterium and / or tritium.

In some embodiments, the reactor may further include an energy conversion device that converts thermal energy generated by the reactor, kinetic and / or mechanical energy of the charged reaction product into electrical and / or mechanical energy available for use outside the reactor.

Features of the present disclosure will be explained in more detail with reference to related drawings.

110‧‧‧External electrode

112‧‧‧Internal electrode

120‧‧‧Internal electrode

122‧‧‧External electrode

140‧‧‧annulus

142‧‧‧Gap

144‧‧‧ Electric field

146‧‧‧ magnetic field

204‧‧‧ charged particles

206‧‧‧ neutral particles

210‧‧‧ constraint wall

232‧‧‧rich electronic zone

412‧‧‧ Constrained Wall

432‧‧‧Electronic enrichment area

482‧‧‧stage

483‧‧‧stage

484‧‧‧stage

485‧‧‧stage

502‧‧‧Larmor radius

503‧‧‧path

510‧‧‧External electrode

520‧‧‧Internal electrode

520a‧‧‧Conductive core

520b‧‧‧ target material

532‧‧‧rich electronic zone

540‧‧‧circle

542‧‧‧Gap

544‧‧‧ Electric field

546‧‧‧ magnetic field

616‧‧‧outer ring magnet

626‧‧‧Inner ring magnet

640‧‧‧annulus

658‧‧‧ Arctic

659‧‧‧Antarctic

660a‧‧‧electrode

660b‧‧‧electrode

704‧‧‧ ion

714‧‧‧electrode

724‧‧‧Internal electrode

740‧‧‧annulus

810‧‧‧External electrode

820‧‧‧Internal electrode

842‧‧‧ Clearance

910‧‧‧External electrode

912‧‧‧ surface

920‧‧‧Internal electrode

922‧‧‧ surface

1010‧‧‧External electrode

1020‧‧‧Internal electrode

1040‧‧‧annulus

1054‧‧‧Superconducting coil winding

1056‧‧‧Shell

1110‧‧‧External electrode

1112‧‧‧ Restraint Wall

1120‧‧‧Internal electrode

1140‧‧‧annulus

1150‧‧‧Magnet

1201‧‧‧Enlarge view

1210‧‧‧External electrode

1212‧‧‧Inner surface

1220‧‧‧Internal electrode

1240‧‧‧annulus

1250‧‧‧permanent magnet

1300‧‧‧ reactor

1310‧‧‧External electrode

1312‧‧‧ Constrained Wall

1320‧‧‧Internal electrode

1340‧‧‧annulus

1350‧‧‧Magnet

1400‧‧‧Reactor structure

1410‧‧‧External electrode

1412‧‧‧ Restraint Wall

1420‧‧‧Internal electrode

1440‧‧‧annulus

1450‧‧‧permanent magnet

1545‧‧‧ magnetic field

1546‧‧‧ Magnetic Field

1550‧‧‧ magnetic field

1610‧‧‧External electrode

1612‧‧‧ Constrained Wall

1620‧‧‧Internal electrode

1640‧‧‧annulus

1650‧‧‧Magnet

1710‧‧‧External electrode

1712‧‧‧ Restraint Wall

1720‧‧‧Internal electrode

1740‧‧‧circle

1750‧‧‧magnet

1752‧‧‧Magnet

1810‧‧‧External electrode

1812‧‧‧ Constrained Wall

1820‧‧‧Internal electrode

1840‧‧‧annulus

1854‧‧‧coil winding

1910‧‧‧Internal electrode

1920‧‧‧ Internal electrode

1921‧‧‧Sleeve

1923‧‧‧Ceramic Block

1928‧‧‧ Internal access

2010‧‧‧ Restraint Wall

2036‧‧‧Electron Emitter

2110‧‧‧External electrode

2112‧‧‧ Restraint Wall

2120‧‧‧Internal electrode

2130‧‧‧ Electron Emitter Material

2134‧‧‧ Filament

2135‧‧‧ Power

2136‧‧‧ electron emission device

2137‧‧‧Insulation

2138‧‧‧ Insulation

2140‧‧‧Circle

2200‧‧‧Reactor

2220‧‧‧Internal electrode

2230‧‧‧ electron emitter

2231‧‧‧Laser

2239‧‧‧insulated fiber

2240‧‧‧circle

2310‧‧‧External electrode

2320‧‧‧Internal electrode

2390‧‧‧Detection coil

2391‧‧‧ Magnetic Field

2392‧‧‧Time-varying magnetic field

2460‧‧‧Sensor

2461‧‧‧Signal

2462‧‧‧Control System

2463‧‧‧Signal

2464‧‧‧Reactor

2501‧‧‧stage

2502‧‧‧‧stage

2503‧‧‧‧stage

Figures 1a-c are some views of the reactor of the first embodiment.

Figures 2a-b show the motion of charged particles and neutral particles rotating within a confinement wall.

Figures 3a-d are schematic diagrams of the interaction between neutral particles and charged particles and the confinement wall.

Figures 4a-e are diagrams of the stages of a non-neutron hydrogen boron fusion reaction.

Figures 5a-d are schematic diagrams of reverse polarity reactors.

6a-f are schematic diagrams of a mixing reactor.

Figures 7a-b are schematic diagrams of wave-particle reactors.

8a-b are schematic diagrams of various electrode configurations of the reactor of the first embodiment.

9a-c are schematic cross-sectional views of a reactor of a first embodiment.

Figures 10a-d depict the reactor of the first embodiment, with an axial magnetic field applied by a superconducting magnet.

11a-b are reactors of a first embodiment, in which a permanent magnet applies an axial magnetic field in the reactor.

Figures 12a-b depict a reactor of a first embodiment in which a permanent magnet is used to apply a magnetic field in a constrained area.

13a-c are diagrams of the apparatus of the first embodiment.

Figures 14a-c are diagrams of the reactor of the first embodiment.

15a-c how a ring magnet is positioned along a common axis to generate a magnetic field substantially along that axis.

16a-c are schematic diagrams of a reactor of a first embodiment in which a magnetic field applied in a constrained area using a ring magnet.

Figures 17a-c are schematic diagrams of the reactor of the first embodiment in which a magnetic field is applied in a constrained area using a radial offset magnet.

18a-d are schematic diagrams of the reactor of the first embodiment, in which an electromagnet is used to apply a magnetic field in a constrained area.

Figures 19a-b are schematic illustrations of various embodiments of a reverse electrode reactor.

Figures 20a-b are schematic diagrams of various electron emitters that can be placed on the restraint wall.

21a-b are schematic diagrams of an electron emission module that can be placed on the reactor confinement wall.

Fig. 22 is a reactor equipped with a laser for increasing or controlling electron emission from an electron emitter.

Figures 23a-c depict a configuration where nuclear magnetic resonance sensing is used to determine the composition of the gaseous reactants within the reactor.

Figure 24 depicts how to set up a control system to operate the reactor using closed loop feedback.

25 is a schematic diagram of a multi-stage process flow that can be used to operate a reactor.

    Foreword    

Various embodiments disclosed herein relate to reactors and methods of operating these under conditions that induce a reaction between two or more nuclei to produce more energy than the energy input to the reactor. The present disclosure relates to reactions, such as nuclear fusion reactions or simple fusion reactions, although aspects of the reactions may differ quantitatively or qualitatively from reactions traditionally referred to as nuclear fusion. Therefore, when the term "fusion" is used in the rest of this disclosure, the term does not necessarily mean that it has all the characteristics of nuclear fusion in the traditional sense. In some embodiments disclosed herein, the reactor may produce a continuous fusion reaction, making it suitable as a viable energy source. As described herein, a continuous fusion reaction refers to a type of fusion reaction in which the reactor can continuously run for a period of about one second in a state larger than a unit.

In various embodiments, the reactor in which the fusion reaction occurs is designed or constructed to constrain or limit the rotation of matter, including one or more nuclei participating in the fusion reaction. Various structures are provided to constrain rotating matter. Usually, though not necessarily, these structures form a solid physical enclosure. As illustrated herein, a closed structure can have many shapes, such as a generally cylindrical shape. Suitable structures may be used as physical enclosure of FIG. 1, 6 and 7 shown in FIG.

Ignoring any other function, the walls of the reactor are often used to confine rotating material in the area adjacent to the wall and the inner wall. The limitation of the wall is that it restricts the rotating material from being inside the reactor. As described herein, this wall of the reactor is referred to as a wall, restraint wall, or shroud. In various embodiments, the wall also has other functions: in particular as an electrode, as a magnet, as a source of fusion reactants (such as boron compounds), and / or as an electron emitter. The wall is different from the design of any conventional fusion reactor because it instead constrains the reactant species physically instead of through magnetic fields and pressure waves (as is done in traditional fusion methods). Other functions of the reactor wall, such as an electrode that applies a voltage difference, a magnet as a source of reactant material, and an electron emitter, provide additional differences from traditional fusion reactor designs.

In some embodiments, the reactor comprises said walls and an internal space formed by the walls (which may be in the shape of a ring) in which the reactant species (including most or a large percentage of neutral particles) rotate and repeatedly strike The surface of the reactor wall sometimes undergoes a fusion reaction with a substance existing in the wall. When the energy input of the reactor is taken into account, the resulting reaction can reach equilibrium and lead to Q> 1. To ensure that the fusion reaction time is sustainable in the application of specific energy power generation, the ratio of energy output to energy input should be significantly greater than one. This assumption takes into account the inefficiency inherent in using the energy generated by fusion reactions to maintain conditions that allow polymerization to occur (eg, a specific plasma density in a constrained region). . In some embodiments, the ratio is at least about 1.2. In certain embodiments, the ratio is at least about 1.5. In certain embodiments, the ratio is at least about 2. In certain embodiments, the reactor is continuously operated under sustainable conditions for at least about fifteen minutes, or at least about one hour. In one example, hydrogen atoms rotate in the reactor and impinge on boron or lithium atoms in the reactor wall for fusion. In some embodiments, the reactor includes one or more electron emitters to generate an electron flux that generates a strong field during operation to reduce Coulomb repulsion between interacting nuclei.

The reactant may be any substance capable of supporting a fusion reaction in the interior space of the confinement wall of the reactor. In different embodiments, at least one of the reactants is a substance that rotates in the region inside the reactor. In some designs, both reactants are rotating materials. In some designs, one of the reactants is rotating and the other is that the substance remains stationary, for example when the reactant is embedded in the reactor wall that restricts the rotating substance. In some designs, there are some combinations of rotating and stationary reactants such that a fusion reaction occurs between rotating materials or between rotating materials and fixed materials. In the design where the reaction material is mainly a rotating material, the physical structure of the reactor eliminates the need for the rotating material to hit the inner surface of the reactor wall to cause a fusion reaction. In some designs, rotating materials are constrained by forces, such as forces that prevent them from hitting the reactor wall. In such a design, two rotating objects are fused inside or along the surface of a restraint wall (eg, a restraint area). In some designs, a rotating substance can react with a fixed substance (e.g., a target substance) located within an annular region.

In certain embodiments, the reactant is a non-neutron-reactive substance. In other embodiments, the reactant is a substance that reacts with neutrons. One or both reactants can also be neutral or uncharged. The substances present in the reactor are sometimes referred to as "particles". However, these substances are only particles of molecular or atomic size.

The disclosed small size, such as bench-top, non-neutron reactors do not require or require a biological shield with relatively little neutron radiation. The fusion reactions in the reactors described herein can be characterized as "mild fusion", for example, fusion reactions occur in a temperature range of about 1000K to 3000K, and are in phase with "thermal fusion reactors" (such as Tokamak reactors). Than, easier to handle. Since fusion is essentially a non-neutron and "mild" material, the costs associated with "mild fusion" reactors can be significantly reduced. For example, in some designs, the cost of an established reactor is less than $ 50,000. The disclosed small reactor can also have a small weight and footprint because no radiation shields and industrial-grade hardware that would normally be used in thermal plasma reactors are required.

Rotating motion of matter in the reactor can be imparted by a variety of mechanisms. One mechanism achieves rotation by applying interacting electric and magnetic fields. The interaction appears as the Lawrence force acting on the charged particles in the reactor. For example, in Figures 1a-c and 6 , the design can generate Lawrence forces acting on charged particles. Figures 1a-c show a Lawrence-driven reactor in which the reactor has an internal electrode 120 , and in which the shield (restraint wall) is an external electrode 110 . In the presence of an applied magnetic field 146 having a vertical component, the electric field 144 between the electrodes causes a Lawrence force to the charged particles or charged substances traveling between the electrodes. The force to be rotated in the azimuth direction, as shown in Figure 1c. In another type of reactor design, a rotating motion is imparted to a charged substance by sequentially applying a potential or a change in potential to a plurality of electrodes arranged around the reactor wall at an azimuthal angle. Examples of suitable reactor design shown in Figure 7.

In many embodiments, the reactor is operated in such a way that the rotating charged matter interacts with the neutral particles and imparts angular momentum to those neutral matter, thereby establishing the neutral matter and the rotating motion of the charged matter within the reactor. In many scenarios, most rotating materials are neutral and charged materials are ionized particles, such as protons (p +). As described herein, this method may be referred to as ionic neutral particle coupling. Figure 2a shows an ion neutral particle coupling process in which a few charged particles 204 cause the surrounding neutral particles 206 to move.

In various embodiments, the reactor is designed to emit electrons in an internal local area of the reactor, and a corresponding fusion event occurs in this area. Referring again to FIG. 2 a , these electrons may form an electron-rich region 232 near the confinement wall 210 . The presence of excess electrons reduces the Coulomb barrier and increases the likelihood of fusion. As described elsewhere in this article, emitting electrons in this way can create free electron-rich regions that reduce the inherent Coulomb repulsion between two positively charged nuclei, where nuclear fusion can occur between these positively charged nuclei reaction. In certain embodiments, electron emission occurs above or adjacent to the walls of the rotating matter within the restricted reactor. In one example, the electron emission is provided by a passive structure, such as a boron-containing sheet or strip that is either embedded or attached to the confinement wall of the reactor. This structure emits electrons when the local temperature increases during the operation of the reactor. In other embodiments, electron emission is achieved using an active structure that is controlled independently of the heat generated during normal operation of the reactor. Examples of the active electron emission are shown, which comprises a resistive heating element for the respective electron emitters independently controlled Figures 21a and 21b.

Another aspect of the present disclosure relates to a structure or system for capturing and converting energy generated by a fusion reaction within a reactor. One type of energy capture system provides direct access to the electricity generated by the alpha particles produced by the fusion reaction. This energy conversion system can be accomplished by generating an applied electric field in the emitted alpha particle path, which causes the particles to slow down and generate a current in a circuit connected to an electrode for generating an electric field. Another type of energy capture system is used to provide energy capture using a heat engine, including, for example, turbines, heat exchangers, or other conventional structures for converting thermal energy generated by fusion reactions into mechanical energy. These and other energy harvesting mechanisms will be discussed later in this disclosure.

    Interaction between neutral particles and wall    

Neutral materials that interact with the reactor wall provide different types of interactions used in traditional fusion research. Repeated interactions occur over a relatively large volume, which may be an annular space immediately adjacent to the inner wall or inner surface of the restraint wall. Because rotating neutral particles often interact elastically with the wall at smaller angles, such as at oblique or tangential angles, they may immediately leave the wall and re-enter the interior space with energy equivalent to their entry. FIG. 2b shows the trajectory path that the neutral particles 206 may have as they move along the surface of the constraint wall 210 . When a rotating neutral particle enters or hits a wall, it typically encounters a potential fusion that may or may not react with it. When it doesn't respond, it re-enters the internal space, where it continues to spin. In this way, it repeatedly interacts with the surface of the wall, and in each such elastic collision, there is almost no energy loss.

The interactions of some particles and walls that do not cause fusion are shown schematically in Figures 3a-d . Although these figures describe interactions containing boron 11 and / or titanium, these interactions may also occur when other reactant materials are used in the confinement wall. As shown in Figure 3a, the neutral particles with a small portion of wall interaction, the neutral particles in the nucleus undergoes wall (boron in this design, 11) of an elastic collision, and the neutral particles bounce Keep most of its energy as it enters the interaction. Of all neutral particle and wall interactions, elastic collisions usually have the highest incidence. In a small part of the collision shown in Figure 3b , the nucleus of the neutral particle is close enough to the nucleus of the atom in the wall, and the collision becomes an inelastic collision due to the tunneling that occurs when the two nuclei are very close. Figure 3c depicts another interaction that may occur; in this design, neutral particles penetrate into the reactor wall. This type of collision may occur more frequently when the surface is restricted to materials such as titanium or palladium that can absorb hydrogen molecules.

Figure 3d depicts an inelastic collision of a charged particle (such as a proton) with a constraining wall. This situation is in contrast to the frequent elastic collision of neutral particles such as atomic hydrogen with a constraining wall (as described in Figure 3a above). As charged particles approach and leave the restraint wall, the particles may experience a loss of braking radiant energy. This energy loss is caused by an electrostatic interaction between the charged particles and the electrons in the electron-rich region. Due to electrostatic forces, some kinetic energy is lost and high-energy electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays is emitted. In traditional fusion reactors that focus on fusion of ionized particles, braking radiation can cause huge energy losses. These losses can be largely avoided by using a weakly ionized plasma with a high proportion of neutral particles to ions.

Nuclear fusion may occur in a part of the tunneling action between the moving neutral nucleus and the nucleus in the wall. Figure 4a depicts the stages of non-neutron fusion reactions that occur when a hydrogen atom or proton is fused with a boron 11 atom. First, in 482 , a proton moving at high speed collides with the boron 11 atom, and the fusion of these two nuclei forms an excited carbon nuclei, as shown in 483 . However, the excited carbon nuclei have a short life span, decomposed into beryllium nuclei and emitted alpha particles with a kinetic energy of 3.76 MeV, as shown in 484 . Finally, in 485 , the newly formed beryllium nucleus was decomposed into two alpha particles almost immediately, and the kinetic energy of each alpha particle was 2.46 MeV. Figures 4b-e depict the various stages of the proton-boron 11 fusion reaction on the surface of the confinement wall 412 and the same shown in Figure 4a . Figure 4a depicts protons traveling towards the boron 11 atom of the constraining wall surface at high speeds. As the neutral hydrogen atom approaches its confinement wall, it passes through the electron-rich region 432 , which partially masks the repulsive force between two positively charged nuclei. Figure 4c depicts the stage of fusion of neutral hydrogen with boron atoms to form carbon atoms. In Figure 4d , the carbon nuclei have been broken down into beryllium nuclei and an alpha particle. Finally, in Figure 4e , the beryllium nucleus decomposes, emitting two other alpha particles. Because the potential reactants are neutral particles rather than ions, most of their interactions with atoms in the surface of the constrained wall are elastic collisions. In contrast, positively charged particles that enter the wall are deflected by electrostatic repulsion, keeping their distance from other nuclei on the wall. These electrostatic interactions cause charged particles to lose energy; for example, collisions are inelastic. Neutral particles with a positively charged core that are masked to some extent by orbiting electrons do not experience the same repulsive force. Therefore, a neutral particle is more likely to directly affect another atom in the wall. Therefore, the use of neutral particles instead of ions increases the possibility of fusion reactions, and when fusion reactions do not occur, neutral particles are more likely to spring back with higher energy than ions.

In general, rotating neutral particles experience many repeated interactions with the wall, and those neutral particles that do not play a role in the fusion reaction spring back elastically with relatively little energy loss. As mentioned above, electrically neutral particles tend to be reformed from the wall and have sufficient energy so that they can enter the next interaction with the wall, which may cause fusion reactions. Every interaction with the wall may lead to a fusion reaction between the neutral nucleus and the nucleus in the wall.

When the reactants are different substances (for example, ¹¹ B and p +), the fusion rate per unit volume is given by: dN / dT = n ₁ n ₂ σ ν

Where n ₁ and n ₂ are the density of the corresponding reactants, σ is the fusion cross section at a specific energy, and ν is the relative velocity between the two interacting substances. For a system in which at least one substance rotates in a constrained area and repeatedly hits a constraining wall containing a second substance, the density value of the substance can be on the order of 10 ²⁰ cm ^-3 for a rotating substance, and ), The density of matter can be on the order of 10 ²³ cm ^-3 , the value of the fusion cross section can be on the order of ^10-32 cm ² and the relative velocity of the interacting matter is on the order of 10 ³ cm / s. In contrast, for a tokamak reactor, the density value of each substance in the order of 10 ¹⁴ cm ^-3, the fusion cross-section in the order of about ¹⁰⁶ cm / s cm ² at ^10-28, the interaction of the velocity magnitude substance . (Based on information provided by "Inertial Confinement Fusion.pdf" by M. Ragheb dated on January 14, 2015.). Obviously, systems using neutral substances, as described herein, have strong advantages due to their higher density. The rate of fusion energy per unit volume of this system exceeds the rate of the tokamak and inertial restraint system by at least about eight orders of magnitude. Thus, the systems disclosed herein can achieve a defined energy production rate in a tokamak or inertial confinement system in a volume of about one billionth.

