EP0858662A2 - Procedes et dispositifs relatifs aux niveaux inferieurs d'energie d'hydrogene - Google Patents

Procedes et dispositifs relatifs aux niveaux inferieurs d'energie d'hydrogene

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Publication number
EP0858662A2
EP0858662A2 EP96919010A EP96919010A EP0858662A2 EP 0858662 A2 EP0858662 A2 EP 0858662A2 EP 96919010 A EP96919010 A EP 96919010A EP 96919010 A EP96919010 A EP 96919010A EP 0858662 A2 EP0858662 A2 EP 0858662A2
Authority
EP
European Patent Office
Prior art keywords
energy
hydrogen
hydrogen atoms
cell according
atoms
Prior art date
Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
Withdrawn
Application number
EP96919010A
Other languages
German (de)
English (en)
Other versions
EP0858662A4 (fr
Inventor
Randell L. Mills
William R. Good
Arthur I. Popov
Jonathan Phillips
Current Assignee (The listed assignees may be inaccurate. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation or warranty as to the accuracy of the list.)
Brilliant Light Power Inc
Original Assignee
BlackLight Power Inc
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Filing date
Publication date
Application filed by BlackLight Power Inc filed Critical BlackLight Power Inc
Publication of EP0858662A2 publication Critical patent/EP0858662A2/fr
Publication of EP0858662A4 publication Critical patent/EP0858662A4/fr
Withdrawn legal-status Critical Current

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Classifications

    • G—PHYSICS
    • G21—NUCLEAR PHYSICS; NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
    • G21B—FUSION REACTORS
    • G21B3/00—Low temperature nuclear fusion reactors, e.g. alleged cold fusion reactors
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
    • F02G—HOT GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT ENGINE PLANTS; USE OF WASTE HEAT OF COMBUSTION ENGINES; NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • F02G1/00—Hot gas positive-displacement engine plants
    • F02G1/04—Hot gas positive-displacement engine plants of closed-cycle type
    • F02G1/043—Hot gas positive-displacement engine plants of closed-cycle type the engine being operated by expansion and contraction of a mass of working gas which is heated and cooled in one of a plurality of constantly communicating expansible chambers, e.g. Stirling cycle type engines
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
    • F02G—HOT GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT ENGINE PLANTS; USE OF WASTE HEAT OF COMBUSTION ENGINES; NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • F02G2243/00—Stirling type engines having closed regenerative thermodynamic cycles with flow controlled by volume changes
    • F02G2243/30—Stirling type engines having closed regenerative thermodynamic cycles with flow controlled by volume changes having their pistons and displacers each in separate cylinders
    • F02G2243/50—Stirling type engines having closed regenerative thermodynamic cycles with flow controlled by volume changes having their pistons and displacers each in separate cylinders having resonance tubes
    • F02G2243/52—Stirling type engines having closed regenerative thermodynamic cycles with flow controlled by volume changes having their pistons and displacers each in separate cylinders having resonance tubes acoustic
    • F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
    • F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
    • F02G—HOT GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT ENGINE PLANTS; USE OF WASTE HEAT OF COMBUSTION ENGINES; NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • F02G2254/00—Heat inputs
    • F02G2254/10—Heat inputs by burners
    • F02G2254/11—Catalytic burners
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E30/00—Energy generation of nuclear origin
    • Y02E30/10—Nuclear fusion reactors

