Classifications

• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
  • C22F—CHANGING THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF NON-FERROUS METALS AND NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
  • C22F1/00—Changing the physical structure of non-ferrous metals or alloys by heat treatment or by hot or cold working
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
  • C22C—ALLOYS
  • C22C1/00—Making non-ferrous alloys
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
  • C22F—CHANGING THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF NON-FERROUS METALS AND NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
  • C22F1/00—Changing the physical structure of non-ferrous metals or alloys by heat treatment or by hot or cold working
  • C22F1/006—Resulting in heat recoverable alloys with a memory effect
• • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
  • F03—MACHINES OR ENGINES FOR LIQUIDS; WIND, SPRING, OR WEIGHT MOTORS; PRODUCING MECHANICAL POWER OR A REACTIVE PROPULSIVE THRUST, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • F03G—SPRING, WEIGHT, INERTIA OR LIKE MOTORS; MECHANICAL-POWER PRODUCING DEVICES OR MECHANISMS, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR OR USING ENERGY SOURCES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • F03G7/00—Mechanical-power-producing mechanisms, not otherwise provided for or using energy sources not otherwise provided for
  • F03G7/06—Mechanical-power-producing mechanisms, not otherwise provided for or using energy sources not otherwise provided for using expansion or contraction of bodies due to heating, cooling, moistening, drying or the like
  • F03G7/065—Mechanical-power-producing mechanisms, not otherwise provided for or using energy sources not otherwise provided for using expansion or contraction of bodies due to heating, cooling, moistening, drying or the like using a shape memory element

Definitions

• This invention relates generally to shape memory alloy actuators. More particularly, this invention relates to an apparatus and method for a low cost shape memory alloy actuator using measured actuation parameter feedback.
• SMAs shape memory alloys
• SMA actuators are finding unique applications in a variety of industries. Many of these applications require precise control over SMA actuator position or actuation speed. Various applications also require control over other actuation properties, such as end-of-travel limit- stops or overheat protection to prevent damage to the SMA actuator.
• actuation properties such as end-of-travel limit- stops or overheat protection to prevent damage to the SMA actuator.
• it is often desirable that the SMA actuator has a small footprint, so that it may be used for limited-space applications, which require miniature or reduced-sized actuation mechanisms.
• the invention includes a method of controlling a shape memory alloy actuator by applying power to the shape memory alloy actuator.
• a measured actuation parameter is obtained from the shape memory alloy actuator.
• An operational characteristic parameter is derived based upon the power and the measured actuation parameter.
• An actuation state parameter is identified from the operational characteristic parameter. The actuation state parameter is used to modify the control of the shape memory alloy actuator.
• the invention also includes a mechanical actuator.
• the mechanical actuator has a shape memory alloy.
• a controller is connected to the shape memory alloy.
• the controller is adapted to apply power to the shape memory alloy, derive an operational characteristic parameter based upon a measured actuation parameter, identify an actuation state parameter from the operational characteristic parameter; and alter the application of power to the shape memory alloy based upon the actuation state parameter.
• the invention relies upon components that are typically already present in a shape memory alloy actuator. Therefore, the invention can be implemented at a relatively low cost.
• the various techniques of the invention provide designers with a variety of strategies for optimizing a given low cost shape memory alloy actuator.
• Figure 1 illustrates a shape memory alloy actuator implemented using control techniques of the present invention.
• Figure 2 illustrates process operations performed in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.
• Figure 3 illustrates an apparatus for actuation control of a shape memory alloy actuator in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.
• Figure 4 illustrates the relationship between resistance, collector voltage, and base current; the apparatus illustrated in Figure 3 uses this relationship to derive an operational characteristic parameter used in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.
• Figure 5 illustrates an apparatus for actuation control of a shape memory alloy actuator using temperature and voltage compensation according to an embodiment of the present invention.
• Figure 6 illustrates an apparatus for actuation control of a shape memory alloy actuator according to another embodiment of the present invention.
• Figure 7 illustrates the relationship between resistance, time, and collector current; the apparatus of Figure 6 uses this relationship to derive an operational characteristic parameter used in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.
• Figure 8 illustrates the relationship between actuator position, input power, and position sensors utilized in accordance with another embodiment of the invention.