    Reduction of the Coulomb barrier    

As mentioned above, the credible previous fusion method was to power the fusion reactants and the supported environment to reach extremely high temperatures of at least 150,000,000K (13000eV). This is done to give the fusion reactants enough kinetic energy to overcome their natural electrostatic repulsion. In this environment, each reactant is an atomic nucleus with an inherently positive charge, which must first be overcome to allow certain possibilities for fusion reactions.

Certain embodiments of the present disclosure use much lower temperatures; for example, about 2000 K (0.17 eV) in a fusion reaction. These embodiments use neutral substances as one or more reactants and / or change the reaction environment to reduce strong Coulomb repulsion between the reactant nuclei. Reducing the Coulomb force can be achieved in a variety of ways, including, for example, (i) providing an electron-rich field in the reaction region and / or (ii) aligning the quantum mechanical spins of the reactant nuclei. Depending on the structure of the reactor, devices and methods for reducing Coulomb rejection can take many forms. The following description assumes that the reactor includes an annular space with an outer confinement wall or shroud. Other reactor structures can also create an environment that reduces Coulomb rejection, thereby supporting the occurrence of fusion, but they can be implemented in a way different from the one described below.

The following is a possible explanation of the environment surrounding the inner surface of the constraining electrode, which interpretation should not be considered as a limitation to the disclosure. In this interpretation, reactants, especially neutral particles, rotate at high speeds and hit the inner surface of the electrode. At the same time, electrons are emitted from or near the restraint wall. The fast-rotating neutral particles have a high angular velocity, and therefore exert great pressure on the inner surface of the restraint wall by the relevant centrifugal force. The electrons emitted from the inner surface of the wall are in the opposite direction of this force.

The emitted electrons will diffuse from where they are emitted, for example, away from the wall and towards the interior space. However, the centrifugal force of electrically neutral particles confines electrons to the inner surface area near the external electrode. The resulting thin area of equilibrium force adjacent to the inner surface of the electrode has a strong field, which reduces Coulomb repulsion between the reactant nuclei.

The force balance can be expressed mathematically as (i) the balance of the gradient of the temperature and density product of electrons and neutral particles (direction away from the wall surface of the electron emission), and (ii) the centrifugal force applied to the inner surface. Centrifugal force is proportional to the product of neutral particle density, radial position, and square of angular velocity.

In this expression, r is the radial direction away from the inner surface of the constrained electrode, K is the Boltzmann constant, T _e and T ₀ are the electron and neutral particle temperatures in Kelvin, and n _e and n ₀ are the electron And the density of neutral particles, n ₀ is the density of the neutral substance, m ₀ is the mass of a rotating neutral substance (such as a hydrogen atom), and ω ² is the square of the angular velocity of the rotating neutral substance.

In a thin area next to the electron-emitting surface (eg, the inner surface of the confinement wall), free electrons generate a strong electric field (see the schematic diagram of the electron-rich region 232 of the adjacent confinement wall 210 in Figures 2a-b ). The high concentration of neutral particles limits the average free path of the electrons, preventing them from following the trajectory of the trajectory, thus obtaining sufficient kinetic energy to better ionize the neutral particles. In addition, because neutral particles have a higher density than ions, relatively few positive ions are available for recombination. For example, the ratio of ions to neutral particles is in a range of less than about 1:10, less than about 1: 100, less than about 1: 1000, or less than about 1: 100. Therefore, neutral particles are usually distributed between electrons and positive ions. This condition generates a high concentration of excess electrons near the inner surface of the confinement wall, thereby generating a strong electric field.

The combination of a large excess of electrons (more than ions) and a high concentration of neutral particles in a very thin area (e.g., near the inner surface of the electrode) generates a very strong electric field. In this region, the strong field reduces the coulomb repulsion of interacting positively charged nuclei. As a result, the probability of two positively charged nuclei approaching increases significantly.

In addition, as mentioned above, the rotating particles hit the inner surface of the confinement wall so that there is a repeated opportunity for the interacting fusion reactants to reach the fusion reaction. Neutral particles repeatedly pass through the electron-rich layer and hit the inner surface of the confinement wall or shield and re-enter the internal space of the reactor. This impact on the wall is the radial component of the centrifugal force generated by rotating particles in a confined environment (eg, constraining the inner surface of the wall). Repeated collisions, contacts or impacts increase the likelihood of a fusion reaction in a given area over a given period of time. This repetition replaces the need for a long constraint time and solves the difficulties of the traditional method to achieve Lawson's criterion to achieve fusion reactions. Simply put, the overall probability of a fusion reaction has increased significantly.

As an example, the electron-rich region can be characterized by any combination of the following parameter values: Free electron density: about 10 ²³ / cm ³

Neutral particle density: about 10 ²⁰ / cm ³

Positive ion density: about 10 ¹⁵ -10 ¹⁶ / cm ³ (about 10 ^-5 to 0.01% of neutral particles)

Difference between electron and positive ion density: about 10 ⁶ to 10 ⁸ / cm ³

Thickness (radial) of the free electron-rich region (the region where most electron density gradients exist)): about 1 μm

Electric field strength in the electron-rich region: about 10 ⁶ to 10 ⁸ V / m

Electron temperature: about 1800-2000K. (About 0.15 to 0.17eV)

Centripetal acceleration: about 10 ⁹ g's (where g is gravity acceleration = 9.8ms ^-2 )

The free electrons in this system can be viewed as catalyzing the fusion reaction of two nuclear nuclei together. By analogy, one or more muons combined with protons and deuterons are sometimes described as catalyzing the fusion of hydrogen and deuterium atoms. Just as the muon catalyzes the reaction by bringing the two fusion nuclei closer to each other, the free electrons near the fusion nuclei catalyze the fusion reaction described herein. Effectively, the electron reduction blocks the two reactants sufficiently close to the energy barrier of the reaction. This is very similar to the role of any catalyst in a chemical or physical environment. Both muons and electrons increase the reaction rate, but do not actually participate in the reaction; they only reduce the energy barrier between the reactants and bring the reactants close enough to the reaction.

However, μ meson and electron catalysis have few other similarities. For various reasons, muon-catalyzed fusion is not commercially viable. It is worth noting that μ mesons have a greater mass than electrons, so making μ mesons is more expensive. In addition, only a relatively small number is produced at any time, which means that the profit and loss level of fusion cannot be achieved. In the proton-boron 11 reaction, about 10 ¹⁷ successful fusion interactions occur per cubic centimeter per second to achieve profit-loss two-level fusion. Only a few nuclei in large pools benefit from muon-catalyzed nuclear fusion, which is far from the level required for fusion.

In contrast, electrons can be easily generated and have high density. For example, according to the techniques disclosed herein, electrons can be generated at a density of about 10 ²⁰ or more per cubic centimeter. With such a high density, the electrons collectively act to generate a high electric field, which reduces the Coulomb barrier of the interaction between nuclei close to each other on a larger volume. Such a considerable volume allows the required interaction gains and losses to be equal, ie at least about 10 ¹⁷ successful fusion interactions per cubic centimeter per second.

    the term    

A "reactor" is a device in which one or more reactants react to produce one or more products, usually accompanied by energy release. One or more reactants are provided in the reactor by continuous delivery, intermittent delivery, and / or one-time delivery. They can be provided in gas, liquid or solid form. In some designs, a reactant is provided as a component of the reaction; for example, it may be included in the structure of a reactor such as a wall. Boron 11, lithium 6, carbon 12, etc. may be provided in the wall of the reactor. In some designs, the reactants are provided by an external source, such as from a gas supply tank. In certain embodiments, the reactor is configured to promote a nuclear fusion reaction with Q> 1. The reactor may have elements for removing products and / or energy generated during the reaction. Product removal elements can be ports, channels, getters, etc. The energy removing part may be a heat exchanger or the like for removing thermal energy, and an inductor or the like for directly removing electric energy. Reactor elements may allow products and energy to be removed continuously or intermittently. In some embodiments, the reactor has one or more constraining walls containing reactants, and in some designs provides a source of reactants, an electric field, and the like. As shown in this disclosure, reactors suitable for providing a continuous fusion reaction can have many different designs.

A "rotor" is a reactor or reactor element in which one or more reactants or products (particles) rotate in its space. This "space" may (or) be defined by a constraining wall as described herein. In some designs, rotation is caused by magnetic force, electricity, and / or a combination of the two, as in the case of Lawrence force. In some embodiments, the rotation is induced by applying electrical and / or magnetic forces to the charged particles in a manner that causes them to rotate in the constrained area; the rotating charged particles collide with the neutral particles such that the neutral particles are the same in the constrained area This phenomenon of rotation is sometimes called ion-molecular coupling. Since neutral particles are not affected by electricity and / or magnetic forces, they do not rotate within the constrained area in designs that do not interact with charged particles. The constraining wall or other external structure of the rotor may have many closed shapes as described herein. In some embodiments, the outer structure is a substantially circular or cylindrical shape. In this design, the shape does not need to be geometrically accurate, but can exhibit certain changes, such as eccentricity around the axis of rotation and discontinuous curvature (such as vertices).

In some designs, the constrained area of the rotor has internal rods or other structures arranged concentrically with respect to the constrained wall. In this design, the rotor has an "annulus" in which the particles rotate. As used herein, "annulus" refers to a constrained area, where the area is substantially circular. It should be understood that some rotors do not have internal rods or other structures to define an annular space. In this design, the restricted area of the rotor is simply a hollow structure. Although most of the annular space is a generally cylindrical shape, such a shape can exhibit certain changes, such as eccentricity around the axis of rotation and discontinuous curvature (such as apex).

Due to the generated electromagnetic field, the "Lawrence force" is applied to an electric charge by a combination of electric and magnetic forces. The magnitude and direction of the force are given by the cross product of the electric and magnetic fields; therefore the force is sometimes called J x B. When the electric and magnetic fields have orthogonal directions, the force applied to the charged particles has a direction of rotation that can be represented by the right-hand rule.

In a fusion reaction, the reactants and products involved-possibly including protons, alpha particles and boron ( ¹¹ B)-do not necessarily exist in 100% purity. Among any such reactants, products or other components of the reaction given herein, such components are understood to be largely present. In other words, the components need not be present at a level of 100%, but may be present at a lower level, such as about 95% or about 99% in quality.

Non-neutron fusion reactions are generally defined as fusion reactions in which neutrons carry no more than 1% of the total released energy. As used herein, a non-neutron reaction or a substantially non-neutron reaction is a reaction that meets this criterion.

Examples of non-neutron reactions include: p + B ¹¹ → 3He ⁴ + 8.68MeV

D + He ³ → He ⁴ + p + 18.35MeV

p + Li ⁶ → He ⁴ + He ³ + 4.02MeV

p + Li ⁷ → 2He ⁴ + 17.35MeV

p + p → D + e ⁺ + v + 1.44MeV

D + p → He ³ + γ + 5.49MeV

He ³ + He ³ → He ⁴ + 2p + 12.86MeV

p + C ¹² → N ¹³ + γ + 1.94MeV

N ¹³ → C ¹³ + e ⁺ + v + γ + 2.22MeV

p + C ¹³ → N ¹⁴ + γ + 7.55MeV

p + N ¹⁴ → O ¹⁵ + γ + 7.29MeV

O ¹⁵ → N ¹⁵ + e ⁺ + v + γ + 2.76MeV

p + N ¹⁵ → C ¹² + He ⁴ + 4.97MeV

C ¹² + C ¹² → Na ²³ + p + 2.24MeV

C ¹² + C ¹² → Na ²⁰ + He ⁴ + 4.62MeV

C ¹² + C ¹² → Mg ²⁴ + γ + 13.93MeV

Examples of neutron reactions include:

D + T → He ⁴ + n + 17.59MeV

D + D → He ³ + n + 3.27MeV

T + T → He ⁴ + 2n + 11.33MeV

Coulomb repulsion is the electrostatic force between two or more particles of the same charge. For two interacting particles, it is proportional to the inverse of the square of the separation distance (Coulomb's law). Therefore, when charged particles approach each other, the repulsive force is significantly enhanced. In the electric field generated by multiple charged particles, the repulsive force of one charged particle is the superposition of all nearby charged particles.

Reducing the Coulomb barrier means that when a particle approaches a sufficient number of electrons or other charged particles, the Coulomb repulsion force calculated or experienced between two independent particles that are usually known and understood is "reduced" or reduced by a certain amount that can be calculated Degree to reduce the repulsive force that independent particles will experience. For example, the presence of excess electrons at a density of XX reduces the Coulomb repulsion of ZZ% between two positively charged YY particles in the domain.

    Lawrence rotor example         First embodiment    

Figures 1a-c show a first embodiment of a reactor in which charged particles, charged substances or ions rotate due to Lawrence force. Figure 1a is a cross-sectional view of the reactor, and Figure 1b provides an isometric cross-sectional view of the same reactor along the AA interface of Figure 1a . Unless otherwise noted, a cylindrical coordinate system with r, Θ, and z coordinate coordinates is used. as shown in Figure 1b. In the described embodiment, a Laurence-driven rotor has an outer wall 110 as an external electrode, sometimes called a concentric internal electrode 120 of a discharge rod, which is separated from the external electrode by an annular space 140 . By applying an electric potential between the internal electrode 120 and the shield 140 , an electric field is formed across the annular region. When sufficient potential is applied between the electrodes, the gas in the annular space is partially ionized, generating a radial plasma current across the annular region. In various embodiments, when the shield is grounded, the internal electrode is maintained at a high positive potential, so that the electric field and current flow are basically in the positive r direction.

FIG. 1c illustrates how the Lawrence force drives the charged particles in the direction of the azimuth angle within the restraint wall 110 . In Figure 1c, the discharge rod has been removed and the axis is translated in the z direction to improve sharpness. Although not shown, a magnet such as a permanent magnet or a superconducting magnet is used to generate a magnetic field that is substantially parallel to the z-axis (substantially axial) in the annular region. The magnetic field is substantially perpendicular to the direction of the current, causing moving charged particles, charged substances, and ions to be subjected to Laurent force in the azimuth (or Θ) direction. For example, the discharge rod has a positive potential with respect to the external electrode (for example, the discharge rod has a positive potential applied and the external electrode is grounded), so an electric field is generated in the r direction ( 144 ). In this configuration, positively charged ions will move toward the external electrode through the ring region 140 in the r direction. If the magnetic field is pointing in the z direction ( 146 ) at the same time, the ions will be subjected to Lorentz forces in the -Θ direction, or clockwise when viewed at the angles shown in Figures 1b and 1c . In some designs, the electric and magnetic fields can be at different angles from the vertical but not parallel, so that the vertical component exists to a smaller or greater degree, with sufficient strength to produce a sufficiently strong Laurence force of the azimuth . This azimuth force acts on the charged particles, charged substances and ions. These charged particles, charged substances and ions are combined with the neutral particles, so that the neutral particles in the annular space between the central discharge rod and the external electrode are high Rotation speed. The absence of any moving mechanical parts means that there is almost no restriction on the speed of rotation, thereby providing a rate of rotation of neutral particles and charged particles exceeding, for example, 100,000 RPS.

    Reverse Polarity Example    

Figures 5a-d depict another embodiment in which the reactor can utilize Laurent force to drive ion and neutral particle rotation through ion-neutral particle coupling. The reactor of the reverse polarity is different from the reactor shown in Figs. 1a-c in that the electric field and current (by convention in the direction of positive charge movement) are substantially in the negative r direction. Figure 5a is a cross-sectional view of the reactor, and Figure 5b provides an isometric cross-sectional view of the same reactor along section AA of Figure 5a. Reverse polarity electrode 510 and the outer rotor having a concentric inner electrode 520, the internal electrode and the external electrode 520 are separated by an annular region 540, the annular region 540 is referred to herein as constrained region. By applying a potential to the internal electrode and / or the external electrode, a radial electric field directed to the internal electrode can be formed in the annular space. When a sufficient electric potential is applied between the electrodes, a portion of the gas in the annular space is ionized, and a radial plasma flow is generated through the annular space.

Figure 5c depicts how the Lawrence force is used to drive charged particles within the reactor at azimuth angles. In Figure 5c , the internal electrodes have been removed from the view, and the depicted axis has been translated in the z-direction to improve clarity. Although not shown, magnets such as permanent magnets or superconducting magnets are used to generate an applied magnetic field that is substantially parallel to the z-axis (i.e., substantially in the axial direction) in the annular space. The magnetic field is substantially perpendicular to the direction of the current, causing charged particles, charged substances, and ions to be subjected to Lawrence force in the azimuth (or Θ) direction. For example, in the case where the internal electrode has a negative potential applied and the external electrode is grounded (or maintained at a positive potential), an electric field is generated in the negative r direction ( 544 ). In this configuration, positively charged ions will move toward the internal electrode in the negative r direction through the annular region 540 . If the magnetic field is pointing in the z direction ( 546 ) at the same time, the ions will experience Lawrence force in the + Θ direction or in a counterclockwise direction from the angle shown in Figures 5b and 5c . In some designs, the electric and magnetic fields can be at different angles from the perpendicular, but not parallel, such that the vertical component exists to a smaller or greater degree with sufficient strength to produce a sufficiently large Laurent force of the azimuth. The azimuth force acts on the charged particles, charged substances and ions, which in turn are coupled with the neutral particles, so that the neutral particles in the annular space also move at high speed. The absence of any moving mechanical parts means that there is almost no limit on the speed at which rotation can occur, so the rotation rate of neutral particles and charged particles can exceed rates such as 100,000 RPS.

    Inverse field embodiment    

Figures 6a-d depict multiple views of another reactor embodiment that utilizes Lawrence forces to drive ions and neutral particles through ion-neutral particle coupling. The reactor of this embodiment operates using a reverse field configuration. The reactor with this configuration differs from the reactors shown in Figs. 1a-c and 5a-d in that the directions of the electric and magnetic fields in the confinement area are opposite. In this configuration, the magnetic field is not parallel to the z-axis, but instead points radially in the positive or negative r direction. Similarly, the electric field is not directed radially but is substantially parallel to the z-axis. Figure 6a is an isometric view of the reactor, Figure 6b is a view of the reactor in the z direction, Figure 6c is an isometric cross-sectional view of the reactor (corresponding to line AA in Figure 6b ), and Figure 6d is the side of the reactor view. The depicted embodiment includes an inner ring magnet 626 and a concentric outer ring magnet 616 also serving as a restraint wall. The magnetic poles of the ring magnets are in the same direction so that the corresponding surfaces of the inner and outer ring magnets are the same. In this design, the outer surface is North Pole 658 and the inner surface is South Pole 659 . In some embodiments, one or more additional material layers may be present on the inner surface of the magnet 658 such that the constraining surface material is different from the magnetic material. A region between concentric magnet 640 form an annular space, the annular space 640 by the electrode on the electrode on one end of the confinement region 660a and the other end 660b of the restricted area is bound in the z direction. Generally, all electrodes (corresponding to electrode 660a or electrode 660b ) on either side of the constrained area are given a similar potential. Unlike the hybrid reactor, the electrode 660 a (or electrode 660 b) may be a single continuous electrode, for example, formed in a ring shape or a disc shape. If the electrode 660 a is grounded and the electrode on the other side of the annular space 660 b is given a positive potential, an electric field is applied in the constrained region in the positive z direction. If the magnetic field is pointing in the r direction (as described), the orthogonal electric and magnetic fields cause the ions to rotate along the azimuth in the θ direction (see, for example, Figure 6c ). Alternatively, if the electrode 660 b is grounded, the electrode 660 a is applied with a positive potential, and the direction of the electric field is the negative z direction, the ions will rotate in the -θ direction.

    Wave-particle embodiment    

A second embodiment of a controlled fusion device is shown in Figs. 7a and 7b , where the ions rotate due to the oscillation of the electrostatic field. In this embodiment, the electric field generated by a plurality of discrete electrodes 714 on or forming the outer ring accelerates the ions to rotate in the azimuth direction, or is combined with the inner electrode 724 on or forming the inner ring to The annular space 740 generates a local electric field that changes in azimuth. In some designs, the wall electrodes together form a restraint wall. In other designs, the wall electrodes may be disposed on or in a part of the restraint wall or bracket. The electric field oscillates in a control sequence so that the electrostatic force applied to the ions sequentially proceeds in the approximate azimuth direction (in the Θ or -Θ direction). In this way, the acceleration of charged matter is similar to a magnetic levitation train driven by an oscillating magnetic field along a train track. An oscillating potential can be applied to the electrodes. Oscillations can vary in phase or other parameters between adjacent electrodes, thereby causing or maintaining rotational motion of the ions.