Definitions

  • This invention relates to methods and apparatus for releasing energy from hydrogen atoms (molecules) as their electrons are stimulated to relax to lower energy levels and smaller radii (smaller semimajor and semiminor axes) than the "ground state" by providing a transition catalyst which acts as an energy sink or means to remove energy resonant with the electronic energy released to stimulate these transitions according to a novel atomic model.
  • the transition catalyst should not be consumed in the reaction. It accepts energy from hydrogen and releases the energy to the surroundings. Thus, the transition catalyst returns to the origin state. Processes that require collisions are common.
  • the exothermic chemical reaction of H + H to form H 2 requires a collision with a third body, , to remove the bond energy - H + H + ⁇ ⁇ H 2 + .
  • the third body distributes the energy from the exothermic reaction, and the end result is the H 2 molecule and an increase in the temperature of the system.
  • the electron(s) couples to another electron transition or electron transfer reaction, for example, which can absorb the exact amount of energy that must be removed from the hydrogen atom (molecule), a resonant energy sink.
  • the end result is a lower-energy state for the hydrogen and increase in temperature of the system.
  • each transition is hereafter referred to as a shrinkage transition: each energy sink or means to remove energy resonant with the hydrogen electronic energy released to effect each transition is hereafter referred to as an energy hole, and the electronic energy removed by the energy hole to effect or stimulate the shrinkage transition is hereafter referred to as the resonance shrinkage energy.
  • An energy hole comprising a reactant ion that is spontaneously regenerated following an endothermic electron ionization reaction of energy equal to the resonance shrinkage energy is hereafter referred to as an electrocatalvtic ion.
  • An energy hole comprising two reactants that are spontaneously regenerated following the an endothermic electron transfer reaction between the two species wherein the differences in their ionization energies is equal to the resonance shrinkage energy is hereafter referred to as an electrocatalvtic couple.
  • the present invention of an electrolytic cell energy reactor, pressurized gas energy reactor, and a gas discharge energy reactor comprises: a source of hydrogen; one of a solid, molten, liquid, and gaseous source of energy holes; a vessel containing hydrogen and the source of energy holes wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen with the source of energy holes; and a means for removing the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen so as to prevent an exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • the present invention further comprises methods and structures for repeating this shrinkage reaction to produce shrunken atoms (molecules) to provide new materials with novel properties such as high thermal stability.
  • the present invention comprises methods and apparatuses for releasing heat energy from hydrogen atoms (molecules) by stimulating their electrons to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state” via electron transfer reactions of reactants including electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalvtic ion(s) or couple(s)) which remove energy from the hydrogen atoms (molecules) to stimulate these transitions.
  • this application includes methods and apparatuses to enhance the power output by enhancing the reaction rate- the rate of the formation of the lower-energy hydrogen.
  • the present invention further comprises a hydrogen spillover catalyst, a multifunctionality material having a functionality which dissociates molecular hydrogen to provide free hydrogen atoms which spill over to a functionality which supports mobile free hydrogen atoms and a functionality which can be a source of the energy holes.
  • the energy reactor includes one of an electrolytic cell, a pressurized hydrogen gas cell, and a hydrogen gas discharge cell.
  • a preferred pressurized hydrogen gas energy reactor comprises a vessel; a source of hydrogen; a means to control the pressure and flow of hydrogen into the vessel; a material to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen, and a material which can be a source of energy holes in the gas phase.
  • the gaseous source of energy holes includes those that sublime, boil, and/or are volatile at the elevated operating temperature of the gas energy reactor wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs in the gas phase.
  • the present invention further comprises methods and apparatuses for repeating a shrinkage reaction according to the present invention to cause energy release and to provide shrunken atoms and molecules with novel properties such as high thermal stability, and low reactivity.
  • the lower-energy state atoms and molecules are useful for heat transfer, cryogenic applications, as a buoyant gas. as a medium in an engine such as a Sterling engine or a turbine, as a general replacement for helium, and as a refrigerant by absorbing energy including heat energy as the electrons are excited back to a higher energy level.
  • a H is the Bohr radius for the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm )
  • e is the magnitude of the charge of the electron
  • ⁇ makeup is the vacuum permittivity. Mills' theory predicts that Eq. (2b), should be replaced by Eq. (2c).
  • the third body distributes the energy from the exothermic reaction, and the end result is the H 2 molecule and an increase in the temperature of the system.
  • the electron couples to another electron transition or electron transfer reaction which can absorb the exact amount of energy that must be removed from the hydrogen atom, a resonant energy sink called an energy hole.
  • the end result is a lower-energy state for the hydrogen and increase in temperature of the system .
  • Mills Wave Equation Solutions of the Hydrogen Atom Recently, Mills [Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics. ( 1995), Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, PA] has built on the work generally known as quantum mechanics by deriving a new atomic theory based on first principles.
  • the novel theory hereafter referred to as Mills' theory unifies Maxwell's Equations, Newton's Laws, and Einstein's General and Special Relativity.
  • the central feature of this theory is that all particles (atomic- size and macroscopic particles) obey the same physical laws.
  • the current-density function must not possess space-time Fourier components that are synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light.
  • an electron is a spinning, two-dimensional spherical surface, hereafter called an electron orbitsphere. that can exist in a bound state at only specified distances from the nucleus. More explicitly, the orbitsphere comprises a two dimensional spherical shell of moving charge.