• Figure 1 illustrates a block diagram for actuation control of a shape memory alloy element using actuation feedback according to the present invention.
• a control input 110 corresponding to a desired actuator output is input to control process 120.
• Actuator 130 may comprise a single shape memory alloy (SMA) element and associated drive circuitry, or alternatively may comprise additional SMA elements and various configurations of those SMA elements, including stroke-multiplying configurations such as those configurations disclosed in commonly owned U.S. Patent No. 6,574,958.
• the actuator output 150 maybe any characteristic associated with the actuation process, including but not limited to actuator position, actuator speed, actuator force, SMA element resistance, transistor voltage, actuator temperature, or other actuator characteristic that is a function of the actuation of an SMA actuator.
• the actuator output is fed back to the controller 120 as a measured actuation parameter 140.
• This measured actuation parameter 104 is typically a subset of the overall actuator output 150 and therefore may be delivered through a signal path that is different than the actuator output signal path.
• the controller 120 processes the input 110 and the measured actuation parameter 140 to derive an operational characteristic parameter for the shape memory alloy actuator.
• the operational characteristic parameter may be a variety of values including SMA resistance and actuator position, depending upon the embodiment.
• the controller 120 further processes the operational characteristic parameter to identify an actuation state parameter.
• the actuation state parameter may be such values as the SMA position or the actuation cycle duration.
• the control of the shape memory alloy actuator is then modified based upon the actuation state parameter.
• Figure 2 illustrates processing operations that may be implemented on the device of Figure 1.
• the first processing operation of Figure 2 is to apply power to a shape memory alloy actuator (200).
• a measured actuation parameter is obtained (202).
• the measured actuation parameter may be a variety of values.
• an operational characteristic parameter is derived based upon the power and measured actuation parameter (204).
• Embodiments of the invention described below include operational characteristic parameters in the form of SMA resistance and SMA position.
• An actuation state parameter is then identified from the operational characteristic parameter (206).
• Embodiments of the invention described below include actuation state parameters in the form of SMA position and actuation cycle duration.
• the control of the shape memory alloy actuator is modified based upon the actuation state parameter (208).
• the invention relies upon standard measurements (i.e., measured actuation parameters) to make actuator control decisions.
• these measurements are not used directly, rather they are used to deduce additional parameters, such as operational characteristic parameters and then actuation state parameters, which are then used in the control process.
• additional parameters may be computed using relatively small physical and computational resources, which are implemented at low cost.
• the invention affords enhanced signal processing, while still affording the benefits of low cost and a small form factor.
• FIG. 3 illustrates an apparatus 300 to measure the resistance of a shape memory alloy (SMA) element 350 for actuation control according to one embodiment of the present invention.
• SMA element 350 is connected in series between a positive voltage 310 and the collector 332 of an npn-type bipolar junction transistor 330.
• the emitter 336 of bipolar junction transistor 330 is connected to ground 320.
• the bipolar junction transistor 330 is controlled by microcontroller 305, which provides a base current to base 334 of bipolar junction transistor 330 via output pin 309 using a programmable current source.
• Input pin 307 of microcontroller 305 is connected between SMA element 350 and collector 332. Power for microcontroller 305 is not shown, but may be provided by positive voltage 310 and ground 320 or by another source.
• Dashed line 304 in Figure 3 corresponds to the controller 120 previously discussed in connection with Figure 1.
• dashed line 302 corresponds to actuator 130, although it is to be appreciated that control process 120 and actuator 130 may comprise additional modules, components, or devices not reflected in Figure 3, such as modules, components, or devices to convert an SMA element resistance to an actuator position, or additional SMA elements or configurations.
• the apparatus 300 depicted in Figure 3 operates in the following manner. First, a collector voltage signal from collector 332 is input to microcontroller 305 via input pin 307. The collector voltage signal is compared by comparator module 315 to a pre-determined threshold voltage signal. The collector voltage signal is then converted by analog-to-digital converter (ADC) module 325 to a digital voltage signal using an analog-to-digital conversion technique. Observe that the ADC 325 may be omitted since the comparator 315 operating with DAC 345 and processor 335 can implement the same function. If the collector voltage signal is less than or equal to the threshold voltage signal, processor module 335 processes the digital voltage signal to determine the resistance of SMA element 350.