The ions existing in the annular space are subject to electrostatic forces due to the electric field, and through the principle of ion-neutral particle coupling, a relatively small number or percentage of ions is sufficient to drive a large number or percentage of neutral particles. Ion-driven neutron rotation can be generated by any suitable mechanism, such as inductive or capacitive coupling. In some embodiments, ions are generated when an RF charge sequence is applied to a wall and / or an internal electrode. In some embodiments, the walls and / or internal electrodes may first undergo a sequence of charges to ionize some of the neutral gases in the annular space and then transform into a sequence of charges that drives the rotation of the ions. For example, grounding the wall electrode 714 while applying a high potential to the internal electrode 724 can generate a charge distribution of the ionized gas. In some embodiments, a gas that has been partially ionized may be introduced into the annular region 740 .

Although Figures 7a and 7b depict two binary charge distributions that can be used to drive the rotation of ions in a toroidal region, many charge sequences are also possible. In some charge sequences, the electrodes may be held at ground potential for a duration or may have an asymmetric charge sequence (for example, a positive potential is held for twice the duration of a negative potential).

In some embodiments, the system does not require a magnetic field, such as an axial static magnetic field. Figure 7a depicts an example of this embodiment at a first point in time, at which point the electrode is provided with a first potential distribution such that an ion (such as an ion cloud or ion cluster) 704 is stressed in the -Θ direction. FIG. 7b depicts the situation at a later point in time in the embodiment of FIG. 7a , at which time the electrodes are provided with different potential distributions so that the ions 704 continue to be subjected to azimuthal forces in the -Θ direction.

    Hybrid embodiment    

In certain embodiments, the reactor can generate Lawrence force and an oscillating electrostatic field to drive the rotation of ions and neutral particles through ion-neutral coupling. The reactor can use one or both of these mechanisms at any stage of operation. Figures 6a-f depict exemplary reactors suitable for such operation. Figure 6a is an isometric view of the reactor in the Z direction, Figure 6b is a view of the reactor in the Z direction, and Figure 6c is an isometric cross-sectional view of the reactor (corresponding to line AA in Figure 6b). Figure 6d provides the reaction 6e and 6f are cross-sectional views at different points in time (corresponding to the line BB in FIG. 6d ). The described embodiment includes an inner ring magnet 626 serving as a restraining wall and a concentric outer ring magnet 616 also serving as a restraining wall. The poles of the ring magnets are oriented in the same direction so that the corresponding surfaces of the inner and outer ring magnets are the same. In this design, the outer surface is North Pole 658 and the inner surface is South Pole 659 . In some embodiments, one or more additional material layers may be present on the inner surface of the magnet 658 such that the constraining surface material is different from the magnetic material. The area between the concentric magnets forms an annular space 640 that is bound in the z direction by one or more pairs of electrodes 660a and 660b . When the electrode pairs 660 a and 660 b are given different potentials, for example, the electrode 660 b is grounded, and the electrode 660 a is applied with a positive potential, generating an electric field in the annular space substantially parallel to the z-direction. When ions are generated in the annular region, orthogonal electric and magnetic fields cause them to rotate angularly in the -Θ direction (see, for example, Figure 6c ). If a positive potential is applied to the electrode 660 b while the electrode 660 a is grounded, the ions will rotate in the Θ direction.

In some embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 6a-e, the plurality of electrodes 660a and 660b are radially distributed along the annulus. In this design, the reactor is driven in a manner similar to that of the reactor in Figures 7a and 7b. During operation, each electrode pair is driven at a similar potential to that of an adjacent electrode pair, so that a local electric field is generated in the Θ direction. As shown in FIGS. 6d and 6e, the voltages applied to the electrode pairs can be modulated in a controlled order so that the electrostatic force applied to the ions exhibits a substantially continuous azimuthal angle (in the Θ or -Θ direction) with a varying component. In some configurations, the reactor can be set to operate initially by driving Lawrence force on ions and neutral particles, and then using the alternating electrostatic field described above to drive ions and neutral particles.

    Reactor type (size)    

In one aspect, reactors can be classified by the output power they provide. In this manner, for the purposes of this discussion, the reactors of the present disclosure are divided into small, medium, and large reactors. Small scale reactors are typically capable of producing power of about 1-10 kW. In some embodiments, these reactors are used for personal applications, such as powering a car or powering a home. The next category is medium-scale reactors, which typically provide about 10 kW to 50 MW. Medium-sized reactors can be used for larger applications such as server farms, large vehicles such as trains and submarines. Large-scale reactors are reactors that output about 50 MW to 10 GW and can be used for large-scale operations, such as powering part of the power grid and / or industrial power plants. Although these three classifications provide the actual categories that this disclosure may address, the reactors disclosed herein are not limited to any of these categories.

The surface area (the product of the perimeter and the axial direction) of the shroud or restraint wall usually limits the maximum power that the reactor can produce. A shield with a large surface area undergoes a fusion reaction over a large area of the inner surface (e.g., 122 in Figure 1a ). For small reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud is usually about 1 cm to about 2 meters, and the surface area of the inner surface is usually between about 5 cm to 20 cm 3. For medium reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud is typically from about 2 meters to about 10 meters, and the surface area of the inner surface is typically between about 25 and 150 cubic meters. For large reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud is typically from about 10 meters to about 50 meters, and the surface area of the inner surface is typically between about 125 cubic meters and 628 cubic meters. In some designs, the inner surface may have a radius of a few kilometers, with a footprint similar to that of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) operated by the CERN laboratory in Switzerland. Each of the above values assumes that a single reactor is independent or part of a continuously arranged reactor (as described below).

    First embodiment    

Figures 1a-c show the structure of a reactor with concentric electrodes that uses a Laurent rotor to drive charged particles and fusion reactants to rotate. This embodiment has an internal electrode 120 , an external electrode 110, and an annular space 140 between the two electrodes. During operation, the applied potential between these electrodes generates an electric field 144 in the r direction. Although not shown, this embodiment also includes a permanent magnet or an electromagnet (for example, a superconducting magnet) that generates a magnetic field 146 in the z-direction between the internal and external electrodes. As shown in FIG. 1C, due to the radial and axial magnetic field, force, or the force experienced Laurence azimuth direction of charged particles moving between the electrodes.

As shown, the reactor shown in FIG. 1 a has a gap 142 that radially separates the outer surface of the inner electrode 112 and the inner surface of the outer electrode 122 . Although the surface area of the opposing surfaces of the internal and external electrodes can determine the size of the reactor, the radial gap can be kept relatively constant over a wide range of applications. In some designs, the upper limit of the gap is limited to the power available to ionize the gas in the annular space and generate a plasma current, while the lower limit of the gap may be limited to manufacturing tolerances. When the gap is very small, such as less than 0.1 mm, any misalignment between the electrodes may cause the electrodes to contact and cause a short circuit. Of course, because higher tolerances can be made in manufacturing tolerances, smaller gaps may be feasible. In some embodiments, the gap may be between about 1 millimeter and about 50 centimeters; in some embodiments, the gap may be between about 5 centimeters and about 20 centimeters. In some designs, the gap may vary in the r and / or z direction of the reactor. For example, the radius of the internal electrode may vary as a function of position along the z-axis, while the radius of the internal surface of the external electrode is constant.

The length of the restraint wall in the z direction produced by the external electrode is determined by the radial size of the reactor and the power generation requirements. In some embodiments, the length of the external electrode in the z-direction may be limited by the type and configuration of the magnet used to generate the magnetic field. For example, if the permanent magnets placed on either end of the annular space along the z-direction (as shown in FIG. 11), the z direction, the external electrodes may be limited to about 5, or about 10 cm. However, if a plurality of rings of permanent magnets or electromagnets, or superconducting magnet (as shown in FIG. 10) generates a magnetic field (as shown in FIG. 16 and 17) then the external electrodes may be longer in the z-direction. For example, the external electrode may be between about 1 meter and about 10 meters. Generally, the length of the external electrode 110 is similar to the length of the internal electrode 120 , but this is not always the case. In some embodiments, the internal electrode may extend beyond the external electrode on one or both sides. In some embodiments, the length of the external electrode may exceed the length of the internal electrode such that the external electrode extends beyond the internal electrode on one or both sides.

Figures 1a-1b depict one configuration in which a solid circular internal electrode is used in combination with a circular external electrode, in which other combinations of electrode shapes can also be used. Several non-limiting examples of alternative embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art and are discussed with reference to Figures 8a-b and 9a-c . Several illustrative examples are provided here, and the reader can easily understand that other electrode shapes are possible.

As shown in FIG. 8a, in some embodiments, the inner electrode 820 may be discontinuous cyclic structure. A cavity or open space inside the electrode, using an internal magnet 17a-c as shown in FIG., Or using other components in the reactor, cooling the reactor are beneficial. In some designs, the radii of the internal and external electrodes may vary along the z-direction of the reactor. For example, as shown in Figure 8a, the inner electrode 820 may have a larger circumference at certain locations along the z-direction, thereby reducing the gap 842 at those locations. Instead, a uniform internal electrode and an external electrode whose internal radius changes or even fluctuates in the z direction may be used. In some designs, the embodiment as shown in FIG. 8B, the radius and the outer radius of the inner surface of the inner electrode 810 are electrodes 820 vary in the z direction, so that the gap 842 remains constant along the z-direction of the reactor.

Figures 9a-c depict cross sections of a reactor with a non-circular cross section. As shown, in some embodiments, the internal electrode 920 and the external electrode 910 may have a radius that changes in an azimuth angle, that is, in a Θ direction. In certain designs, the outer surface of the inner electrodes (912 and 922) may have an oval cross-section as shown in Figure 9a. In some designs, the major and minor axes of the elliptical cross-section electrode differ only slightly, for example, less than 1%. In some embodiments, the surfaces 912 and / or 922 may form a polygonal cross section, such as the reactor shown in FIG. 9b , with a heptagonal cross section. In some embodiments, surfaces 912 and 922 may have 4 or more sides; in some embodiments more than 8 sides, and in some embodiments more than 16 sides. In some designs, the angle on the surface 912 may be advantageous; for example, the rate of collision of the rotating particles with the target material at the corner position may increase, resulting in an increased fusion ratio. In some embodiments, the reactor of the configuration shown in FIG. 9c, defined by the surface 912 and the inner radius of the outer electrode 922 or may vary in the Θ direction, so that the cross-section of any particular edge is a surface; example Sine, zigzag or square waveform edges. The internal and external electrodes in the described embodiments are coaxial, but in some embodiments, the axes of the internal and external electrodes are offset, for example, the annular region is eccentric, so that the internal and external electrodes have Z-axis that is substantially parallel but not collinear.

The materials used for the internal and external electrodes depend on the reactor size, the selected fusion reactants, and other parameters that control the operation of the fusion reactor. Generally, there are many trade-offs in terms of cost, thermal performance, and electrical properties that determine which materials can be selected for use in the reactor. Due to the high melting point of refractory metals (eg, tungsten and tantalum) and the relatively high conductivity at high temperatures, refractory metals can be selected for small reactors. However, the use of these materials in large-scale reactors may significantly increase the cost of the reaction device.

In certain embodiments, the electrode material has a melting point high enough to withstand the thermal energy released during reactor operation. For external electrodes, the bounding wall that may be subject to fusion reactions, usually releases large amounts of thermal energy. For frequent use, the melting point of the material of the external electrode should exceed the temperature reached by the electrode during reactor operation. In some designs, the material selected for the electrode has a melting point greater than about 800 ° C, in some designs the melting point is greater than about 150 ° C, and in other designs, the melting point is greater than about 2000 ° C.

，在一些設計中，熱導率大於約

， 在另一些設計中，熱導率大於約

。 In many embodiments, it is beneficial for the electrode material to have high thermal conductivity. The reactor may be suitable for continuous operation if the heat transferred to the electrode can be extracted from the electrode (eg, using a heat exchanger) at an equivalent rate under steady state conditions. When the electrode material has high thermal conductivity, the rate of heat extraction can be increased, and concerns about overheating of the material can be reduced. In some designs, the thermal conductivity is greater than about

In some designs, the thermal conductivity is greater than about

In other designs, the thermal conductivity is greater than about

.

In certain designs, such as when the reactor is configured for pulsed operation, it may be beneficial for the electrode material to have a high thermal capacity. By having a high heat capacity, the rate of electrode temperature rise is slower during the operation of the reactor. When used in pulsed operation, the thermal energy generated can continue to be dissipated through the electrode between pulses, preventing the electrode from reaching its melting point. In some designs, the specific heat of the electrode should be higher than about 0.25 J / g / ° C. In some designs, the specific heat should be greater than about 0.37 J / g / ° C. In other designs, the specific heat should be greater than about 0.45 J / g. / ℃.

In some embodiments, the electrode material has a relatively small coefficient of thermal expansion. In some designs, by having a low thermal expansion coefficient, the reactor can operate well over a wider temperature range. For example, if the reactor has a gap of about 1 mm at room temperature, the gap will be correspondingly much smaller during steady state operation due to the expansion of the internal and / or external electrodes. If the thermal expansion coefficient is too high, the external electrode and the internal electrode may contact and cause a short circuit. Alternatively, if the reactor is designed to have a certain gap at the operating temperature, the gap may be larger than the required gap when the reactor is first run. In some designs, the linear thermal expansion coefficient of the electrode material is less than about 4.3 × 10 ^-6 ℃ ^-1 . In some designs, the linear thermal expansion coefficient of the electrode material is less than about 6.5 × 10 ℃ ^-1 . In other designs, the electrode material The coefficient of linear thermal expansion is less than about 17.3 × 10 ^-6 ℃ ^-1 .

To facilitate the operation of the reactor, the electrodes can be designed to have mechanical properties such as resistance to deformation during thermal loops. Under certain conditions, some materials, such as stainless steel, become brittle and eventually experience metal fatigue due to thermal cycling. If the reactor is operated in pulsed operation and the electrodes are rapidly heated and cooled, internal stresses may be generated. In some designs, the effect of thermal load loops can be reduced by using electrodes with a single bulk material, or by using two or more materials with similar expansion coefficients. Some materials may deform due to high temperatures. Therefore, it is possible to select an electrode material that maintains strength at an elevated temperature.

The electrode material may be chemically inert and will not be affected by oxidation, corrosion or other chemical degradation during the life of the reactor. Another consideration for electrode materials is whether they are ferromagnetic. In some designs, if a ferromagnetic material is used, an internal local magnetic field is generated, which interferes with the establishment or maintenance of a preset magnetic field in the annular space.

In a Lawrence-driven reactor with concentric electrodes, the internal and external electrodes may be made of a conductive material so that during operation, a potential is applied uniformly on the surface of the electrode. In certain embodiments, the resistivity of the internal or external electrode material is less than about 7x10 ^-7 Ωm at room temperature, and less than about 1.68x10 ^-8 Ωm in some designs. In addition to conducting at room temperature, the internal and external electrodes are also conductive at higher temperatures when the reactor is not operating. During operation, the internal or external electrode may reach a temperature of about 600 ° C to about 2000 ° C. During operation, the resistivity of the external electrode material should be no greater than about 1.7E-8Ωm, and in some designs no greater than about 1E-6Ωm.

In designs where reactants or by-products include hydrogen or helium, the material's resistance to hydrogen embrittlement can be considered. Hydrogen embrittlement is the process by which metals such as stainless steel become brittle. In some designs, it is caused by the introduction of hydrogen atoms or molecules and subsequent diffusion into the metal. Due to the increased solubility of hydrogen at higher temperatures, the diffusion of hydrogen to the electrode material may increase during reactor operation. When assisted by concentration gradients, where there is much more hydrogen outside the metal than inside, such as caused by centrifugal densification of hydrogen atoms impinging on the confinement wall, the diffusion rate can be further increased. Individual hydrogen atoms in the metal gradually recombine to form hydrogen molecules, creating internal pressure in the metal. Additionally or alternatively, the trapped hydrogen molecules themselves create internal pressure. This pressure can be increased to a level where the metal has reduced ductility, toughness, and tensile strength until a crack is formed and the electrode fails. In some designs where the metal contains carbon (such as carbonized steel), the electrode may undergo a process called hydrogen impingement-hydrogen atoms diffuse into the steel and recombine with carbon to form methane gas. When the methane gas is concentrated inside the metal, internal pressure may be generated that causes mechanical failure of the equipment. Although methods to reduce the effects of hydrogen embrittlement are described elsewhere herein, the sensitivity of the material to embrittlement is usually considered when designing the electrode. In some designs, the electrodes may include platinum, platinum alloys, and ceramics such as boron nitride to reduce hydrogen embrittlement. In some designs, the metallurgical structure can be modified so that the effect of hydrogen in the metal lattice may be reduced. For example, in some designs, the metal or metal alloy may be heat treated to obtain the desired metal structure.

In various embodiments, the internal electrode and the external electrode are mainly composed of a metal and a metal alloy. In some embodiments, the internal electrode and / or the external electrode are made at least partially of a refractory metal having a high melting point. Refractory metals are known to be chemically inert, suitable for manufacturing using powder metallurgy, and have stable creep resistance at very high temperatures. Suitable refractory metals include niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, zirconium, hafnium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium, and iridium. In one example, at least the external electrode includes tantalum.

In some embodiments, one or two electrodes are manufactured using stainless steel. Advantages of stainless steel include its workability and corrosion resistance. In some designs, the electrode is made at least partially of a non-carbon based stainless steel (eg, Incoloy stainless steel), which may be more resistant to hydrogen embrittlement than carbonized stainless steel. In some designs, the electrode may be made at least partially of a nickel alloy, which maintains its strength at very high temperatures, such as Inconel, Monel, Haas Troy corrosion-resistant nickel-based alloys (Hastelloys) and nickel-chromium-titanium alloys (Nimonic). In some designs, the electrodes are made at least partially of copper or a copper alloy. In some designs, the electrode is configured with one or more channels for internal cooling to extract heat, and materials with less extreme temperature resistance can be used.

Although the absorption of small atomic fusion reactants such as hydrogen, deuterium, or helium can cause mechanical failure of the electrode under certain operating conditions, certain materials may reduce or eliminate harmful embrittlement effects. For example, under certain conditions, hydrogen-absorbing materials such as palladium-silver alloys do not appear to be affected by hydrogen embrittlement (Jimenez, Gilberto, et al. "A comparative assessment of hydrogen embrittlement: palladium and palladium-silver (25 weight% silver, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). In this design, the absorption of the fusion reactant may increase the rate of the fusion reaction, for example, a rotating gas reactant such as hydrogen may interact with an external electrode (or confinement wall) Fixed hydrogen atom collision on the surface. In some designs, the reactants are provided to the reactor by allowing the reactants to diffuse through internal and / or external electrodes. In some designs, the electrodes may include titanium, palladium or a palladium alloy for Deliver fusion reactants or increase collision rates between fusion reactants.

In some designs, as discussed elsewhere herein, the external or internal electrode may include an electron-emitting material having a high electron emission rate. In some designs, the external electrode may contain a target material for a fusion reactant. In some designs, the target material is consumed during operation due to the fusion reaction. For example, in some designs, lanthanum hexaboride is used as the target material and the boron-11 atom is consumed during the proton-boron reaction.

First Embodiment-Electrode In some embodiments, the external electrode is monolithic and is made of a single material. In other embodiments, the external electrode has a layer or segment that includes two or more materials. structure. In some embodiments, the inner surface of the external electrode, the constraining wall, includes a target material (a material containing a fusion reactant) or an electron-emitting material. In some designs, the position of the target material or the electron emitters may cover the entire surface area of the wall-bounded, in other designs, the target material or the electron emitters located in the wall of one or more discrete constraints (e.g., as in FIG 21a- b ) electron emitter).

In some designs, the inner layer of the outer electrode provides one property, while the outer layer provides different properties. For example, the inner layer forming the surface of the constrained wall may have a high melting point, while the outer layer may have good thermal or electrical conductivity.

In some designs, the electrode may include a layer of material forming a constraining wall that is more resistant to hydrogen embrittlement than the rest of the electrode. In some designs, the electrode has a ceramic coating that prevents hydrogen atoms from penetrating into the crystal lattice of the external electrode or provides thermal insulation of the bulk electrode material. For example, the external electrode may have an aluminum nitride layer, an aluminum oxide layer, or a boron nitride layer. Some materials with low conductivity (such as boron nitride) can be heat treated to improve conductivity. In some designs, the electrode may undergo a surface treatment that adds a certain material to the electrode surface to reduce hydrogen embrittlement. For example, when an electrode is made of a hydrogen-embrittleable material such as tantalum, embrittlement is reduced by adding a small amount of precious metal to the electrode surface. In some designs, the precious metal may cover only a small portion of the electrode surface. For example, noble metals can cover less than about 50%, less than 30%, or less than 10% of the electrode surface, thereby significantly reducing electrode hydrogen embrittlement. In some designs, small amounts of platinum, palladium, gold, iridium, rhodium, osmium, osmium, and ruthenium can be added to the electrode surface to reduce hydrogen embrittlement. In some designs, a spot-shaped region of precious metal (eg, a radius of about 0.5 feet) can be riveted or welded to the electrode surface. In other designs, precious metal powder can be added to the surface of the electrode. During normal operation, the powder will spread to the surface of the electrode. In some designs, such as after the reactor has been running for a predetermined time, precious metals can be added to the electrode surface periodically.

In some designs, the sleeve is attached to the inner surface of the external electrode such that the inner surface of the sleeve forms a restraint wall. In some designs, a sleeve may be used, for example, to provide a target material, provide an electron emitter, provide a barrier to prevent hydrogen from penetrating to the external electrode, and / or provide thermal protection to the external electrode. In some designs, the sleeve is consumable and / or replaceable. For example, if the sleeve contains consumed target material, the sleeve will eventually be replaced. In other designs, the sleeve serves as a consumable layer that protects the external electrode from hydrogen embrittlement. In the case where the sleeve itself fails due to hydrogen embrittlement, the replacement cost is much lower than the entire external electrode.

In some embodiments, the external electrode may have a porous or network structure that allows high-energy charged particles to pass through the electrode while still confining the rotating neutral particles within the annular space. The charged particles passing through the external electrode can be guided by the magnetic field of an external magnet. In some designs, the escaping alpha particles are redirected to hardware that can convert the kinetic energy of the alpha particles into electrical energy (see discussion elsewhere herein). In some designs, the pore size in the electrode can be less than about 100 microns, and in other designs, less than about 1 micron. Generally, the structure of the internal electrode is similar to that of the external electrode. Like the external electrode, the internal electrode may be made of a single material or a layered or segmented structure made of two or more materials. In some embodiments, the internal electrode may be a solid; in other embodiments, the internal electrode has an internal space. In some designs, the internal electrode may include one or more vias for internal cooling. In various embodiments, the internal electrode is connected to a power source that provides a current output from the internal electrode to a grounded external electrode. The material of the external electrode is also generally suitable for the internal electrode, although in some embodiments, the internal electrode does not include a target material or an electron-emitting material.

    First embodiment-magnet    

Figures 10a-d show a first embodiment in which an axial magnetic field is applied by an electromagnet such as a superconducting magnet. Figure 10a shows an isometric view of a superconducting magnet surrounding the external electrodes of the reactor. As shown, the magnet includes a housing 1056 . Figure 10b provides the same perspective view as Figure 10a , with the housing 1056 of the superconducting magnet removed, exposing the superconducting coil winding 1054 . Figure 10c provides a perspective view of the reactor as viewed along the z axis, corresponding to FIG. 10d is an isometric sectional view taken along line shown in FIG 10a. As shown, the reactor has an external electrode 1010 , an internal electrode 1020 , and a gap 10 defining an annular space 1040 between the two electrodes. Current (as indicated by arrow in FIG. 10a) surrounded by the superconducting coil windings of the reactor 1054, a magnetic field in the z-direction through the annular space. In some embodiments, a superconducting magnet is used to generate a magnetic field of about 1-20 Tesla across an annular region. In some designs, the applied magnetic field is between 1-5 Tesla. The coil is placed in an insulated enclosure 1056 around the reactor, which is kept at a low temperature (eg, less than -180 ° C) and low pressure. The housing 1056 may be cooled by, for example, an adiabatic expansion gas (such as He) or a cryogenic liquid, so that the temperature of the superconducting coil is kept below its critical temperature. In some designs, the casing can be mechanically cooled to avoid the use of liquid refrigerants. The coil may be made of a superconducting material such as niobium titanium or niobium tin, bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCC), or yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO). The coil winding can be wound in an insulating material in a linear or ribbon shape. In some designs, the coil windings may include the superconducting material described above, placed in a copper base to provide mechanical stability. In some embodiments, superconducting magnets on the market may be used, such as the supplier of Cryomagnetics Corporation or the manufacturer of nuclear magnetic resonance imaging equipment. In some designs, a superconducting magnet such as or similar to the AMS-02 superconducting magnet used for Alpha magnetic spectrometer experiments can be used. When a superconducting magnet is used to provide an axial magnetic field, the radius of the confinement wall is usually smaller than the radius of the superconducting magnet, for example, the radius can be limited to about 20 meters in some designs.

When an electromagnet or a superconducting magnet is placed around the external electrode, there may be a gap between the external electrode 1010 and the housing of the magnet 1056 . This interval can be used to reduce heat transfer to the magnet. In some designs, a heat exchanger may be placed between the external electrode 1010 and the magnetic housing. When the external electrode has a porous or mesh structure, there may be a gap between the external electrode and the magnet housing, which allows the charged particles to pass through the external electrode. Charged particles, such as alpha particles, that pass through an external electrode can be constrained in the r direction by ion cyclotron motion so that they do not collide with the housing 1156 . In some designs, the spacing between the external electrodes is about 3 cm to 6 cm, in other designs it is about 6 cm to 10 cm. As described elsewhere herein, charged particles can travel in the z-direction toward the energy conversion device, thereby generating electrical energy. Figures 11a-b show a reactor in which a disc-shaped permanent magnet 1150 is placed on either end of the annular space 1140 to generate a substantially axially-oriented applied magnetic field (it points in the z direction in the figure). Fig. 11a provides a perspective view viewed in the z direction, and Fig. 11b provides an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the section line in Fig. 11a . As shown in FIG. 11b, the reactor having an internal electrode 1120 is formed external constraints 11101112 wall electrode, and an annular space between the inner and outer electrodes. The magnets 1150 are placed on either side of the annular space and have the same magnetic orientation. For example, two magnets may have a north pole facing the positive z direction, or two magnets may have a north pole facing the negative z direction. Although not shown, in some embodiments, the magnet 1150 may be annular such that the magnet is close to the annular space 1140 and provides a substantially uniform magnetic area along the inner surface of the external electrode 1112 . The ring magnet has the same pole direction as the disk magnet shown in FIG. 11 .

12a-b illustrate another embodiment in which a plurality of permanent magnets 1250 (for example, the same orientation as the disc-shaped magnet shown in FIG. 11 ) having the same polarity in the z-direction are placed in an annular space 1240 Either side to generate an applied magnetic field along the inner surface of the external electrode 1212 in the z-direction. Fig. 12a provides a perspective view in the z direction, and Fig. 12b provides an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the section line indicated in Fig. 12a . Some features are labeled in the enlarged view 1201 , which shows that the inner electrode 1220 , the outer electrode 1210, and the permanent magnet 1250 define an annular space formed. In embodiments, the use of multiple smaller magnets reduces the cost and physical limitations associated with larger monolithic magnets that can be used in large reactors. The arrangement of the magnets 1250 shown in Figs. 12a and 12b can be regarded as two ring magnets facing each other. Although not shown, in some embodiments, a combination of different magnet shapes is used to generate the axial magnetic field. For example, a ring magnet can be used on one side of the ring space, and multiple magnets can be used on the other side.

13a-c show a reactor 1300 having a single internal electrode 1320 , and permanent magnets 1350 arranged along the z-direction separate a plurality of annular spaces 1340 . As shown, the reactor has an internal electrode 1320 , a plurality of external electrodes 1310 (which are a combination of wall segments) forming a constraining wall 1312 , and an annular space 1340 between each external electrode and the internal electrode. Fig. 13a provides a perspective view viewed in the z direction, and Figs. 13b and 13c are a cross-sectional view and an isometric cross-sectional view respectively corresponding to the indicated section line in Fig. 13a . When a permanent magnet is placed at either end of the annular region, the length of the annular space in the z direction may be limited by the strength of the magnetic field generated by the permanent magnet. In some designs, the annular space may be limited to, for example, about 5 or 10 cm. By arranging the magnets 1350 in the Z direction between the plurality of annular spaces 1340 , the total surface area on the external electrode 1310 and the restriction wall 1312 can be increased. As in the previous embodiment, each magnet 1350 has the same direction along the z-axis. This design effectively uses permanent magnets between the annular spaces because each pole helps to form a magnetic field applied to the boundary annular space. Although the depicted embodiment uses ring magnets, many other shapes are possible; for example, each magnet that borders the ring space may consist of many smaller magnets that collectively form a ring structure (see Figures 12a-b ). In some embodiments, the external electrode 1310 may be segmented into physically distinct portions that are electrically isolated. In some embodiments, the external electrodes may be monolithic or otherwise electrically connected, such that each external electrode corresponding to each annular space 1340 is grounded.

14a-c show a single reactor structure 1400 in which multiple annular spaces 1440 separated by permanent magnets 1450 are arranged along the z-direction. As shown in the figure, the reactor has a plurality of internal electrodes 1420 and a plurality of external electrodes 1410 , and a restriction wall 1412 is formed for the annular space 1440 between each group of electrodes. Fig. 14a provides a perspective view in the z direction, and Figs. 14b and 14c provide a cross-sectional view and an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the cross-section line indicated in Fig. 14a . FIG Example 14a-c instead of using a single ring magnet and the inner electrode (e.g., FIG. 13a-c illustrated embodiment), the use of disk-shaped magnets and a plurality of internal electrode segments. The description of the corresponding features of Figs. 13a-c relates to the embodiment of Figs. 14a-c . In some embodiments, the reactor shown may be operated using only a subset of the available annulus, depending on the energy requirements. For example, in some embodiments, a fusion reactant is introduced into only one annular space, and a voltage potential is applied only to an internal electrode adjacent to the annular space. In this way, the energy output of the reactor can be controlled in accordance with the energy demand, and it can be monitored immediately if necessary. Therefore, in some embodiments, each of the internal electrodes 1420 and / or the external electrodes 1410 may be independently controlled.

Figures 15a-15c show magnetic fields generated by a series of rings of magnets 1550 that are substantially coaxial and have the same direction. Fig. 15a is an isometric view of three magnets, Fig. 15b is a view along a common axis of the magnets, and Fig. 15c is a cross-sectional view corresponding to the mark shown in Fig. 15b . Although the previous embodiment utilizes a magnet that deviates from the annular space in the z direction, the magnet can also deviate radially from the annular space in the r direction. As shown in dashed lines in Figure 15c, when considered alone, each annular magnet generates a magnetic field starting its north pole 1545 and south pole at its termination. When multiple ring magnets are placed next to each other, the net effect can be a combined magnetic field--a superposition of a single magnetic field and point along a common axis substantially along the solid magnetic field line 1546 as shown in the figure. This magnet construction extends the feasible length of the annular space of the reactor while using a permanent magnet.

Figures 16a-16c show an embodiment using a radially offset ring magnet 1650 to generate an axial magnetic field through an annular region. As shown, the reactor has a single internal electrode 1620 and a single external electrode 1610 forming a constraining wall 1612 for an annular space 1640 between the electrodes. Fig. 16a provides a perspective view of the reactor viewed in the z direction, while Figs. 16b and 16c provide a cross-sectional view and an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the indicated section line in Fig. 16a . Each magnet 1650 has the same polarity in the z-direction. For example, as shown, each magnet 1650 has a south pole facing the positive z-direction. This embodiment allows an annular space extending in the z-direction, creates a larger surface area on the restraint wall 1610 , and allows a larger power output potential. The overlapping features of the respective embodiments of Figs. 13 and 14 can be applied to the embodiments of Figs. 16a-c .

Figures 17a-17c show the use of radial offset magnets ( 1750 , 1752 ) to generate an axial magnetic field through a single annular space. As shown, the reactor having a single inner electrode 1720 and a single outer electrode 1710, the electrode 1710 of a single outer annular region between the electrode 1740 of the containment walls 1712 are formed. Fig. 17a provides a perspective view of the reactor viewed in the z direction, while Figs. 17b and 17c provide a cross-sectional view and an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the section line indicated in Fig. 17a . The embodiment of FIGS. 17a-c goes beyond the embodiment described with respect to FIGS. 16a-c , in which an additional magnet 1752 is placed in the inner region of the inner electrode 1620 . As shown, the additional magnet 1752 has the same orientation as the external magnet 1750 in the z-direction. In some embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 17b and 17c, the inner ring and the outer ring magnet 1752 magnets 1750 aligned in the z direction. In some embodiments, the inner ring magnets may be offset from the outer ring magnets, or the interval between the magnets may be different from the interval of the outer magnets. In some embodiments, the inner magnet may take a different shape than the outer magnet, for example. The internal magnet may be a rod-shaped magnet.

In some embodiments, the permanent magnet is made of a rare earth element or an alloy of rare earth elements. Examples of suitable magnets include samarium cobalt magnets and neodymium magnets. Other strong magnets developed now or later may also be suitable. In some embodiments, a permanent magnet may be used to generate a magnetic field between approximately 0.1 and 1.5 Tesla in an annular space; in some embodiments, a permanent magnet may generate approximately 0.1 and approximately 0.5 Tesla in an annular space Between the magnetic field.

Not all reactors require permanent magnets. Some use electromagnets or superconducting magnets, as described with reference to Figures 10a-d . Some reactors employ a combination of two or more of permanent magnets and electromagnets. 18a-d show a first embodiment in which an axial magnetic field is applied by an electromagnet. As shown in the figure, the reactor has an internal electrode 1820 and an external electrode 1810 of a restriction wall 1812 forming an annular space 1840 between the electrodes. Figure 18a shows an isometric view of an electromagnet placed on a reactor. Fig. 18b is a perspective view of the reactor along the z-axis, and Figs. 18c and 18d depict a cross-sectional view and an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the cross-sectional line shown in Fig. 18b . Current through the coil winding around the reactor 1854 in the z direction, thereby generating a magnetic field applied substantially in a z-direction through the reactor, as indicated by field lines 18c in FIG. The current through the conductive coil can be provided by an AC or DC power source. In a design in which the conductive coil is driven by an AC power source, the internal electrode and / or the external electrode may also be driven by an AC power source of the same frequency. Doing so keeps the rotation of the charged particles in the same direction, as opposed to the other case-if the alternating polarity of the magnetic field and the electric field are not synchronized, an alternating direction will occur. The coil can be made of a conductive material such as copper, aluminum, gold or silver. In some embodiments, the coil is wound around the external electrode. In some embodiments, the coil is placed in a separate housing around the external electrode.

    Reverse Polarity Example    

The counter electrode rotor has been described previously in FIGS. 5a to 5c . Generally, unless otherwise stated, the structure of the electrode of the first embodiment is also applicable to the design of the reverse polarity. For example, the materials for the internal and external electrodes, the gap between the electrodes ( 542 in Figure 5a ), and the configuration of the magnets used to generate a magnetic field in the z-direction may be the same as the design of the concentric electrode reactor. However, as described below, some embodiments employ different structural configurations and / or different materials (eg, different materials on the internal electrodes).

Figure 5d depicts the cross selection of the counter electrode rotor. The electric field can be applied in the negative r direction by applying a negative voltage to the internal electrode and grounding the external electrode, grounding the internal electrode and applying a positive potential to the external electrode, or by applying a more negative potential to the internal electrode than the external electrode. When an electric field is generated by applying a potential to the internal and / or external electrodes, the positively charged particles in the annular space 540 are pulled toward the internal electrodes 520 . When a charged particle moves inward, Lawrence force accelerates the particle in azimuth, which may cause a spiral trajectory, as shown by path 503 . Through the ion-electrically neutral particle coupling, the electrically neutral particles in the annular space rotate with the positively charged particles. Due to the potential difference between the internal electrode and the external electrode, many electrons on the internal electrode form an electron-rich region 532 close to the surface of the electrode. As a result, this part of the electrons and the positively charged particles subjected to the Lawrence force are rotated in the same direction. As mentioned elsewhere, this electron-rich region can reduce Coulomb barriers between fusion nuclei. In some designs, the electron-rich region may extend from the surface of the internal electrode by about 100 micrometers to about 3 millimeters.

In some designs, recombination of charged substances occurs when positively charged particles contact an internal electrode when they move inward or when positively charged particles encounter free electrons in an electron-rich region. In some designs, positively charged particles move around the inner electrode along a Larmor radius 502 . In some embodiments, the density of positively charged particles will vary in a radial direction. For example, positively charged particles that can surround an annular space at the Larmor radius are denser than near an external electrode. This gradient of charged particles can lead to a velocity distribution in the annular region, where particles near the outer wall move more slowly, where neutral particles have higher density due to centrifugal force, and fewer positively charged particles drive Sex particle motion.

In some embodiments, the internal electrode is composed of a separate material such as tantalum, tungsten, copper, carbon, or lanthanum hexaboride. In some designs, the internal electrode has a conductive core 520a coated with an electron-emitting and / or target material 520b. For example, the internal electrode may have a core made of a conductive and heat-resistant material such as tungsten, which is coated with lanthanum hexaboride, boron nitride, or another boron-containing material. In some designs, the diameter of the internal electrode is between about 1 cm to about 3 cm, and in other designs about 4 cm to about 6 cm. In some designs, the internal electrode has a tiny cross-section, such as a filament or wire. In such embodiments, the diameter of the internal electrode may be less than about 0.5 mm, less than about 0.1 mm, or less than about 0.05 mm. In some designs, the length of the internal electrode in the z-direction is about 3 cm to about 10 cm. In some designs, the internal electrode may be smaller in the z direction, such as less than about 3 cm, or less than about 1 cm. In some embodiments, the internal electrode may be longer in the z-direction, such as longer than about 20 cm. In some designs, the z-direction restraint area (the length of the internal and external electrode overlaps) for the reverse electrode reactor may be limited by the power source that applies the charge to the internal and / or external electrodes. In some designs, the length in the z direction may depend on the gas pressure in the constrained area. In some designs, if the gas pressure is reduced to a very low value, it is allowed to increase the length in the z direction, which may reduce the power required to generate plasma in the annular space.

Figure 19a depicts several methods of actively cooling internal electrodes. In some designs, the internal electrode 1910 has an internal via 1928 through which fluid can remove heat. For example, water can be pumped into the internal channels to remove heat from the internal electrodes. In some designs, the internal electrodes can be bonded to a thermally conductive, insulating ceramic block 1923. The ceramic block may be made of a material such as alumina. Heat is dissipated through the ceramic block, removing heat from the tail end of the internal electrode connected to it. In some designs, the ceramic block will have open holes to support the internal electrodes. In some designs, the internal electrode is fixed to the ceramic using a set screw. In some designs, the heat conducted through the ceramic block is used to generate electricity, such as a thermoelectric generator or heat exchanger connected to the ceramic block.

In some embodiments, the internal electrode can be replaced if the target material is consumed or the electrode is damaged. For example, when a boron coating is consumed or when a filament is broken, a boron-coated filament used as an internal electrode may be replaced.

In some embodiments, the length of the internal electrode exceeds the annular region (determined by the z-direction edge of the external electrode). In some designs, the position of the internal electrode is changed in the z direction by a linear actuator. For example, if the internal electrode is a wire, during operation of the reactor, the wire may be passed through an annular area to prevent the internal electrode from melting, or a portion of the wire may be replaced in a design where the target material (e.g., boron coating) is consumed.

In some embodiments, the width of the internal electrode may vary in the z-direction. Figure 19b shows that the internal electrode 1920 extends beyond the external electrode 1910 and is held in place by an extended sleeve 1921 that can be used as an internal electrode. The sleeve 1921 may be made of a conductive material, such as copper, stainless steel, and tantalum. In some designs, a voltage can be applied to the internal electrode through the sleeve; this can reduce resistive heating of the internal electrode with a small diameter. In some designs, the diameter of the sleeve may be much larger than the diameter of the internal electrode. For example, the diameter of the sleeve may be greater than about 10 cm, while the diameter of the internal electrode is less than about 0.5 mm. In some configurations, the internal electrode can be fixed to the sleeve using a set screw. In some embodiments, the sleeve may be directly threaded into the sleeve. These and other attachments make the internal electrode 1920 replaceable, while the sleeve 1921 is permanent. In some designs, the sleeve may be coated with a target material such as boron. In some designs, as described in Figure 19a, the sleeve may be cooled from the inside.

As with the reactor of the first embodiment, the gap between the internal electrode and the external electrode may be limited by the amount of plasma that the power source can generate within the constrained area. In some designs, the external electrode may be structurally similar to the external electrode described in the first embodiment. In some designs, the external electrode may have an external insulating layer. For example, if an alternating signal is applied to the electrodes of the reactor, or if the reverse-polarity reactor is part of multiple reactor modules that need to be electrically isolated from each other. Generally, the support structure of the internal electrode and the external electrode may contain an electrically insulating material to insulate the electrode from the shell of the reactor and prevent alternating current between the electrodes. In some designs, the external electrode is a metal sheet (e.g., a copper sheet) and is made cylindrical in a quartz tube. In some designs, the external electrode is a solid tubular structure located within an insulating structure. In another embodiment, the electrode is prepared by coating an inner surface of a quartz tube with a metal conductive coating.