• ADC analog-to-digital converter
• processor 335 increases the base current to base 334 of bipolar junction transistor 330 via output pin 309 using a programmable current source. Increasing base current to the base 334 causes additional current to flow through bipolar junction transistor 330. Additional current through bipolar junction transistor 330 results in additional current through SMA element 350, and causes the voltage at collector 332 to drop in response.
• This new collector voltage signal is input to microcontroller 305 via input pin 307 and the abovementioned process is repeated until a new collector voltage signal is less than or equal to the threshold voltage signal.
• the programmable current source associated with output pin 309 comprises a digital- to-analog converter (DAC) module 345 integrated with microcontroller 305, according to one embodiment of the present invention.
• microcontroller 305 does not comprise integrated DAC module 345, and a secondary digital-to-analog current converter of n bit-depth is implemented by connecting n output pins of microcontroller 305 through n resistors in parallel to the base 334 of bipolar junction transistor 330.
• the secondary digital- to-analog current converter of n bit depth may also be used in conjunction with an integrated digital-to-analog current converter to provide hardware gain scaling or offset adjust. Alternatively, gain scaling or offset adjust may be provided in software by microcontroller 305.
• the threshold voltage signal is the minimum voltage detectable by microcontroller 305 for input pin 307.
• input pin 307 functions as comparator module 315.
• microcontroller 305 reads and converts successive collector voltage signals to digital voltage signals until a collector voltage signal falls below the minimum voltage for input pin 307.
• microcontroller 305 may process the value of the last collector voltage signal detected to determine the resistance of the SMA element 350.
• the comparison may be performed by discrete components or combinations thereof external to microcontroller 305, or performed in software by microcontroller 305.
• Conversion of the collector voltage signal to a digital voltage signal by ADC module 325 may be performed using any analog-to-digital conversion technique.
• the analog-to- digital conversion technique may include, but is not limited to, a software successive approximation register (SAR) using an iterative binary search algorithm that compares the digital voltage signal to the collector voltage signal, and selectively adjusts the bits of the digital voltage signal to approximate the collector voltage signal.
• SAR software successive approximation register
• One advantage of using SAR analog-to-digital conversion is fast conversion time, which minimizes the time power must be applied to SMA element 350 in order to read the collector voltage signal.
• Another advantage of using SAR analog-to-digital conversion is that the digital voltage signal may easily be calculated to n-bits of resolution by making n compares to the collector voltage signal.
• the resolution may be chosen to optimize both signal accuracy and conversion time for a specific application. It is to be appreciated that other analog-to-digital conversion techniques, such as flash or half-flash encoding, external hardware conversion, or other internal software conversion may similarly be utilized to convert the collector voltage signal to a digital voltage signal.
• ADC module 325 may be integrated with input pin 307. According to this embodiment, the collector voltage signal can be compared to the threshold voltage signal and converted to a digital voltage signal using only input pin 307. The comparison and conversion steps may also by separated, including but not limited to using an external comparator in conjunction with an integrated ADC module 325.
• Figure 4 illustrates the relationship between resistance, collector voltage, and base current of apparatus 300. Recall that the base current is known, since it is generated by the microcontroller 305. The collector voltage, a measured actuation parameter, is also known, since it was acquired using the previously described techniques. The relationship of Figure 4 is also known empirically and is available (e.g., as a look-up table) for this embodiment of the invention. With the base current and the collector voltage known, a resistance value can be derived based upon the information of Figure 4. This resistance value, which is an operational characteristic parameter, can then be used to produce an SMA position value. Known techniques for mapping an SMA resistance value to an SMA position are implemented by the microcontroller 305 to produce an actuation state parameter (i.e., position in this example), which may then be used to alter the control of the SMA actuator, if necessary.
• an actuation state parameter i.e., position in this example
• the resistance of SMA element 350 may also be calculated from the generic equation for a bipolar junction transistor:
• Vcol is the voltage at the collector of the bipolar junction transistor
• Vpos is the positive voltage applied to the SMA element
• Rsma is the resistance of the SMA element
• HFE is the gain of the bipolar junction transistor
• Ibase is the base current.
• a more accurate equation may be used to determine resistance of SMA element 350, taking into account operational characteristics of the specific type of bipolar junction transistor 330, including but not limited to gain variation over the active range of the transistor. Also note in Figure 4 that when bipolar junction transistor 330 is saturated, the collector voltages corresponding to three different resistance values of SMA element 350 all drop to nearly zero.