As mentioned elsewhere, only a small number of ions or positively charged particles are required to drive a large number of electrically neutral particles to rotate. Due to the restraint wall connected to the external electrode, the concentration of the electrically neutral particles increases in the radial direction. At the same time, rotating electrically neutral particles are not affected by radial or axial magnetic fields. Due to random collisions with the outer wall and other particles, electrically neutral particles may be deflected to the electron-intensive area, and in some designs, electrically neutral particles may hit the target material on the internal electrode, causing fusion to occur. Similarly, in some designs, positively charged particles may also be deflected into an internal electrode that produces a fusion reaction, and a proton-boron 11 polymerization reaction occurs.

In some designs, the anti-field polar reactor operates in a constant voltage mode. For example, a voltage is applied to the internal and / or external electrodes to maintain a constant or substantially constant voltage between the electrodes during reactor operation. In another mode of operation, the anti-field polarity reactor operates in a constant current mode. It is advantageous to operate at a constant current when the internal electrodes are small and prone to failure due to resistance heating. In some designs, the reactor is initially controlled using a constant voltage mode and then switched to a constant current mode of operation.

In some configurations, an energy storage device, such as a capacitor or a battery, is used to apply a potential to the inner and / or outer electrodes to initiate a fusion reaction. In some designs, the circuit regulates the current and / or voltage provided by the energy storage device. In some designs, an energy device (eg, a capacitor) is connected to the internal and / or external electrodes and discharged until the energy storage device is no longer able to generate a sufficiently strong electric field to support the fusion reaction. In some designs, the reactor is equipped with an additional energy storage device-the electrical energy generated by the fusion reaction is charged when the first energy storage device is discharged. In some designs, an energy storage device such as a capacitor or a battery is used to apply a potential to the internal electrode and / or the external electrode to initiate a fusion reaction. In some designs, the current and / or voltage provided by the energy storage device is regulated by a circuit. In some designs, an energy device (eg, a capacitor) is connected to the internal electrode and / or the external electrode and discharged until this energy storage device is no longer capable of generating an electric field strong enough to support the fusion reaction to occur. The regulator then regulates the charge and discharge mode switch of the energy storage device so that the fusion reaction can be maintained.

In some designs, the power source is not connected to the internal electrode and / or the external electrode, and the fusion reaction may continue for a period of time (eg, about 10 seconds) before the potential difference between the electrodes is insufficient to sustain the reaction. When the electric field becomes too small to sustain the fusion reaction, a voltage source or a current source can be reconnected to apply a negative potential to the internal electrode.

Prior to the operation of the reverse polarity reactor, the air pressure in the annular region may be about 1 atmosphere or higher. In some designs, such as when the internal electrode is extended in the z-direction, the internal electrode may have a low pressure to reduce the power required to initiate the fusion reaction. In some designs, the gas pressure in the annular region may be reduced to less than 1 torr or less than 10 mTorr before operating the reactor. In some designs, the air pressure in the annular zone can be adjusted through inlet and outlet valves to control the rate at which the fusion reaction occurs.

For a reverse electrode reactor, the magnetic field in the confinement region is sometimes greater than about 0.5 Tesla, sometimes greater than about 1 Tesla, and sometimes greater than about 3 Tesla. In some embodiments of the reverse electric field polarity reactor, the magnetic field is not substantially perpendicular to the electric field between the inner and outer electrodes. In some embodiments, the magnetic field is non-uniform over the constrained area. The magnetic field in the confinement region can be adjusted by adjusting the position and orientation of the magnet and / or electrode. In some designs, a non-uniform magnetic field may increase the rate at which ions and electrically neutral substances collide with the internal electrodes. Generally, the applied magnetic field and / or the potential applied to the electrode may vary depending on the geometry of the reactor, the composition of the reactant gas, and the pressure of the reaction gas.

During operation, due to the centrifugal force, particles near the outer wall, especially those with higher quality, have a higher density. This may help extract fusion products with higher quality than the rotating reactants from the annular region. For example, when the alpha particles produced by the fusion reaction contain a rotating hydrogen substance, the alpha particles can be concentrated near the outer wall and then removed through an outlet valve. In some designs, fusion products can be pumped into another reactor and continue to be used as reactants. For example, alpha particles or helium atoms generated in a reverse electric field polarity reactor can be moved to another reactor to support the helium-helium fusion reaction.

    Example of a reverse field reactor    

6a-d described above describes another reactor embodiment with a reverse field configuration. This configuration uses a Lawrence swivel to drive and maintain the rotational motion of the particles in the annular space. In general, an inverse field can be applied to many of the reactors described herein while the positions of the magnetic and electric fields change.

The magnetic field in the radial direction may be applied using permanent magnets (616 and 626) made of a magnetic material such as that described in the first embodiment. In some designs, permanent magnets can be replaced with multiple azimuth-shifted electromagnets with a radial orientation axis, for example, a magnetic field oriented substantially in the r-direction is applied throughout the annular space. In some designs, the surface of the restraint wall may have one or more layers of protective magnetic material. For example, an aluminum or tantalum layer can provide protection for external or internal magnets. In some designs, the protective layer may contain target materials for fusion reactants or electron emitters. In some designs, the restraint wall may have an internal cooling system that keeps the material below its melting point and prevents the magnet from demagnetizing.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes is sometimes constrained by the available power of the ionized gas in the annular space. Similarly, in the reverse field configuration, the constrained areas of the separation electrodes 660a and 660b in the z direction are also limited. For example, in some designs, the spacing between the electrodes is in the range of about 1 mm to about 50 cm, in other designs, the spacing between the electrodes is in the range of about 5 cm to about 20 cm.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the length of the annular space in the z-direction may sometimes be limited by the strength of the permanent magnet. Similarly, in the reverse field configuration, the gap in the r-direction may be limited by the strength of the magnetic field generated near the surface of the constraining wall. In some designs, the radial gap may be limited to about 10 cm or less, and about 5 cm or less. In some designs, the gap may be larger when the magnet 616 itself provides a sufficiently strong magnetic field near the constraining surface; for example, in some designs, the gap may be greater than about 10 cm. In some designs, an internal magnet is not required.

    Wave particle example    

The following briefly describes the second type of reactor configuration, referred to herein as the wave-particle embodiment, and is shown in Figures #LLa and #LLb. In the wave particle embodiment, the charged particles are driven to rotate by an oscillating electrostatic field. An electrically neutral substance is propelled by charged particles. An electric field is generated by applying an electric charge to another electrode located in the restraint wall, the inner wall, or the connected annular region in the azimuth direction. Since this embodiment does not require a magnetic field, limitations in the magnet structure do not exist. For example, the radius of the reactor may be larger than feasible ring or disk magnets. In addition, since this embodiment does not require a current flow between the inner and outer electrodes, the structural restrictions imposed by the concentric electrodes also do not exist. In some embodiments of wave-particle designs, the radius of the confinement wall can be greater than about 2 meters, in some designs greater than about 10 meters, and in some designs greater than about 50 meters. Contrary to some embodiments of the Lorentz swivel, the length of the reactor in the z-direction is not limited by the strength of the permanent magnet, which limitation may occur in concentric electrode embodiments. In some embodiments, the length of the annular region in the z-direction may be greater than about 1 meter, in some designs greater than about 10 meters, and in some designs greater than about 100 meters. In one embodiment, there is a curvature in the z-direction of the reactor such that the constraining wall forms a torus shape. Generally speaking, the size limitation of the reactor can control the energy demand and production cost of the reactor. In the wave-particle embodiment, the rotating particles can be controlled by affecting the number and size of the azimuthal offset electrodes in the annular region. The relatively large number of electrodes along the confinement wall allows the electric field lines to be fine-tuned, thereby increasing the efficiency of the electric field for moving charged particles. In some designs, this is because a dynamically changing electric field drives particles primarily in an azimuthal direction rather than a radial direction. Generally, the reactor will have at least three azimuthal electrodes. Some reactors may have independent electrodes of at least five azimuths, and some reactors may have more than about 50 azimuth electrodes. In some designs, the number of electrodes varies depending on the size of the reactor. For example, a reactor with a radius of about 1 meter has about 20 to about 40 independent electrodes with azimuth angles along the constraining wall, while a reactor with a radius of about 2 meters can have about 40 to about 80 independent electrodes. In some designs, the ratio of the circumference (in meters) of the reactor to the number of independent internal or external electrodes on the azimuth is between about 3 and about 150, and in some designs, the ratio is between about 20 and 100 between.

In some designs, the electrodes are separated by an electrically insulating material, such as aluminum nitride or boron nitride. The insulating material is thick enough to ensure that electrical breakdown does not occur. The minimum thickness can be determined by the dielectric strength of the insulating material and the voltage applied to the electrodes. In some designs, the electrically insulating material comprises a target material (such as a fusion reactant of boron-11) and / or an electron emitter.

In some designs, the efficiency of the reactor can also be improved when the electrodes have a narrower width in the azimuthal direction and are separated by an electrically insulating material. In some designs, the electrically insulating material may also be a target material or an electron emitter. In some designs, the electrode width in the azimuthal direction can be less than about 10 cm, in some designs less than about 5 cm, and in some designs less than about 2 cm. In some embodiments, the reactor uses only azimuthal independent electrodes along the confinement wall. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the reactor utilizes only internal electrodes, or only electrodes that incorporate a ring region in the z-direction. In designs where the electrode itself does not define a constraining wall, the surface of the constraining wall can be made of a target material or an electron emitter. For example, in some designs, the electrode is separated from the annular region by a sleeve containing a strip of lanthanum hexaboride.

In some designs, the constraining wall is configured with a thermal management element, such as a heat exchanger (eg, a cooling jacket). Heat exchangers can be used to prevent the electrodes from overheating and / or to supply heated fluid to a heat engine to generate electrical or thermal energy. In some designs, heat can be dissipated from the reactor by passing a fluid, such as water, through a channel in the confinement wall. For example, the insulating material of the azimuth-separated electrodes may have internal channels for fluid flow.

In the concentric electrode embodiment, the gap between the inner electrode and the outer electrode is sometimes restricted, which is a limited power available for gas ionization in the annular region. In the wave-particle configuration, the gap between adjacently located electrically isolated electrodes can also be constrained. For example, in some designs, the spacing between the electrodes is in the range of about 1 millimeter to about 50 cm, and in other designs, the spacing between the electrodes is in the range of about 5 cm to about 20 cm.

In some designs, a wave particle reactor has more than one mode of operation. For example, a first stage can be used to activate or strike a plasma, and then a second stage can be used to drive ions (indirectly driving electrically neutral particles). For example, a radio frequency electric field can be applied radially between the inner electrode and the outer electrode to generate a weakly ionized plasma, thereby preparing a reactor for operation. Once the plasma is generated between the inner and outer electrodes, the reactor can be switched to another mode: where driving signals are sequentially applied to the electrodes distributed in azimuth to drive the charged particles and electrically neutral particles to rotate. (In some designs, wave-particle reactors have multiple modes of operation. For example, the first phase can be used to initiate or strike a plasma, and the latter phase can be used to drive ions (and indirect electrically neutral particles) in a rotational direction ). For example, a RF electric field can be applied radially between the internal electrode and the external electrode to generate a weakly ionized plasma to prepare a reactor for operation. Once a plasma is generated between the internal electrode and the external electrode, the reactor (It can be switched to a mode in which a driving signal is sequentially applied to the azimuth-distributed electrodes to drive the charged particles and the electrically neutral particles to rotate.)

The frequency of the oscillating signal applied to the azimuthal electrodes to drive the rotation of ions and electrically neutral particles depends on the reactor configuration and the preset rotation speed. For example, the drive signal may be applied in a range of about 60 kHz to 1 MHz, and in some designs in a range of about 60 kHz and 1 GHz. In some designs, the frequency of the drive signal may start low and then increase gradually or suddenly. For example, the drive signal may start at a relatively low frequency, such as 60 kHz, and eventually reach a frequency of 100 megahertz.

In some designs, the drive signal is charged using a controlled voltage. To avoid arcing between the electrodes, it is most desirable to use high voltage and low current instead of high current at low voltage. In some designs, the drive signal is applied to a separate electrode at an azimuthal angle between about 1 kV and about 100 kV. In some designs, the drive signal may apply more than 100 kilovolts to the electrodes.

Using electrostatic forces, the wave-particle embodiment can be used to achieve rotational speeds (e.g., similar constrained radii) that are typically achievable in reactors driven by Lawrence with similar configurations. In some designs, the electrostatically driven reactor can drive the rotation of the gaseous material at a rate of at least about 1000 revolutions per second, and in other designs at least about 100,000 revolutions per second. In a wave-particle embodiment, a control system can be used to control how charge is applied to the electrodes. In some designs, the control system uses a detection speed determined using a high speed camera or another sensor as a feedback to adjust the sequence of charges applied to the electrodes. In some designs, the control system uses a detection speed determined using a high-speed camera or other sensor as a feedback to adjust the sequence of charges applied to the electrodes. Generally, the azimuth independent electrodes may have a similar structure, and may be made of the materials of the above embodiments.

    Hybrid design reactor    

The structure of another general-purpose reactor is briefly described with respect to Figs. 6a to 6f, referred to herein as a hybrid reactor type. This configuration uses a Lawrence swivel and a wave-particle drive to maintain rotational motion of the particles in the annular space. When operating a Lawrence reactor in a mixed reactor, some of the designs of the first embodiment described above can be applied. Similarly, when operating with a azimuth electrode of a hybrid design, some of the structures of the wave-particle embodiments described above can be applied.

As described in the inverse field embodiment, a radial magnetic field is applied using the permanent magnets (616 and 626) made of the magnetic material described in the first embodiment. In some designs, a plurality of electromagnets with radial orientation axes that are offset along the azimuth angle can be used to replace the permanent magnets, so that the magnetic field runs through the entire constrained area substantially in the r direction. In some designs, the surface of the restraint wall may contain one or more layers of protective magnetic material. In some designs, the protective layer may contain target materials for fusion reactants or electron emitters. In some designs, the restraint wall may have an internal cooling system that keeps the material below its melting temperature and prevents the magnet from demagnetizing.

In a concentric electrode embodiment, the gap between the internal and external electrodes is limited by the power available to ionize the gas in the annular region. Similarly, in the hybrid reactor embodiment, the constrained area or annular area of the separation electrodes 660a and 660b in the z-direction is restricted. For example, in some designs, the spacing between the electrodes is about 1 mm to about 50 cm, and in other designs, the spacing between the electrodes is about 5 cm to about 20 cm.

In the concentric electrode embodiment, the length of the annular region in the z direction is sometimes limited by the strength of the permanent magnet. Similarly, in a hybrid design, the gap in the r-direction may sometimes be limited by the need to generate a magnetic field strength near the surface of the constraint wall. In some designs, the radial gap may be limited to about 10 cm or less, or about 5 cm or less. In some designs, the gap may be greater when the magnet 616 provides a sufficiently strong magnetic field near the confinement surface; for example, in some designs, the gap may be greater than about 10 cm. In some designs, an internal magnet may not be required.

In a hybrid design, a control system is used to control the signals applied to the individual electrodes distributed across the azimuth. In some designs, the control system may receive feedback from the sensors to adjust the sequence of charges applied to the electrodes. Generally, the electrodes (660a and 660b) may have a similar structure, and may be made of a material suitable for manufacturing an electrode described in the first embodiment.

In some designs, the mode of the hybrid design reactor is switched during the fusion reaction or before the fusion reaction is performed. For example, the reactor can use Lawrence swivels to maintain particle rotation before switching to a wave-particle drive. Under certain conditions, the Lawrence force-driven swivel is more efficient at initiating particle rotation in the annulus. Once the particles in the annular space have a certain rotation speed in the reactor, it is no longer advantageous to continue to use the Lawrence swivel, and you can switch to the wave-particle-driven operation mode. In some designs, higher particle speeds and more energy production can be achieved by switching to wave-particle-driven operation modes. In some designs, by switching to a wave-particle driving operation mode, the generated energy can be regulated with high precision by adjusting the driving signal sequence applied to the electrodes (660a and 660b) distributed along the azimuth. In certain embodiments where an electromagnet is used to generate an electric field, the current source for controlling the magnetic field may be terminated when the reactor enters a wave-particle operating mode. This can be used to prevent Lawrence forces from acting on charged particles in the z direction.

    Electron emitter    

As described elsewhere herein, the restraint wall is sometimes made of at least part of an electron-emitting material, referred to herein as an electron emitter. These materials emit electrons at higher temperatures than specified temperatures. For example, the emission temperature of some boron-based electron emitters is in the range of about 1800 grams to about 2000 grams. In some designs, the electron emitter may be in the form of a powder, which is compacted, sintered, or otherwise transformed into a form suitable for placement within an annular region. In some designs, physical vapor deposition can be used to sinter or deposit the electron-emitting materials onto the confinement walls of the reactor. In other designs, the electron emitter can be forged into a structure that forms part of the restraint wall, or attached to the restraint wall.

Some electron emitters are substances with low work functions, which do not degrade under high temperature and other conditions in the reactor. Examples of electron emitters include oxides and borides such as barium oxide, strontium oxide, calcium oxide, aluminum, oxides, hafnium oxide, lanthanum hexaborate, cerium hexaboride, strontium hexaboride, strontium hexaborate, hexaboron Yttrium, yttrium hexaboride, thallium hexaboride, thallium hexaboride, and thallium hexaboride. In some designs, the emitter may be a transition metal such as carbides and borides, such as zirconium carbide, hafnium carbide, tantalum carbide, and hafnium diboride. In some designs, the emitter may be a reactant of a polymerization reaction, such as ⁶ Li, ¹⁵ N, ³ He, and deuterium. In some designs, the electron emitter may be a compound comprising a fusion reactant. For example, lanthanum hexaboride can serve as an electron emitter and target material for proton-boron 11 fusion. In some designs, the fusion reaction product can be used as an electron emitter. In some designs, the electron emitter may be a composite of two or more materials, at least one of which has a low work function and emits electrons during operation.

In some designs, the electron emitter is attached as a solid element in the confinement wall of the reactor. In some embodiments, the electron emitter is a thin sheet or flat structure connected to the restraint wall, and the protrusion is not obvious in the annular area. Figure 20a depicts a cross section of an electron emitter. In some embodiments, these electron emitters are attached to the surface of the restraint wall using mechanical fasteners such as clips or screws. In some designs, the electron emitter is located in a slot in the restraint wall and is held in place by friction. For example, the electron emitter can be fixed with a groove or a clamp. In some designs, the emitter is attached to the wall by heat, adhesive, or other processes. In some designs, the thickness of the electron emitter is less than about 1.2 cm, in other designs it is less than about 6 cm, and less than about 3 cm. The size of the flake structure in the azimuth or z direction is limited by the size of the reactor. Figure 20b depicts several configurations in which the electron emitters 2036 may be symmetrically distributed along the surface of the restraint wall 2010. In some configurations, the electron emitters may be located in only a few specific areas.

In certain embodiments, when the emitters are disposed on the surface of a constraining wall, they are heated by friction and / or plasma heating during reactor operation. In some designs, additional methods can be used to add energy to the electron emitter to increase the electron emission rate. While the reactor is still relatively cool, additional methods may be used to heat the emitter during the initial operation of the reactor. In some designs, additional methods of increasing electron emission can be used to control the rate of the fusion reaction.

In some embodiments, the electron emitter on the confinement wall is electrically connected to a power source to enhance electron emission. For example, in some embodiments, a current is passed through a filament within the electron-emitting material to provide resistive heating. In some designs, the filament is made of a refractory metal such as tungsten. In some designs, for example when the restraint wall is grounded, the electron emitter may be separated from the grounded portion of the restraint wall by an electrically insulating material. In some designs, direct current is applied to the filament. In some designs, the electron emission is further improved or controlled by applying alternating current to the electron emitter; such as a current with an RF or microwave signal.

21A-b depict the use of resistance heating to control electron emission in a concentric electrode reactor. Fig. 21a is a view in the z direction of the reactor, which includes an internal electrode 2120, an external electrode 2110, and the external electrode 2110 is separated from the internal electrode by a ring region 2140. An electron emission device 2136 placed along the restriction wall 2112 is powered by a power source 2135 . Figure # 100b is an enlarged view of the electron emission device on the restraint wall. The electron emission device includes an electron emitter material 2130 heated by a filament 2134, such as lanthanum hexaboride. In some designs, the device may include insulating layers 2137 and 2138, which may provide electrical and / or thermal isolation from external electrodes and / or confinement walls (assuming they are different). These insulating layers can be made of ceramic materials such as zirconia, alumina, zinc nitride and magnesium oxide. In some embodiments, the position of the electron emission device may be adjusted during operation of the reactor. For example, to increase the electron emission caused by the frictional heating of a rotating substance, an actuator can be used to move the device radially inwardly into the annular region. Alternatively, to limit the reaction, the device can be pulled out of the annular region to limit the release of electrons.

In some embodiments, the electron emitter may have a sharp point or a tapered structure at one end to promote field electron emission instead. For example, when an electron emitter is supplied with a potential, due to the narrowed geometry, a strong electric field generated near a point may cause field electron emission to be concentrated at that point.

In some embodiments, one or more lasers are used to increase or control the electron emission of the transmitter. As shown in FIG. 22, the reactor 2200 may be equipped with a laser 2231 to guide light in the annular region 2240 to the electron emitter 2230. As shown, the light from the laser can pass through the insulated optical fiber 2239 or along the internal electrode 2220. Laser can be used for the emitter of thermionic emission, and can also act on other materials of the confinement wall to show the photoelectric effect. For example, metals and conductors can exhibit optoelectronic effects when currents do not neutralize the photons generated by the impact and thus create an imbalance. Although FIG. 22 depicts the first embodiment, in a reverse-electrode embodiment, a laser may be used for an internally negatively charged electrode to increase electron emission.

    Gas supply system    

The reactor may have one or more gas valves for introducing fusion reactants and removing fusion products. In some designs, standardized air valves can be used. For example, a gas valve for a low pressure deposition and etching chamber may be suitable for a reactor. In some designs, the gaseous reactants are released into the confinement area somewhere inside the device; for example, the reactant species may pass through the internal electrodes. In some designs, the gas valve may be located at one end of the restraint area in the z direction. In other designs, gaseous reactant materials are introduced into the restraint area through a valve located in the restraint wall. The outlet valve for fusion products can be placed in a similar position to the inlet valve. When the fusion products are removed during reactor operation, the outlet valve may be located on or adjacent to the restraint wall, but biased towards the restraint area in the z-direction. In some designs, the inlet and outlet valves may need to be electrically insulated from the electrodes to prevent grounding from causing a short circuit.

The inlet and outlet valves can also be equipped with a vacuum pump system to account for gaseous materials entering and leaving the reactor. In some designs, the valve may include a flow meter that controls the amount of gas that is added or removed from the reactor. In some designs, a flow meter may be connected to the control system of the reactor to limit the amount of hydrogen or reactant species that is placed in the chamber. In some designs, the gas inlet introduces electrically neutral particles near the constrained area, and the gas outlet removes electrically neutral particles outside the fusion zone in the z direction of the reactor. In some designs, the pumping system controls the distribution of electrically neutral particles along the z-direction of the reactor to remove electrically neutral particles that may reduce the efficiency of converting the kinetic energy of fusion products (eg, alpha particles) into electrical energy.

Although the embodiment in question describes the kind of gas, in other embodiments, the fusion reactants are introduced into the annular region as a liquid. In some designs, instead of filling the annular region with fusion reactants in the form of a gas, the annular region may be filled or partially filled with liquid fuel. For example, liquids containing hydrogen ions such as liquid hydrogen, ammonia, alkanes such as butane or methane liquids and liquid hydrides can be used as the liquid fuel. In some designs, the liquid fuel may evaporate quickly after entering the chamber. In some designs, the pressure in the reactor can be controlled by adding liquid fuel to the reactor. For example, by using the temperature difference and the volume of the known annular region, the pressure in the confined region can be calculated using the ideal gas law. In some designs, the gas reactant pressure within the reactor can be carefully monitored so that a high density of electrically neutral particles is maintained without affecting the structural integrity of the reactor.

When the reactor is a Lawrence swivel, the liquid fuel can be added in a sufficient amount or under thermal conditions so that the liquid does not evaporate immediately when entering the reaction device. In this design, a current can be passed through the liquid fuel by applying a potential between the electrodes. In some designs, the liquid is inoculated with charged particles such as potassium. In the presence of a magnetic field design, the Lawrence force drives the electrically neutral particles and charged particles in the liquid fuel to rotate. As the kinetic energy of the rotating column increases, the liquid near the boundary layer along the restraint wall may evaporate, releasing hydrogen or another reactive gas that may fuse with the target material on the restraint wall. For example, when hydrogen is released from a liquid fuel, fusion of proton-boron 11 may occur and the confinement wall contains lanthanum hexaboride. In some designs, the gaseous layer generated between the rotating liquid and the constraining wall may produce a sliding layer, which reduces the force of the liquid and the wall to make the liquid in the annular region rotate faster. In some designs, the liquid can absorb heat and reduce the possibility of electrode melting. Because liquids can have high-density fusion reactants compared to gases, liquids can be used for a long time without replacement. Although not limited to the use of liquid fuels, in some designs, if the pressure exceeds a threshold, a gas can be released from the reactor using a safety valve. In some designs, such as transportation applications, fusion reactants can be stored in liquid form and delivered to the reactor as a liquid or gas. By storing fusion reactants in liquid form, the fuel supply is small and compact.

In some designs, liquid fuel may be supplied to the reactor through a pressurized tank. In some designs, fusion reactants (eg, hydrogen) may be stored in small capsules. For example, hydrogen can be stored in glass capsules and supplied to the reactor through ports that constrain the wall. In some designs, hydrogen may be provided in a pressurized form (eg, several atmospheres), and in some designs, hydrogen may be provided in a liquid form. In designs where the reactor is already operating, the temperature inside the reactor can melt the shell of the gas storage capsule, allowing the fuel to be released immediately or within a short time (e.g., a few minutes). In some designs, such as when the reactor is cooling and not operating, a laser (as shown in Figure 22) may be used to destroy the capsule material and release the reactants or fuel. In designs such as automotive applications, the use of capsules to store small amounts of hydrogen fusion reactants can reduce or eliminate the hardware (e.g., pressurized tanks) required to safely store the reactants.

In some designs, hydrogen-containing solid compounds can be added to the reactor as fusion reactants. For example, when hydrogen fuel is consumed in the reactor, a polymer fuel block made of polyethylene or polypropylene can be provided to the reactor through a confined wall port. Once inside the reactor, the high temperature caused by reactor operation (such as the laser shown in Figure 22) is sufficient to decompose the polymer and release hydrogen. In some embodiments, ammonia borane (also known as borane ammonia) can be used as a hydrogen fuel. When the reactor reaches a temperature greater than about 100 degrees Celsius, ammonia borane releases molecular hydrogen and gaseous boron nitrogen compounds. In some designs, ammonia borane or boron-nitrogen compounds can be used as electron emitters. In some designs, boron atoms from ammonia borane can undergo fusion and fusion reactions with hydrogen atoms during operation. In many applications, such as automotive applications, the use of solid fuels can reduce or eliminate the hardware that stores gaseous or liquid fuels to ensure safety and increase convenience.

    cooling system    

In some designs, in order for the reactor to operate continuously, the reactor must be cooled to prevent the electrodes, magnets, and / or other components from overheating. In some embodiments, the reactor can be cooled by being completely immersed in a liquid. In some embodiments, the reactor includes a heat sink that draws heat from the reactor by conduction and transfers it to a fluid medium such as air or a liquid coolant. As an example, a heat exchanger can be used. Fans or pumps can be used to control flow conditions and help transfer heat to the fluid medium. Depending on the temperature monitored in the reactor, the fluid velocity can be adjusted to regulate fluid flow between laminar and turbulent flow. In some embodiments, the fluid passes through a cooling jacket outside the reactor, and in some designs, cooling tubes may be used to cool the components within the reactor. As described elsewhere herein, a radiator can be used to transfer heat to a fluid, which produces electricity in a heat engine. Liquids that can be used to cool the reactor include water, liquid lead, liquid sodium, liquid bismuth, molten salts, molten metals and various organic compounds, including some alcohols, hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons.

    power supply    

The reactor may include one or more power sources for supplying electrical current to electrodes, electromagnets, and other electrical components. The power source can control the current and / or voltage of the two terminals (eg, concentric electrodes). In some embodiments, the power source is capable of providing a maximum voltage of about 200 volts to about 1000 volts. For example, in some embodiments, the power source may provide up to 600 volts to the electrodes. In some embodiments, a small scale reactor may be capable of providing a current of about 0.1 amps to about 100 amps and / or a power of about 1 kilowatt. For some medium sized devices, the reactor may provide a current of about 1 amp to about 1 kA and / or a power of about 5 kW. For some large-scale installations, the reactor may provide a current of about 1 to 10 kA and / or provide hundreds of kilowatts of power.

Depending on the operating mode of the reaction device, a power source can be used to provide DC or AC power. In some embodiments, alternating current is applied to the electrodes to penetrate the plasma. In some designs, the voltage required to penetrate the plasma in the annular region may be reduced by about 10% compared to the DC current impinging through the plasma. When an AC signal is used to penetrate the plasma, the power supply provides an alternating current or potential signal at a frequency greater than about 1 kHz, or in some designs, greater than about 1 million Hz.

In some configurations, for example when an electromagnet is used to provide an axial magnetic field, alternating current may be applied to the electromagnet and the electrode. In some designs, an alternating signal can be applied to the electrodes and electromagnets that have the same frequency but are out of phase. In some designs, the power source may apply a current or voltage signal to the electrode or electromagnet at greater than about 500 Hz or greater than about 1 kHz. In some designs, the electromagnet operates at the same frequency as the AC current applied to the electrode, which keeps the particles spinning. In some designs, a power source on the market can be used to apply a current or voltage signal to the electrodes of the reaction device or electromagnet. Suitable power suppliers include Advanced Energy Industries and TDK-Lambda American.

    Sensor    

When operating the reactor, various parameters can be monitored to control the rate of energy output to increase efficiency, prevent component failure, and the like. For example, the temperature of the reactor can be monitored to ensure that the components of the reactor do not exceed the rated maximum temperature value. If the permanent magnet is overheated, it may be demagnetized, and if the electrode or any other part is overheated, it may melt. In some designs, reactor operation can reach higher temperatures. For example, some electron emitters must obtain enough thermal energy to release electrons into the annular region. Temperatures inside the reactor can be monitored using sensors such as thermocouples, infrared images and thermistors. In some designs, the temperature inside the reactor can be extrapolated by measuring the temperature elsewhere in the reactor. For example, the temperature of the internal surface of the external electrode can be inferred by monitoring the external surface temperature of the external electrode. In some designs, indirectly measuring temperature through an external location, a low-cost temperature sensor, such as a silicon ribbon temperature sensor, can be used.

In some embodiments, the gas pressure within the reactor can be monitored. By monitoring the pressure in front of the electron emitter, information about the density of the electrons can be obtained because they are tightly concentrated on the restraint wall. The controller can use the room pressure measurement to adjust the flow rate of gaseous materials entering and exiting the annular region. In some embodiments, cameras that take hundreds or thousands of images per second can be used to monitor the speed of rotation within the constrained area. In some designs, it is possible to help measure the rotation of matter in the reactor by introducing a substance that emits fluorescence or has detectable optical characteristics such as argon or quantum dots. In some embodiments, gas mixtures in confined regions can be monitored to determine fusion products, such as 4He and 3He. In some embodiments, fusion products and reactants can be detected using an in situ mass spectrometer (e.g., a residual gas analyzer from Hiden Analytical, which can detect a small amount of deuterium in a gas sample), a spectrometer, or an NMR sensor. In some embodiments, the reactor may be equipped with a Geiger counter to detect radiation levels.

Figures 23a-c show examples of how to use nuclear magnetic resonance sensing to determine the composition of a gaseous reactant in a concentric electrode embodiment. Figure 23a depicts the structure of the reactor, which has an internal electrode 2320, an external electrode 2310, and a substantially uniform and constant magnetic field 2391 passing through the annular region in the z-direction. The axially applied magnetic field is used to align the nuclear spins of rotating matter and can be applied by a superconducting magnet as described herein. In some designs, the axial magnetic field is greater than about 0.1 Tesla. In some designs, the axial magnetic field is greater than about 0.5 Tesla. In some designs, the axial magnetic field through the annular region is greater than about 2 Tesla. .

When detection is required, the nucleus of rotating material in the annular region is disturbed by applying RF pulses in the azimuth direction. Figure 23b describes how to generate an azimuthal time-varying magnetic field 2392 by applying an alternating current in the z-direction of the internal electrode. In some embodiments, the alternating current through the center electrode has a frequency between about 60 Hz and 1 MHz, and in other designs a frequency between about 1 MHz and about 1 GHz. After disturbing the alignment of the matter with a time-varying magnetic field, the nuclear spin rate of the rearranged matter is monitored using a detection coil as shown in Fig. 23c. The detection coil 2390 is substantially perpendicular to the long axis (z-axis) of the reactor, and monitors the current through the coil by electromagnetic radiation absorbed and re-emitted by the rotating substance. In some designs, detection coils similar to those used in medical MRI systems can be used.

    Control System    

The monitored parameters can be input to a control system that maintains the integrity of the system elements and maintains the reaction device in a state suitable for the fusion reaction. The control system can control all parameters of the fusion reaction, and in some designs can control other operations, such as thermal energy collection or utilization processes to convert into electrical energy or other useful forms of energy. In some embodiments, the control system maintains a balance between heat generation and heat extraction. For example, to maintain this preset and rated balance, the control system can control the electrical energy applied to the reactor electrodes (e.g., by modulating pulses to lengthen or shorten the period between each pulse and / or to change the voltage used to generate the plasma ), Change the magnetic field (such as a tunable magnet combined with a superconducting magnet), and change the density of the reactants.

As discussed elsewhere in this article, some parameters may need to be within a limited range so that these two conditions are met. In some designs, the control system receives identifying energy information and adjusts the conditions accordingly. The control system may also have a threshold value that, when met, initiates an automatic shutdown process to prevent damage to the reactor or operator. For example, if the temperature of the confinement wall exceeds a certain threshold or the radiation reaches a threshold, the reactor may stop the fusion reaction. The control system can stop the reactor by, for example, grounding all electrodes, closing a gas input valve, and / or introducing an inert gas substance such as nitrogen.

The control system 2462 can send a control signal 2463 to adjust various parameter settings of the reactor 2464 as needed, thereby controlling the energy output 2465. In some designs, the control system may provide a closed feedback such as shown in FIG. 24. Based on the measured input parameters from the sensor 2460 and the expected energy output signal 2461, the control system 2462 can send control signals 2463 as needed to adjust various parameter settings of the reactor 2464 to control the energy output 2465 or meet other specifications. The input parameters used by the controller may include temperature, pressure, flow rate, gas composition fraction (such as partial pressure), particle velocity, current discharge between electrodes, voltage, etc. In some designs, the control system utilizes historical data for one or more parameters. For example, while understanding specific temperature values may be important, understanding the rate and / or magnitude of temperature fluctuations may also be important. The reactor parameters that can be adjusted by the controller include the applied current, the applied voltage, the applied magnetic field strength (in the design of the electromagnet), and the gas flow rate (such as the hydrogen flow rate). Typically, the controller passes control signals to the reactor components that are associated with it. For example, a control signal can be passed to the power supply to instruct the power supply to apply a specified voltage. In some designs, the input parameters of the control system can also be set. For example, in determining what voltage should be applied, the controller may adjust the current and / or voltage applied to the electrode. In some designs, the controller can be improved through machine learning, making the reactor more efficient over time, independent of physical changes in the equipment (for example, when components fail and are replaced) or expected energy requirements.

Certain operating characteristics of the reactor may be independently controlled. For example, a control system responsible for regulating the reactor (eg, current and gas flow rate) may be used to control the flow of the cooling fluid. In another example, an electron-emitting device, as shown in Fig. 21a, has a controller that receives the temperature of the electron-emitter and determines the current applied to the filament to provide resistance heating.

The above control system can be implemented by computerized software control logic in a deviceized or integrated manner. There are many possible ways to control the operation. Based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand how to implement control using hardware and / or a combination of hardware and software.

In some designs, software code for a control system (such as Java, LabVIEW, MATLAB, C ++, or Python) can be written in any suitable computer language and then executed by a processor, such as using a conventional or object-oriented language. Software code can be stored on a computer-readable medium as a series of instructions or commands, such as random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), magnetic media such as a hard disk drive, or a floppy disk or CD- ROM optical media. In some designs, FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) can be used to test and design control systems and then make them through an ASIC process. In some designs, the controller may be a single chip that can safely store and execute control logic. Any such computer-readable medium can be provided on a single computing device and can exist on different computing devices within a system or network.

    Radiation mask    

In some embodiments, such as when the reactor is a non-neutron reaction or is essentially a non-neutron reaction, the reactor may require very little shielding to reduce radiation exposure. When there are concerns about neutron radiation, the reactor may be equipped with a suitable shield. Neutrons easily pass through most materials, and the interactions are sufficient to cause biological damage. In some designs, the reactor may be placed in a shell that absorbs neutrons. In some designs, the confinement wall of the reactor may include an outer layer for neutron absorption. In some designs, the masking layer may be made of concrete with high water content, polyethylene, paraffin, wax, water or other hydrocarbon materials. In some designs, the masking layer may include lead or boron as a neutron absorber. For example, boron carbide can be used as a masking layer, where the cost of concrete is not high. In some embodiments, the end of the reactor in the z-direction may include a material such as boron nitride, which not only absorbs neutrons, but is also a thermal and electrical insulator. In some designs, electron emitters such as lanthanum hexaboride have the additional function of masking neutron radiation. In some designs, such as large reactors, water, oil, or gravel tanks can be placed on the reactor to provide an effective shield. The thickness of the masking layer depends in part on what material is used, where the reactor is located, the type of fusion reaction, and the size of the reactor. In some embodiments, the mask layer is greater than about 10 centimeters, in some designs the mask layer is greater than about 100 centimeters, and in some designs the mask layer is greater than about 1 meter.

    Replaceable components    

Fusion reactors as described herein can be highly configurable and instrumented, and most components can be replaced and / or disassembled. Some components are permanent and do not wear out during the life of the reactor, and other components are replaced after a certain number of operating cycles or time. Under normal operating conditions, certain components of the reactor may eventually fail and need to be replaced. When operating conditions exceed certain thresholds, components may be damaged or worn faster. For each replaceable component, there may be standard procedures for component removal, handling, and replacement, as well as a series of indicators and possible diagnostic procedures for estimating component wear. Under certain operating conditions, certain components of the reactor may eventually fail and require replacement. For example, due to hydrogen embrittlement, the electrode may eventually lose its structural integrity and the target material may eventually be consumed. In some designs, components such as internal or external electrodes may generate internal stresses and need to be replaced.

Fusion reactors as described herein may be highly combinable and modular. In some embodiments, one or more elements may be replaced and / or interchanged. Some components are permanent and do not wear out during the life of the reactor, and some components need to be replaced after a certain operating cycle or operating time. For each replaceable part, there may be procedures for removing, handling, refurbishing and / or replacing the part. Additionally, there may be one or more meters and diagnostic instruments to indicate and / or judge the degree of consumption of the component.

Examples of replaceable components include one or more electrodes in a reactor, fusion reactants, fusion reactants in a container (such as a hydrogen tank), and an energy conversion device connected to the reactor.

The performance of a component that should be replaced includes a decrease in the conductivity of the electrode, the operating time of the component, and the optical properties of the component (for example, changes in the surface of the component can be detected optically). Mechanical failure can be determined by visual inspection or, in some designs, by monitoring measured parameters such as electrode temperature, pressure, and electrical conductivity. In some designs, the control system includes a program for determining a mechanical failure of an electrode or other component.

In some designs, the conductivity of the electrode may decrease over time. Due to the instability of the plasma, an electrically insulating dielectric coating can be formed on the electrodes. If the conductivity and / or conductivity of the electrodes is reduced, the reactor efficiency may be reduced and / or an excessive power supply may be required. If no measures are taken to slow down the decrease in the conductivity and / or conductivity of the reactor, it may cause electrical and / or thermal damage to the reactor. Although much of the discussion herein involves determining the conductivity and / or conductivity of the electrode, it should be understood that the conductivity varies from location to location in the electrode. For example, after a long period of operation, the conductivity of the electrode surface on the side where the reaction occurs may be much lower than the conductivity inside the electrode. As another example, the conductivity of the original material in the electrode can remain substantially unchanged during operation, but a dielectric film formed on the surface of the electrode where the reaction occurs will significantly reduce the overall conductivity of the electrode. Electrical conductivity and / or electrical resistance may be used instead of electrical conductivity and / or electrical resistance.