• a collector voltage in the active range such as the threshold voltage depicted in Figure 4, is chosen so that the resolution of microcontroller 305 is sufficient to distinguish between corresponding base currents and respective SMA resistance values.
• the preceding embodiment of the present invention utilizes an npn-type bipolar junction transistor.
• the bipolar junction transistor can be of a pnp-type.
• the apparatus 300 may be adapted to use a field-effect transistor, including but not limited to a p-channel or n-channel type metal-oxide silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET).
• MOSFET metal-oxide silicon field-effect transistor
• the operational characteristics of a transistor can vary due to environmental factors such as change in temperature or voltage supply.
• a simple technique for calibrating a transistor consists of measuring the resistance of the SMA element when it is fully expanded and fully contracted. These resistance values may then be used to set transistor calibration parameters to compensate for environmental factors.
• FIG. 5 illustrates an alternate apparatus 500 to measure the resistance of a shape memory alloy element for actuation control with temperature and voltage compensation according to another embodiment of the present invention.
• SMA element 550 is connected in series between a positive voltage 510 and the collector 532 of a first npn-type bipolar junction transistor 530.
• the emitter 536 of the first bipolar junction transistor 530 is connected to ground 520.
• a reference resistor 555 is connected in series between positive voltage 510 and the collector 537 of a second npn-type bipolar junction transistor 541.
• Second npn-type bipolar junction transistor 541 is chosen to be identical to first bipolar junction transistor 530.
• the emitter 543 of second bipolar junction transistor 541 is connected to ground 520.
• Bipolar junction transistors 530 and 541 are controlled by microcontroller 505, which provides a base current to base 534 and base 539 of bipolar junction transistors 530 and 541, respectively, using a programmable current source via output pin 509.
• a programmable current source via output pin 509.
• separate programmable current sources may be used to provide base currents to bipolar junction transistors 530 and 541.
• Input pin 507 of microcontroller 505 is connected between SMA element 550 and collector 532 of bipolar junction transistor 530.
• Input pin 508 of microcontroller 505 is connected between reference resistor 555 and collector 537 of bipolar junction transistor 541. Power for the microcontroller 505 can be provided by positive voltage 510 and ground 520 or be provided by another source.
• the apparatus 500 depicted in Figure 5 operates similarly to apparatus 300 described previously in connection with Figure 3, with the following additional features.
• Microcontroller 505 is adapted to read the voltage at collector 537 of second bipolar junction transistor 541 concurrently with the voltage at collector 532 of first bipolar junction transistor 530.
• the voltage at collector 537 of second bipolar junction transistor 541 is a function of the current through reference resistor 555. Because the resistance of reference resistor 555 is known, it is possible to determine the gain of the second bipolar junction transistor 541 using Equation 1 discussed previously in connection with Figure 4.
• the gain of the second bipolar junction transistor 541 is a function of environmental factors such as change in temperature or voltage supply.
• microcontroller 505 may use information regarding the gain of the second bipolar junction transistor 541 to calibrate first bipolar junction transistor 530 and compensate for environmental factors.
• the microcontroller 505 may be configured to switch positive voltage 510 between bipolar junction transistors 530 and 535, whereby the voltage at collector 537 is not read concurrently with the voltage at collector 532, but is instead read sequentially or occasionally depending upon the specific application.
• Microcontroller 505 can also be configured to switch between bipolar junction transistors 530 and 541 using an alternate circuit, including but not limited to using additional transistors to control current flow to one or both transistors 530 and 541. It is to be appreciated that while the current embodiment is described utilizing npn-type bipolar junction transistors, other transistor types such as pnp-type bipolar junction transistors or field-effect transistors may also be implemented without departing from the scope of the invention.
• Figure 6 illustrates an apparatus 600 that uses a measured actuation parameter in the form of time to derive an operational characteristic parameter in the form of resistance, which is then converted to an actuation state parameter in the form of position.
• SMA element 650 is connected in series between a positive voltage 610 and the collector 632 of an npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630.
• the emitter 636 of npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630 is connected to ground 620.
• a resistor 655 is comiected in series between the base 634 of npn- type bipolar junction transistor 630 and the collector 637 of a pnp-type bipolar junction transistor 641.