Various techniques can be used to monitor electrode conductivity and / or conductivity to determine if the electrode needs attention or replacement. In one example, using the electrode geometry, the conductivity of the electrode can be determined by measuring the resistance between two points on the electrode surface when the reactor is not operating. This measurement can be performed manually during routine system checks, such as with a multimeter. In some designs, the reactor is equipped with a measurement circuit that automatically measures the resistance of the electrodes between operating loops. In some designs, the reactor's control system may be designed to automatically determine the conductance of the electrodes from the measured resistance. Another way in which the conductivity of the electrode can be determined is by performing a diagnostic loop in which a gaseous reactant in the confined area is replaced by another gas, generating a plasma in the confined area. For example, hydrogen can be replaced with argon, neon or nitrogen. The control system can monitor the electrical properties of the plasma, measuring the voltage of the electrodes and the current through the electrodes. Based on the electrical properties of the argon plasma, the conductivity of the electrode can be determined. For example, the conductivity of each electrode can be determined by comparing the measured electrical properties of the argon plasma (or another plasma) with the expected electrical properties. In some designs, the expected electrical properties of the plasma, such as argon plasma, can be determined by simulation or by measuring the electrical properties on a new reactor without a dielectric coating.

The rated value of the conductivity or conductivity value of the reactor electrode can be predetermined, and beyond the rated value, the electrode needs to be repaired or replaced. For example, if the conductivity of an electrode is below about 80% of its preset value, the electrode can be replaced or processed to restore conductivity to an appropriate level.

In some embodiments, a clean loop is performed when the electrode conductivity or conductivity drops below an acceptable level. For example, a cleaning cycle introduces a cleaning gas, such as argon, into a confined area and generates a plasma that removes some or all of the dielectric coating. In some designs, a weakly ionized plasma may be sufficient to remove the dielectric coating. In some designs, argon can be completely ionized during the cleaning loop. Depending on the chemical nature of the degradation, chemical repair treatments can be applied. For example, if electrode degradation is caused by hydride or other forms of hydrogen-induced reduction, the damaged electrode can be treated with an oxidant such as an oxygen-containing plasma.

In some designs, if the conductivity of the electrode is below a certain level (for example, about 50% of a preset value), it can be determined that the reactor is not safe to operate. This may indicate that the reactor has formed a thick dielectric film and therefore requires excessive and unsafe power from the power supply. In some designs, the control or safety system can be shut down until the affected electrode is replaced or restored. In some designs, the reactor control system includes a program for determining a mechanical failure of an electrode or other component and then triggering an alarm or automatically shutting down the reactor.

In some embodiments, one or more electrodes or magnets in the reactor include a protective or consumable layer. In some designs, the consumable layer is a sleeve (e.g., a sleeve forming the inner surface of a constraining wall), which can be replaced at design intervals. In some embodiments, metal components such as electrodes or sleeves can be removed for repair, for example, annealing to eliminate internal stresses that may be caused by thermal loops. In some designs, for example, when a component undergoes hydrogen embrittlement, the component may be removed and the component material processed to make a new component. In some designs, brittle parts, such as tantalum electrodes, can be restored to a ductile state by annealing under vacuum. For example, in some designs, the brittle component can be restored by annealing at about 1200 degrees Celsius under vacuum.

The target material (fusion reactant) may eventually be completely consumed and therefore needs to be replaced. For example, some embodiments use lanthanum hexaboride, which contains boron-11 as a reactant required for the proton-boron-11 fusion reaction. Once depleted, this material needs to be replaced. Lanthanum hexaboride may also become brittle and fail due to thermal loops, which may result in a reduction in the reactor's ability to maintain productive fusion reactions; if the lanthanum hexaboride component (such as a sample placed on a restraint wall) is removed Rotating the path of the particles, the failure of lanthanum hexaborate no longer has sufficient boron-11 may lead to a decrease in the number of polymerization reactions and a decrease in the reaction rate. In some designs, the control system may notify the operator that the power of the target material will correspond to a target material that has been depleted or moved out of the restraint area. In some designs, the control system may bring consumable materials such as lanthanum hexaboride to their intended use limits and notify the operator when they should be replaced.

For example

The following examples represent some implementations implemented in accordance with the basic principles described herein.

    1.) Negative electrode (external electrode)    

The external electrode, sometimes referred to as a "shield", includes a cylindrical metal ring with multiple connection points that hold lanthanum hexaboride or other target materials. Due to the high heat resistance of refractory metals, the shield is usually composed of refractory metals such as tantalum (Ta) or tungsten (W). However, certain embodiments of the reactor use lower melting metals, such as alloy 316 stainless steel. These embodiments may include a liquid cooling circuit to prevent the shroud from reaching the melting temperature of the alloy. As mentioned above, the external electrode may be a more negative electrode or a positive electrode.

    Conductivity    

By using power from an external power source, a plasma is struck between the positive and negative electrodes in the reactor. This process is mediated by the voltage across the two electrodes and the current through the electrode and the plasma. The voltage required to strike the plasma and start the fusion reaction is directly related to the conductivity of the two electrodes. As described above, an insulating coating can be formed on the negative electrode, thereby affecting the conductivity of the electrode.

The way to instantly determine the conductivity of an external electrode is to use a digital multimeter to measure the resistance between two points. In some embodiments, the measured resistance value is input into an evaluation (QA) software to display the conductivity and operating status of the external electrode.

A second analytical method for determining conductivity is to impinge a glow-discharge argon plasma in a reactor. This is achieved by the control software monitoring the electrical characteristics (voltage and current) of the argon plasma at any time. With internal calibration comparison, the control software determines the conductivity of the electrodes and sends the data to the evaluation (QA) software.

If the evaluation (QA) software indicates that the electrical conductivity of the composition metal is below 80% of the standard rating, the AR unit is considered to be in a non-optimal operating state when it is no longer in the optimal operating scheme. If the conductivity is below 50% of the standard rating, the AR reactor is said to be in an unsafe operating state because this will provide too much power to the power source with potential electrical and thermal damage. If the conductivity is 0%, it indicates that a complete insulating layer is formed on the negative electrode, and the system is inoperable.

Operation: Continue to operate the unit normally.

Non-optimal operation: Run the argon cleaning loop on the AR reactor using the provided control software. Repeat until the conductivity returns to the "best operating" range. If the conductivity does not improve, perform the "Unsafe Operation" below.

Unsafe operation: The external electrodes should be cleaned.

    Structural integrity    

The mechanical structure of the shroud may be damaged, deformed, or brittle. This can happen for many different reasons.

Failure of the cooling system or incorrect operation of the cooling system may cause extreme temperatures inside the reactor to exceed safe operating values. These extreme temperatures can cause thermal shock to cause cracks in or on the shield. In addition, if these extreme temperatures approach the melting point of the shield material, the shield itself will begin to deform and melt.

An immediate, implementable diagnostic method for detecting structural integrity is the control software's abnormal temperature alert prompt visual inspection. The control software can monitor the temperature of several different parts of the device and check that each part stays within the safety command arguments. If the temperature of any such element exceeds safe operating values, a temperature indicator alarm may be triggered. In extreme designs (such as an overheating condition that lasts too long), the system may shut itself down and require a mandatory visual inspection of the integrity of the shroud. If the shield is damaged, it can be sent to the QA team for inspection and analysis.

    2.) Positive electrode (internal electrode)    

The external electrode, sometimes referred to as a "shield", includes a cylindrical metal ring with multiple connection points that hold lanthanum hexaboride or other target materials. Due to the high heat resistance of refractory metals, the shield is usually composed of refractory metals such as tantalum (Ta) or tungsten (W). However, certain embodiments of the reactor use lower melting metals, such as alloy 316 stainless steel. The high-temperature center head can run longer, so the frequency of replacement can be reduced. The center electrode rod is usually made of a 316 stainless steel alloy because it does not encounter the same extreme temperatures as the head.

In some embodiments, the center electrode rod is cooled with liquid water to prevent overheating. In an embodiment using a high temperature head, the head is connected to the rod with a molybdenum (Mo) screw. In embodiments utilizing a low temperature head, the head is also water cooled and is welded or welded to the rod so that the cooling circuit is continuous.

As is the case with the outer electrode, the conductivity of the inner electrode mediates the electrical behavior of the plasma. A change in conductivity will cause a change in the voltage required to breakdown and sustain the plasma used for the fusion reaction. As described above, the instability of the plasma and fusion reactions occurring within the reactor can cause the accumulation of an insulating coating on the surface of the internal electrode, thereby affecting its conductivity.

The measurement technique (various operation schemes described above) for determining the conductivity of the center electrode is the same as that used for the internal electrode.

In terms of the structural integrity of the element, the inner electrode has the same operational risks as the outer electrode (or shield). It may be damaged, deformed, or brittle; however, due to the existence of liquid cooling channels inside the internal electrode, in addition to the thermal monitoring of specific components by the control system, there are methods for fault detection.

If the temperature of the center electrode rod (or the temperature of the liquid-cooled center electrode tip described above as an alternative embodiment) approaches the melting temperature of the composite material, the outer surface of the rod (or head) will be damaged, so that water vapor and The liquid water mixture enters the vacuum chamber. This can occur due to a malfunction or improper use of the cooling system, and a continuous plasma arc on the center electrode rod (or head) itself. Once this happens, the pressure rises instantaneously as water vapor enters the chamber through the breach. The control system detects this pressure rise and immediately shuts down the system with an error fault signal, ensuring that the necessary visual inspection is performed immediately.

Lanthanum hexaboride (commonly referred to as LaB ₆ ) is a refractory ceramic material that is used as an electron emitter in the scientific industry due to its low work function. In the reactor, LaB ₆ is connected to the negative electrode through evenly distributed connection points along the inner wall. LaB ₆ contains the solid boron fuel required for the fusion reaction and needs to be replaced once the fuel is exhausted.

In nature, boron has two main isotopes (the number of atomic books of the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons), ¹⁰ B and ¹¹ B. The most abundant of these two isotopes is 11B, and 80% of all boron is present in this form of boron. Since this is also the isotope required for the fusion reaction to occur, it may be necessary to know the relative concentration of this particular isotope in the LaB6 fuel. There are many methods for detecting this concentration, including inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and so on.

In some embodiments, no on-site technical diagnosis can measure the boron isotope composition of LaB ₆ and samples need to be sent to a third-party diagnostic laboratory for analysis at this time.

Due to the ceramic nature of the compound, it is very brittle and very susceptible to thermal stress. The unstable reactions that occur within the reactor, as well as the rapid heating and cooling present in various components such as the center electrode and the shroud, can cause the structural integrity of LaB ₆ to be compromised. It has been observed in several embodiments of the reactor that the LaB ₆ fuel will likely break over time, so there is a need for replacement.

One field-executable diagnosis used to determine the structural integrity (and consumption) of lanthanum hexaboride fuel is visual inspection. Some alarm settings in the control software settings indicate that a visual inspection of lanthanum hexaboride is required. Because the fusion reaction occurs at the locations where lanthanum hexaboride is located, the entire output power is extracted from these locations (measured by the control software). If the reactor's steady-state power supply power output drops by more than 20%, there may be a problem with one of the lanthanum hexaboride sheets that triggers a power indicator alarm on the software. This type of alarm indicates that a visual inspection of the lanthanum hexaboride is required.

As described herein, a reactor produces energy in one or more forms; often multiple forms of energy are produced simultaneously. During operation, most reactors generate thermal energy. Radiated energy can also be generated over a wide or narrow frequency range. For example, an excited substance (e.g., an electrically excited hydrogen atom) within a reactor generates radiation in one or more frequency bands. Generally, the reactor is operated in a mode that requires a plasma and / or generates a plasma, which generates radiant energy when the plasma is present. In addition, many reactions produce charged substances (eg, ions such as alpha particles) with high kinetic energy. The reactor can also generate mechanical energy through pressure changes or oscillations.

Any one or more of these energy forms can be converted into different energy forms that can be used for a particular application. Thus, in certain embodiments, an energy conversion device or element is connected to the reactor. In some designs, an energy conversion device converts thermal energy from the reactor into electrical energy (eg, a thermoelectric device). In some designs, an energy conversion device converts thermal energy from the reactor into mechanical energy (eg, a heat engine). In some designs, an energy conversion device converts electromagnetic radiation from a reactor into electrical energy (eg, a photovoltaic device). In some designs, the energy conversion device converts the kinetic energy of a charged reaction product (eg, alpha particles) or an ionized fusion reactant (eg, a proton) into electrical energy. In some designs, the energy conversion device converts mechanical energy from the reactor into electrical energy (eg, a piezoelectric device).

Various energy conversion devices can be used to convert the thermal energy produced by the reactor into mechanical and / or electrical energy. For example, a thermoelectric generator may be thermally coupled to a reactor to generate electrical energy. Thermoelectric generators can transfer thermal energy from the reactor, such as by being placed on a constraining wall or by a heat transfer device such as a heat pipe. In another example, the reactor may convert thermal energy into mechanical energy (eg, moving a piston or rotating a crankshaft) via a heat engine. In some embodiments, the reactor is equipped with a Stirling engine. In some embodiments, the reactor may be equipped with a heat engine, such as a heat engine using a Rankine loop, where the working fluid undergoes a loop phase change. If electrical energy is required, the heat engine can be equipped with a generator that converts a rotating crankshaft or swinging piston into electrical energy.

Some energy conversion devices can convert electromagnetic radiation or radiant energy generated by the reactor into electrical energy. For example, a photovoltaic cell can be mounted on one end of the restricted area of the reactor to convert radiant energy into electrical energy. In some designs, the reactor may include a transparent barrier to provide thermal protection and / or optical devices to focus radiant energy onto the photovoltaic cells. In some designs, the coordinated energy gap of the narrow band wavelength (e.g., corresponding to hydrogen) of the radiant energy emitted by the photovoltaic cell can be coordinated.

The reactor may also be provided with an element that converts the kinetic energy of the charged particles generated by the reactor into electrical energy. For example, a positively charged particle (such as an alpha particle) can be forced through a reverse electric field generated by one or more electrodes, thereby decelerating it. As the particles slow down, a current is generated in the circuit connected to the positively charged electrode. In some designs, alpha particles emitted from the reactor can be directed to these electrodes by an applied magnetic field. In some designs, the reactor can be connected to a magnetohydrodynamic generator (MHD generator) to convert the kinetic energy of the plasma generated by the fusion reaction into electrical energy.

In some designs, the reactor may use a single energy conversion device (or energy conversion module) to convert the energy generated by the reactor into mechanical and / or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the reactor may use multiple energy conversion devices (or energy conversion modules) to convert the energy generated by the reactor into mechanical and / or electrical energy. Since the reactor can produce multiple forms of energy, different types of energy conversion devices can be combined to increase the total mechanical and / or electrical energy produced. In some designs, adding a second energy conversion device may not reduce the energy output of the first energy conversion device because different devices convert different forms of energy. For example, in some embodiments, the reactor may generate electrical energy from photovoltaic cells that convert radiant energy and thermoelectric generators that convert thermal energy. In this embodiment, the presence of a photovoltaic cell may not reduce the electrical energy generated by a thermoelectric generator, and vice versa. In some embodiments, the reactor may be equipped with multiple energy conversion devices to convert the same type of energy. For example, in some designs, the reactor may be equipped with a Stirling engine and a thermoelectric generator, both utilizing thermal energy. In this example, a thermoelectric generator may capture thermal energy from a Stirling engine that is not converted into mechanical and / or electrical energy. In summary, any combination of energy conversion devices or modules described herein can be used to generate machinery and / or electrical energy.

    Shell    

Although not shown, the reactor may include a shell that separates the annular area from the surrounding environment. In some designs, the size of the enclosure depends in part on the external dimensions of the restraint wall. In some embodiments, the restraining wall defines the boundary of the shell in the r direction, and flanges in the z direction at both ends of the restraining wall isolate the annular region from the external environment. In some embodiments, the entire system including the control system, power source, magnet, and energy conversion device is placed inside the housing. The choice of housing material depends on the purpose of the housing. For example, a housing may be required to provide a biological shield, thermal isolation, and / or to achieve low pressure operating conditions. In some designs, the enclosure may have a layered structure, where each layer provides a different function. For example, the enclosure may include a hydrocarbon material for a biomask and a ceramic layer that provides thermal insulation. In some designs, multiple enclosures may be used. For example, the first enclosure may include a flange that seals the annular region in the z-direction, thereby creating a vacuum chamber, while the second enclosure surrounds the entire reactor. Based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein, a person of ordinary skill in the art will know the manner and / or method of constructing an enclosure that meets reactor applications.

Program conditions     Multi-stage operation or reaction    

In some designs, the reactor's energy output and efficiency are improved when operating in multiple stages. In some designs, the reactor may have one or more preliminary stages so that conditions within the reactor may undergo a fusion reaction. For example, the preparation stage in a multi-stage process can be used to increase the temperature of the electron emitter, cool the temperature of the confinement wall, generate plasma in the annular region, or change the air pressure in the annular region. Figure 25 depicts a multi-stage flow diagram that can be used to operate a reactor. In the first run, 2501, the electron emitter was heated until it reached the temperature at which the electrons were emitted. After heating the electron emitter in 2501, an alternating current was applied between the electrodes of the reactor to generate a weakly ionized plasma.

After the plasma is excited in the annular region, the reactor can immediately transition to the stage of rotating charged particles and maintain the fusion reaction. In some Lawrence swivels, a uniform magnetic field is applied while applying a direct current to the electrode quotient. Alternatively, an embodiment in which an alternating magnetic field is applied in the z direction means that an alternating current is applied to the electrode at the same frequency as the magnetic field oscillation. In some designs, an alternating magnetic field can be applied by applying an alternating current to an electromagnet (such as a superconducting magnet) or a physically moving permanent magnet, such as a swivel that mounts a magnet on either side of an annular region. In some designs, the rotation of electrically neutral particles and charged particles is maintained in the same direction by alternating electric and magnetic fields at the same frequency. For example, in some designs, the electric and magnetic fields can oscillate at a frequency between about 0.1 Hz to 10 Hz, in some cases about 10 Hz to about 1 kHz, and in some designs greater than kHz.

In the wave-particle embodiment, an electrical signal can be applied to the electrodes on the outer edge of the annular region in an orderly manner, so that the particles start to rotate. For example, the drive signal can be started at a low frequency, for example, about 60 Hz, and then raised to a high frequency, for example, about 10 Megahertz. In some designs, there is a similar multi-stage approach to terminating fusion reactions. In some designs, the reactor has an idle operating phase between when the fusion reaction stops and then resumes. During reactor operation, parameters can be closely monitored. In a reactor using a Lawrence force to rotate a charge, the current density in the annular region near the confinement wall is about 150 A / m2 to about 10 kA / m2, such as about 150 A / m2 to 9 kA A / m2. In some designs, the current density near the confinement wall is about 150 amps / square meter to about 700 kiloamps / square meter. In other cases, the current density near the confinement wall is about 400 A / m2 to about 6000 kA / m2. In some designs, the reactor is operated by maintaining a sufficiently strong electric field near the confinement wall. For example, in some designs, the electric field is greater than about 25 volts / meter, in some designs greater than about 40 volts / meter, and in some designs greater than about 30 volts / meter.

In some multi-stage operations, the reactor may periodically alternate the direction in which the charged particles rotate. In some designs, by alternating the direction of rotation of the charged particles, the probability of collision between two rotating fusion reactants can be increased. In some designs, the direction of rotation can be alternated to increase or control the rate of fusion in the reactor. In some embodiments, the fusion reaction occurs in the annular space instead of on the constrained surface by alternately rotating the direction, thereby reducing the fusion reaction rate on the constrained wall. If the restraint wall becomes too hot, this may be beneficial to reduce the heat of the restraint wall. In the design of the Laurence swivel, the direction of rotation can be alternated by changing the electric and / or magnetic fields that are alternately applied. For example, if the magnetic field is alternated while the electric field is maintained, the Lawrence force on the charged particles will also alternate directions. In some designs, the applied electric and magnetic fields alternate at a frequency between about 0.1 Hz to about 10 Hz, in some designs about 10 Hz to about 1 kHz, and in some designs greater than about 1 kHz. This may help concentrate electrons in the electron-rich region, keep rotating particles in close proximity, and, in some designs, increase the number of fusion reactions.

    Gas condition    

In the design of introducing a gas into a confined area, for example, in a hydrogen or helium reaction gas, a reaction gas with a certain purity may be beneficial. In some designs, impurities in the reaction gas volume can reduce the reaction rate and total energy output. In designs where the reactant gas is readily available in pure form, the purity of the reactant gas is at least about 99.95 vol% to 99.999 vol%. That is to say the impurities in the reactor are less than 10 per million volumes.

In some designs, deuterium, a naturally occurring hydrogen isotope, may be found in a hydrogen-reactive gas. For example, deuterium-containing impurities may be present in the hydrogen tank, and therefore, when present in a large amount in the reaction gas, there is a potential danger. If excessive deuterium is present in the fuel, fusion reactions other than proton-boron 11 may occur in the reactor. In some designs, these other reactions may release radioactive byproducts. To monitor the amount of deuterium in the reaction gas, the reactor may be equipped with a sensor, for example, using an in situ mass spectrometer (such as a residual gas analyzer from Hiden Analytical, for monitoring the amount of deuterium in the hydrogen reaction gas).

The reactor may contain a molar fraction of ionically charged neutral particles, close to 0%. After the breakdown of the plasma, the molar fraction of ions and electrically neutral particles in the rotating material in the reactor is about 1: 1000 to about 1: 1,000,000. In some designs, the molar fraction of ions and electrically neutral particles in the reaction gas will vary with specific stages of the multi-stage process flow. For example, in the process shown in FIG. 25, the molar fraction of ions and electrically neutral particles may be higher in stage 2502 after starting the plasma than in stage 2503 where the reactor is operating in a steady state.

As mentioned elsewhere, the reactor is equipped with gas inlet and outlet valves. In principle, the flow rate through the intake valve and / or the gas outlet valve can be controlled to maintain the required gas composition or gas pressure in the restricted area. In some designs, the volume of gas in the constrained area can be replaced at a rate of less than about once per minute or about once per hour. In many embodiments, the gas valve may be sealed so no fluid flows during the operation of the reactor.

In some designs, the reaction gas is maintained at a standard temperature and pressure before the plasma is generated in the confined area. In some designs, such as when using a vacuum enclosure, a vacuum pump can be used to reduce the pressure to less than about 1 × 10 ^-2 Torr, and in other designs, the confinement area is less than about 1 × 10 ^-6 before breakdown of the plasma Care. In some designs, to increase the density of electrically neutral substances, the reactant inlet tube increases the internal pressure to greater than about 0.1 Torr in the confinement region before or during plasma breakdown, and in other designs greater than about 0.1 Torr. 10 Torr. During the operation of the reactor, the particles are subjected to centripetal acceleration, which is one billion times the acceleration of gravity on the surface of the earth. In some designs, the gas pressure and / or density around the confinement wall can be monitored during operation of the reactor. If the pressure of the rotating matter is insufficient near the confinement wall, the electron-rich region can further diffuse into the confinement region and cannot provide the desired electronic masking effect. In some designs, the gas pressure near the restraint wall can be monitored in real time. The temperature of the gas may be close to room temperature before the plasma is generated. In some designs, the gas is heated first. In some designs, the gas is heated to greater than about 1,80 degrees Celsius, and in other designs, the gas is heated to greater than about 2,200 degrees Celsius. During stable operation of the reactor, the gas temperature may be heated such that the gas in the confinement region is in a range of about 400 degrees Celsius to about 800 degrees Celsius, and in some designs is in a range of about 900 degrees Celsius to about 1,500 degrees Celsius.

As discussed elsewhere, the reaction gas can be delivered into the reactor by various mechanisms. In designs using feed valves, gaseous reactants can be delivered from a gas or pressurized tank. In some embodiments, a reactive gas such as hydrogen may be diffused into the confinement region from a confinement wall or a hydrogen absorbing material such as titanium or palladium.

    Reduced operating conditions for the Coulomb barrier    

As described elsewhere in this article, the fusion rate per unit time and unit volume can be expressed as: dN / dT = n ₁ n ₂ σ ν

Where n ₁ and n ₂ are the density of each reactant, σ is the reaction cross section at a specific energy, and ν is the relative velocity between two interacting substances. The product (σν) can be increased by lowering the Coulomb barrier. In some designs, the reaction cross-section may be between about ^10-30 cm and about ^10-48 cm, in other designs, about ^10-28 cm and about ^10-24 cm. In some designs, the relative velocity between ¹⁰⁴ m / s and ¹⁰⁶ m / s, between about ¹⁰³ m / s and about ¹⁰⁴ m / s in other designs. In some designs, the reduction of the Coulomb barrier can cause the reaction rate of the fusion reaction along the confinement wall to reach about 10 ¹⁷ to 10 ²² times per cubic centimeter per second.

As discussed elsewhere, electron-rich regions can be formed near the confinement wall to provide a masking effect between colliding fusion nuclei. In some designs, an electron emitter can be used to provide free electrons to the area. The electron emitter may be excited by optics (e.g., using laser), frictional heating of rotating particles, and / or by Joule heating.

In the electron-rich region, the electron density can range from about 10 ¹⁰ to about 10 ²³ per cubic centimeter. In some designs, the electron density is on the order of about 10 ²³ per cubic centimeter. In some embodiments, the density of electrically neutral substances in the electron-rich region can be in the range of about 10 ¹⁶ to 10 ¹⁸ per cubic centimeter. In other designs, the density of electrically neutral substances in the confinement region is about 10 ²⁰ per cubic centimeter. On the order of cubic centimeters. The density of positive ions is much lower than the density of electrically neutral particles in the electron-rich region. In some designs, the density of positive ions is from about 10 ¹⁵ per cubic centimeter to about 10 ¹⁶ per cubic centimeter. In some designs, the ratio of electrons to positive ions in the electron-rich region is between about 10 ⁶ : 1 and about 10 ⁸ : 1.

The radial thickness of the electron-rich region can be described as the region where the maximum electron gradient exists. In some designs, the electron-rich region has a size in the range of about 50 nanometers to about 50 micrometers, and in some designs, the electron-rich region is about 500 nanometers to about 1.5 micrometers.

In an electron-rich region, for example, about 1 micron from the confinement wall, a strong electric field may exist. In some designs, the electric field intensity in the region of electron-rich (or confining region) is greater than ¹⁰⁶ V / m, in other designs, an electric field of greater than about ¹⁰⁸ V / m. In some designs, the electron temperature in this region is from about 10,000 grams to about 50,000 grams, and in other designs, from about 15,000 grams to about 40,000 grams.

In some designs, if a parameter is constrained by physical constraints, that parameter may ultimately affect other parameters in the electron-rich region. For example, the Lawson standard involves balancing parameters.

In some designs, the parameters of the electron-rich region may depend in part on the targeted fusion reaction. For example, the parameter range is different in the p + 11B reaction and the D + D reaction.

Another way to increase the probability of a fusion event is through the spin orientation of the fusion reactants. Nuclear force has the property of spin dependence. When the spins are aligned, the Coulomb barrier decreases between the two fusion nuclei (eg, between the deuteron and the nucleus of the deuteron). Nuclear magnetic moment plays a role in quantum tunneling. Specifically, when the magnetic moments of the two fusion nuclei are parallel, attraction between them occurs. As a result, the total barrier between two cores with parallel magnetic moments is reduced, and tunneling events are more likely to occur. In contrast, when the two fusion nuclei have antiparallel magnetic moments, the barriers increase and the tunneling effect is unlikely to occur. When the magnetic moment of a particular type of core is positive, the fusion core tends to straighten in the direction of the applied magnetic field. Conversely, when the moment is negative, the fusion nucleus tends to align with anti-parallel to the applied field. Most fusion nuclei as potential fusion reactants have a positive magnetic moment (p, D, T, 6Li, 7Li and 11B all have a positive magnetic moment; 3He and 15N have a magnetic moment). In some embodiments, a magnetic field is provided at each point within the device in a direction generally aligned with the magnetic moment. When the first and second working materials have the same positive or negative magnetic moment, this results in a reduction in the total energy barrier between the cores. This is believed to lead to increased tunneling probability and the incidence of fusion reactions. This effect can also be referred to as spin polarization or magnetic dipole-dipole interaction. In addition, the rotation of the fusion nucleus around the magnetic field lines also helps determine the total angular momentum of the nucleus. Therefore, when the convolutional motion of the fusion nucleus generates additional angular momentum in the same direction, the Coulomb barrier is further reduced.

In some designs, the spin states of fusion reactants (eg, ¹ H and ¹¹ B) in the confinement region and along the confinement wall can be straightened by applying a magnetic field in the range of 1 to 20 Tesla. In embodiments where a magnetic field is used to provide the Lawrence force, the magnetic field can also straighten the spin state of the fusion reactant. The reduction of the Coulomb barrier through the combination of an electron mask and spin polarization (implemented by a strong magnetic field acting on the fusion nuclei of the reactants) can significantly increase the fusion reaction rate. The electrostatic attraction between the two nuclei includes a spin-dependent period that predominates over short distances (eg, less than 1 fm).

    Application    

The fusion reactors described herein have a wealth of applications that can solve many social problems, including such as dependence on fossil fuels. In some designs, the use of fusion reactors can make feasible and / or practical energy-intensive applications that are not feasible or practical in traditional power generation methods. Now briefly discuss some applications of fusion reactors.

In some designs, fusion reactors can be used to retrofit fossil fuel power plants, such as coal, natural gas or oil-fired power plants. In some designs, the fusion reactor described herein can be used to retrofit a fission power plant. In some designs, when retrofitting a power plant, only the energy-producing part of the power plant may need to be replaced or updated. Retrofitting of power plants is simple and low cost because turbines, generators, cooling towers, connections to the power distribution network, and other infrastructure can be reused. For example, a coal power plant can be retrofitted by replacing a coal-fired boiler with a reactor vessel described herein. Similarly, nuclear fission power plants can be retrofitted by replacing control rods and uranium fuel with fusion reactors described herein.

In some designs, the fusion reactor uses a modular design of multiple smaller reactors. By having multiple reactors, the output power of the equipment can be adjusted to meet energy requirements by changing the number of reactors in operation. In addition, if a single reactor can be repaired or replaced while other reactors remain operational, the overall power output of the plant may not be significantly affected.

In some designs, fusion reactors can be used as industrial (eg, glass fiber manufacturing) heat sources. In some designs, the reactor is configured as a heat source for a steam generator (eg, a steam generator for steam cleaning or metal cutting). In some designs, the fusion reaction of the reactor produces helium as a source of helium (for example, when the reactor performs proton-boron-11 fusion). In some designs, the reactor can be used as part of a water heater, such as a domestic water heater. For example, the reactor may be placed in a water tank, or it may be thermally coupled to the water tank, and the heat emitted from the reactor is used to heat the water. In some designs, fusion reaction-based water heaters can be used with water radiators as indoor heating.

In some designs, fusion reactors are used in transportation applications. For example, fusion reactors can be used in cars, airplanes, trains and ships. For example, a car may be equipped with one or more reactors containing energy conversion modules to generate electrical and / or mechanical energy. In electric vehicles, the electrical energy produced by the reactor can be used to charge a battery or capacitor, which supplies the electric motor with electricity. For example, whenever the state of charge of a battery drops below a certain threshold, the reactor can be operated to charge the battery. In some designs, mechanical energy can be generated by a device including a Stirling engine, which provides driving power to the car. In some designs, fusion reactors can be used to power outer space vehicles. Some designs of outer space vehicles use fission reactors, such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators. This design is plagued by the use and production of radioisotopes. They also need to carry a relatively large amount of radioactive fuel. Since the reactors described herein are empty or substantially neutron-free, these reactors may be more preferred for manned spacecraft. In addition, the energy density of the reactors described herein that produce the same amount of energy is significantly higher than the fuel required for fission or chemical reactions.

Claims that do not use "device" or "step" are not in the form of "device plus function" or "step plus function". (See 35 USC § 112 (f)). The applicant's intention is that only the requirement to use the "method" or "step" is to be interpreted on or in accordance with 35 U.S.C § 112 (f).

The present disclosure may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics of the invention. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive. Accordingly, the scope of the present disclosure is indicated by the appended claims rather than the foregoing description. All possible embodiments within the meaning and scope of the claims should be considered to be included.

Claims (56)

A device comprising: (a) a reactor comprising: a constrained wall at least partially surrounding a constrained area, charged particles and neutral particles rotating within the constrained area; a plurality of electrodes adjacent to or near the constrained area; A system, including a voltage source and / or a current source, configured to apply an electric potential between at least two of the plurality of electrodes, wherein the applied electric potential generates an electric field in the confinement region, alone or together with a magnetic field, Driving and / or maintaining the rotational motion of the charged particles and the neutral particles in the constrained area, and reactants disposed in or adjacent to the constrained area, during operation, the medium Repeated collisions between neutral particles and the reactant produce interactions with the reactant that release energy and produce products with nuclear nucleus qualities that are different from neutral particle nuclei and reactants, wherein the electron-rich region The number of mesons is at least about 10 ⁶ / cm 3 higher than the number of positively charged particles.     The reactor according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of electrodes are distributed along an azimuth angle around the constrained area, and wherein the control system causes the time-varying voltage to cause the plurality of electrodes to cause the Rotation of the charged particles and the electrically neutral substance in the constrained region.         The reactor according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the reactor is configured to cause charged particles in the restricted area and the charged area through an interaction between the electric field and a magnetic field applied in the restricted area. The rotation of electrically neutral particles.     A reactor according to any one of the preceding claims, during operation, the ratio of electrons to positive ions in the electron-rich region is between about 10 ⁶ : 1 and 10 ⁸ : 1. The reactor of any preceding claim, wherein, during operation of the reactor, electron-rich region having an electric field intensity of at least about ¹⁰⁶ volts / meter.     The reactor according to any of the preceding claims, wherein, during operation, the average temperature of the electrons in the electron-rich region is about 10,000 to 50,000 grams.         A reactor according to any preceding claim, wherein during the operation of the reactor, the average energy of the neutral species in the electron-rich region is between about 0.1 eV and 2 eV.     A reactor according to any preceding claim, wherein during operation of the reactor, the electron density in the electron-rich region is from about 10 ¹⁰ per cubic centimeter to about 10 ²³ per cubic centimeter.     The reactor according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the distance of the electron-rich region extending from the confinement wall into the confinement region during operation of the reactor is about 50 nanometers to about 50 Microns.     The reactor according to any of the preceding claims, wherein, during operation of the reactor, the density of the neutral species in the constrained area near the reactants is at least about 10 ¹⁶ / cm ³ . A reactor according to any preceding claim, wherein during operation of the reactor, the density of the neutral species in the constrained area proximate to the reactants is about 10 ¹⁶ to about 10 ¹⁸ per cubic centimeter.     A reactor according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the reactor comprises an electron emitter disposed in or adjacent to the restriction area such that during operation, the electron emitter is at Electrons are generated in the restricted area.         The reactor according to claim 12, wherein the electron emitter is attached to or embedded in the confinement wall.         The reactor according to claim 13 or 14, comprising one or more insulating layers interposed between the confinement wall and the emitter, the insulating layers providing thermal and / or electrical insulation.         The reactor according to claim 14, wherein the one or more insulating layers are formed of any one or a combination of zirconia, alumina, zinc nitride, and magnesium oxide.         The reactor according to any one of claims 12-15, wherein at least one geometric endpoint of the electron emitter is raised into the constrained area.         The reactor according to any one of claims 12-16, comprising a filament in thermal communication with the electron emitter, wherein the control system is further configured to apply an electric current to the electron emitter through the filament.         The reactor according to claim 17, comprising a temperature sensor configured to monitor a temperature of the electron emitter, wherein the control system is configured to apply a current according to the monitored temperature To the filament.         The reactor according to any one of claims 12 to 18, comprising a laser configured to emit laser light through the confinement area onto the electron emitter or the confinement wall such that The laser interacts with the electron emitter or the constrained wall, and electrons are emitted to the constrained area.         The reactor according to any one of claims 12-19, wherein the electron emitter is configured to move in and out of the constrained area during operation of the reactor.         The reactor of claim 20, wherein the control system is configured to control movement of the electron emitter within the constrained area.         The reactor of claim 21, further comprising a temperature sensor configured to monitor the temperature of the electron emitter, wherein the control system is configured to control based on the monitored temperature Movement of the electron emitter within the restricted area.         The reactor according to any one of claims 12-22, wherein the electron emitter comprises boron or a boron-containing material.         The reactor of any of the preceding claims, wherein the reactant comprises boron-11.         The reactor according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the nuclear quality of the product is greater than the nuclear quality of the neutral substance and the reactant.         A reactor according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the interaction is a fusion reaction.         The apparatus of claim 36, wherein the fusion reaction is a neutron-free reaction.         A reactor according to any of the preceding claims, a method according to claim 23, wherein the neutral substance comprises neutral hydrogen, deuterium and / or tritium.         The reactor according to any one of the preceding claims, comprising an energy conversion device, said energy conversion device extracting thermal energy, kinetic energy and / or mechanical energy from a charged reaction product, and converting said thermal energy, kinetic energy And / or mechanical energy is converted into electrical and / or mechanical energy available for use outside the reactor.     A method of operating a reactor, comprising: applying a potential between at least two of a plurality of electrodes in a reactor, including: a constraining wall that at least partially surrounds a constrained area, a plurality of electrodes, adjacent to or near the constrained area, and a control system Including a voltage and / or current source, configured to apply a potential between at least two of the plurality of electrodes, wherein the applied potential generates an electric field in the confinement region, and is disposed in the confinement region or Nearby reactants; where the electric field in the confinement area acts alone or in conjunction with the magnetic field, causing and / or maintaining the rotating motion of charged particles and neutral substances in the confinement area; wherein, during the operation of the reactor, the confinement area In the electron-rich region near the confinement wall, the number of electrons is at least about 10 ⁶ / cubic centimeters higher than the number of positively charged particles; and wherein, during the operation of the reactor, the repetition between neutrals and reactants Collisions produce interactions of reactants, releasing energy and producing products with qualities that are different from the nucleus of any neutral substance and the nuclei of reactants.     The method of claim 30, wherein the plurality of electrodes are distributed along an azimuth angle around the constrained area, and wherein the control system causes the charged particles and all of the charged electrodes to apply time-varying voltage to the plurality of electrodes. The rotational motion of the electrically neutral substance in the restricted region.         The method according to claim 30, wherein an electric field in the constrained region works with the magnetic field to cause and / or maintain a rotational motion of the charged particles and the neutral particles in the constrained region.     The method of any one of claims 30-32, wherein, during operation of the reactor, the ratio of electrons to positive ions in the electron-rich region is between about 10 ⁶ : 1 and 10 ⁸ : 1 between. The method of any of claims 30-33, wherein during operation of the reactor, the electron-rich region has an electric field strength of at least about 10 ⁶ volts / meter.     The method according to any one of claims 30-34, wherein, during operation of the reactor, the average energy of the neutral species in the electron-rich region is between about 0.1 eV and 2 eV.     The method of any one of claims 30-35, wherein during operation of the reactor, the electron density in the electron-rich region is from about 10 ¹⁰ to about 10 ²³ per cubic centimeter.     The method according to any one of claims 30-36, wherein a distance of the electron-rich region extending from the confinement wall into the confinement region during operation of the reactor is about 50 nanometers to About 50 microns.     The method of any one of claims 30-37, wherein, during operation of the reactor, the density of the neutral species in the constrained region near the reactants is at least about 10 ¹⁶ / cm ³ . The method of any of claims 30-38, wherein during the operation of the reactor, the density of the neutral species in the constrained area near the reactants is about 10 ¹⁶ to about 10 ¹⁸ per cubic centimeter.     The method according to any one of claims 30-39, wherein the reactor comprises an electron emitter disposed in or adjacent to the restricted area such that during operation, the electron emission The generator generates electrons in the restricted area.         The method of claim 40, including controlling generation of electrons in the constrained area.         The method according to claim 41, wherein a method of controlling the generation of electrons in said constrained region includes applying a current to a filament in thermal communication with said electron emitter.         The method of claim 42, comprising monitoring the temperature of the electron emitter, and the current applied to the filament is based on the temperature of the monitored electron emitter.         The method according to any one of claims 41-43, wherein the method of controlling the generation of electrons in the constrained area includes moving the electron emitter into or out of the constrained area.         The method of claim 44, further comprising monitoring the temperature of the electron emitter, and entering or leaving the electron emitter into the confinement area is based on the monitored electron emitter temperature.         The method according to any one of claims 41-45, wherein the method of controlling the generation of electrons in the constrained area comprises controlling the light emission of a laser, the laser being configured to emit laser light through the constraint Area onto the electron emitter or the confinement wall.         The method of claim 46, further comprising monitoring a temperature of the electron emitter, and controlling the laser based on the monitored electron emitter temperature.         The method of any one of claims 40-47, wherein the electron emitter is attached or embedded in the confinement wall.         The method of any of claims 40-48, wherein the electron emitter comprises boron or a boron-containing material.         The method of any one of claims 30-49, wherein the reactant comprises boron-11.         The method of any one of claims 30-50, wherein the nucleus quality of the product is greater than the nucleus quality of the neutral substance and the reactant.         The method of any one of claims 30-51, wherein the interaction is a fusion reaction.         The method of claim 52, wherein the fusion reaction is a neutron-free reaction.     The method of claim 52, wherein the fusion reaction in said electron-rich region occurs at a rate of about 10 ¹⁷ to about 10 ²² per cubic centimeter per second.     The method according to any one of claims 30-54, wherein the neutral substance comprises neutral hydrogen, deuterium and / or tritium.         The method according to any one of claims 30 to 55, further comprising converting thermal energy, kinetic energy of a charged reaction product, and / or mechanical energy from the reactor into electrical energy and / or mechanical energy, and outputting the energy outside the reactor.