• the emitter 643 of pnp-type bipolar junction transistor 641 is connected to positive voltage 610.
• a base resistor 660 is comiected in series between the base 639 of pnp- type bipolar junction transistor 641 and the output pin 607 of microcontroller 605. Output pin 607 is adapted to operate as an open current sink.
• a feedback capacitor 680 is connected between output pin 607 of microcontroller 605 and collector 632 of npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630. Collector 632 of npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630 is further connected to input pin 609 of microcontroller 605. [0037]
• the apparatus depicted in Figure 6 operates in the following manner. Initially, the voltages of output pin 607 and input pin 609 are high, and feedback capacitor 680 is discharged.
• pnp-type bipolar junction transistor 641 While the voltage of output pin 607 is high, pnp-type bipolar junction transistor 641 is in an 'off state.
• the npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630 is in an OfF state because no current flows through pnp-type bipolar junction transistor 641 to the base 634 of npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630.
• Microcontroller 605 triggers a measurement cycle by temporarily decreasing the voltage of output pin 607. Consequently, base current flows from base 639 of pnp-type bipolar junction transistor 641 through base resistor 660 to output pin 607, causing pnp-type bipolar junction transistor 641 to saturate.
• feedback capacitor 680 is still discharged.
• timer module 615 can alternatively be implemented in software by microcontroller 605, or implemented using discrete components or combinations thereof external to microcontroller 605.
• the pnp-type bipolar junction transistor 641 remains saturated as base current continues to flow from the base 639 of pnp- type bipolar junction transistor 641 through base resistor 660 into the feedback capacitor 680.
• npn-type bipolar junction transistor 641 While pnp-type bipolar junction transistor 641 is saturated, npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630 is similarly saturated, and collector current flows through SMA element 650. Voltage at input pin 609 is low while npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630 remains saturated. As base current flows from the base 639 of pnp-type bipolar junction transistor 641 into feedback capacitor 680, feedback capacitor 680 continues to charge. Connecting feedback capacitor 680 to collector 632 of npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630 results in positive feedback, causing feedback capacitor 680 to charge rapidly.
• Figure 7 illustrates the relationship between resistance, time, and collector current of apparatus 600 described above in connection with Figure 6.
• the saturated collector current is inversely proportional to the resistance of SMA element 650. Consequently, when the resistance of SMA element 650 is high, the saturated collector current will be lower than when the resistance of SMA element 650 is low.
• the charge time of the feedback capacitor 680 is inversely dependent upon the saturated collector current. As is depicted in Figure 7, lowering the saturated collector current increases the length of time npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630 is in an 'on' state.
• the resistance of SMA element 650 it is therefore possible to determine the resistance of SMA element 650 by measuring the length of time it takes for npn-type bipolar junction transistor 630 to return to an 'off state and referring to a graph or table, such as a table stored in memory in microcontroller 605. Alternately, the resistance of SMA element 650 may be calculated using an equation taking into account specific characteristics of apparatus 600. After the resistance is computed, position can be determined using standard techniques.
• a measured actuation parameter in the form of a start of cycle and end of cycle location limiter may be used to derive operational characteristic parameters in the fo ⁇ n of start and finish positions, which may then be used to identify an actuation state parameter, such as cycle duration.
• FIG. 8 illustrates the relationship between actuator position, input power, and start and finish position sensors.
• Tpon is the time when input power is applied to the SMA element; Tas is the time the actuator begins to move from a start position; Tae is the time the actuator reaches the end of travel; Tpoff corresponds to when input power is cut to allow the actuator to return; Tars is the time when the actuator starts returning; Tare corresponds to the time the actuator completes its return to the start position; P0 is a start-of-travel sensor adapted to detect when the actuator begins to move; and PI is an end-of-travel sensor adapted to detect when the actuator reaches the end of travel.
• Figure 8 illustrates the actuator motion in a linear fashion, this motion is often non-linear for many actuators.
• Figure 8 illustrates an actuator that returns automatically when power is cut, although a similar figure could be shown for actuators that need some form of power to return.
• the various times at which point the actuator achieves the above labels for a given application depends on many factors, many of which are environmental. For example, if the input power source fluctuates (e.g. batteries that drain over time), then this may affect the times. In actuators that are highly affected by environmental temperature, such as SMA actuators, then variations in temperature or simply air flow (e.g. the air conditioner just switched on) can radically affect these times. Variation in friction and load on an actuator or other tolerance changes from one product to another can also affect these times.
• the control process can make adjustments to compensate for many of these factors so as to achieve a consistency of motion.
• the technique associated with Figure 8 may alternatively be implemented by measuring the time between providing power to the SMA element and complete actuation of the SMA element.
• This embodiment of the present invention requires the SMA element to go through a complete actuation cycle before calculating the actuation speed. Consequently, control of the actuation speed is limited by the time required to complete at least one actuation cycle.
• the actuation speed based on the take-off time or fall-off time can be determined during an actuation cycle, so that control of the actuation speed can occur during the first actuation cycle, allowing the control process to quickly adjust the actuation speed so as to achieve a consistency of motion.
• control process is able to respond more quickly to changes in environmental factors, such as temperature or power supply variation, to maintain the desired actuation speed.
• a new take-off time may be estimated from a previous take-off time measurement and used to adjust when power is supplied to the SMA element actuator during subsequent cycles so that the actuator moves at the specific time.
• the process associated with Figure 8 can also be implemented by measuring the take-off time or fall-off time using the resistance of the shape memory alloy element, without the need of position sensors, such as the start-of-travel sensor P0 and end-of-travel sensor PI. Since resistance of the SMA element varies with position, it is possible to determine Tas (the time the actuator begins to move) by monitoring the resistance of the SMA element over time until a maximum resistance value, corresponding to start of actuation after power is applied, is achieved. The time it takes to achieve this maximum resistance value can be used to calculate the take-off time without a physical start-of-travel sensor.
• a technique of time-domain resistance analysis of an SMA element such as the technique described in commonly owned U.S. Patent No. 6,574,958, is used to determine both start and end-of-travel by monitoring the rate of change of the SMA resistance rather than the absolute value of the SMA resistance.
• Monitoring the rate of change of the SMA resistance has the advantage of not being dependent upon variation of SMA resistance due to type or extended use, and yields additional information regarding actuation characteristics, such as load on the actuator, overall performance of SMA element, or damage sustained by the SMA element.
• Monitoring the rate of change of the SMA resistance may be accomplished using any of the techniques described herein to measure the resistance of an SMA element or using any other technique known in the art, and control of actuation speed or other actuation characteristics may be achieved according to the methods and embodiments for actuation control of a shape memory alloy element using actuation feedback according to the present invention.
• Additional advantages of some embodiments of the present invention include automatic compensation of fluctuation in actuation load.
• the use of resistance for position measurement depends upon the relationship between resistance and percentage of transformation of the SMA element. Transformation of the SMA element depends, in turn, on both the temperature and mechanical load of the actuator. As the load on the actuator increases, the resistance of the SMA element increases in response.
• the actuator power source can play a critical role in determining how the actuator will respond to load fluctuations.
• the power drawn by the SMA element is inversely proportional to its resistance.
• the resistance increases due to a fluctuation in load, the resulting power drop will cause a drop in actuator temperature, and the resistance will further increase. This is equivalent to positive feedback due to fluctuation in actuator load, and is an unstable condition, which can result in the actuator moving away from a desired position.
• the power drawn by the SMA element is directly proportional to its resistance.
• An embodiment of the present invention relates to a computer-readable medium having computer code thereon for performing various computer-implemented operations.
• control strategies of the invention may be implemented in software associated with a processor.
• the media and computer code may be those specially designed and constructed for the purposes of the present invention, or they may be of the kind well known and available to those having skill in the computer software arts.
• Examples of computer-readable media include hardware devices that are specially configured to store and execute program code, such as application-specific integrated circuits ("ASICs"), programmable logic devices ("PLDs”) and ROM and RAM devices.
• Examples of computer code include machine code, such as produced by a compiler, and files containing higher-level code that are executed by a computer using an interpreter.
• an embodiment of the invention may be implemented using Java, C++, or other object-oriented programming language and development tools.
• Another embodiment of the invention may be implemented in hardwired circuitry in place of, or in combination with, machine-executable software instructions.

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• Chemical & Material Sciences (AREA)
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• General Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
• Feedback Control In General (AREA)
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