  • the corresponding current pattern of the orbitsphere comprises an infinite series of correlated orthogonal great circle current loops. The current pattern (shown in Figure 1.4 of Mills [Mills.
  • the total function that describes the spinning motion of each electron orbitsphere is composed of two functions.
  • One function, the spin function is spatially uniform over the orbitsphere, spins with a quantized angular velocity, and gives rise to spin angular momentum.
  • the other function, the modulation function can be spatially uniform — in which case there is no orbital angular momentum and the magnetic moment of the electron orbitsphere is one Bohr magneton — or not spatially uniform — in which case there is orbital angular momentum.
  • the modulation function also rotates with a quantized angular velocity. Numerical values for the angular velocity, radii of allowed orbitspheres. energies, and associated quantities are calculated by Mills.
  • Orbitsphere radii are calculated by setting the centripetal force equal to the electric and magnetic forces.
  • the orbitsphere is a resonator cavity which traps photons of discrete frequencies.
  • the radius of an orbitsphere increases with the absorption of electromagnetic energy.
  • the solutions to Maxwell's equations for modes that can be excited in the orbitsphere resonator cavity give rise to four quantum numbers, and the energies of the modes are the experimentally known hydrogen spectrum.
  • Excited states are unstable because the charge-density function of the electron plus photon have a radial doublet function component which corresponds to an electric dipole.
  • the doublet possesses spacetime Fourier components synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light; thus it is radiative.
  • the delta function does not possess spacetime Fourier components synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light; thus, each is nonradiative.
  • n The nonradiative boundary condition of Mills and the relationship between the electron and the photon give the "allowed" hydrogen energy states which are quantized as a function of the parameter n.
  • Each value of n corresponds to an allowed transition effected by a resonant photon which excites the electronic transition.
  • values of fractions are allowed which correspond to transitions with an increase in the central field (charge) and decrease in the size of the hydrogen atom. This occurs, for example, when the electron couples to another electronic transition or electron transfer reaction which can absorb energy, an energy sink. This is the absorption of an energy hole. The absorption of an energy hole destroys the balance between the centrifugal force and the increased central electric force. As a result, the electron undergoes a transition to a lower energy nonradiative state.
  • the radius of the orbitsphere, agro shrinks to — — and after p cycles of resonant + 1 shrinkage, the radius is — tL — .
  • the radial ground state field can be mp + 1 considered as the superposition of Fourier components.
  • the removal of negative Fourier components of energy m X 27.2 eV, where rn is an integer increases the positive central electric field inside the spherical shell b rn times the charge of a proton.
  • the resultant electric field is a time-harmonic solution of Laplace's Equations in spherical coordinates.
  • the radius at which force balance and nonradiation are a. achieved is where m is an integer. In decaying to this
  • a hydrogen atom with its electron in a lower than "ground state" energy level corresponding to a fractional quantum number is hereafter referred to as a hvdrino atom.
  • FIGURE 2 The size of the electron orbitsphere as a function of potential energy is given in FIGURE 2.
  • Lower-energy hydrogen atoms, hydrinos. can act as a source of energy holes that can cause resonant shrinkage because the excitation and/or ionization energies are m X 27.2 eV (Eq. (3)).
  • Hydrogen is a source of energy holes.
  • the ionization energy of hydrogen is 13.6 eV. Disproportionation can occur between three hydrogen atoms whereby two atoms provide an energy hole of 27.21 eV for the third hydrogen atom.
  • the shrinkage cascade for the pth cycle of the hydrogen-type with two hydrogen atoms, H ⁇ as the source of energy holes that cause resonant shrinkage is represented by ⁇ *
  • energy holes are provided by electron transfer reactions of reactants including electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be released from hydrogen atoms as their electrons are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state".
  • electrochemical reactant(s) electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be released from hydrogen atoms as their electrons are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state”.
  • the energy removed by an electron transfer reaction, energy hole is resonant with the hydrogen energy released to stimulate this transition.
  • the source of hydrogen atoms can be the production on the surface of a cathode during electrolysis of water in the case of an electrolytic energy reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the case of a pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy reactor.
  • the central force equation for hydrogen-type molecules has orbital solutions which are circular, elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic.
  • the former two types of solutions are associated with atomic and molecular orbitals. These solutions are nonradiative if the boundary condition for nonradiation given in the One Electron Atom Section of The Unification of Spacetime. the Forces. Matter, and Energy. Mills, R., Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, PA, (1992), is met.
  • the mathematical formulation for zero radiation is that the function that describes the motion of the electron must not possess space-time Fourier components that are synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light.
  • A ⁇ ab (24) where 2b is the length of the semiminor axis and 2a is the length of the semimajor axis.
  • the geometry of molecular hydrogen is elliptic with the internuclear axis as the principle axis; thus, the electron orbital is a two dimensional ellipsoidal- time harmonic function.
  • the mass follows geodesies time harmonically as determined by the central field of the protons at the foci. Rotational symmetry about the internuclear axis further determines that the orbital is a prolate spheroid.
  • ellipsoidal orbits of molecular bonding hereafter referred to as ellipsoidal molecular orbitals (M. O. 's) have the general equation
  • the semiprinciple axes of the ellipsoid are a. b, c.
  • An ellipsoidal M. O. is equivalent to a charged conductor whose surface is given by Eq. (25). It carries a total charge q, and it's potential is a solution of the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates, Eq. (26).
  • FIGURE 3 A schematic drawing of the total energy well of hydrogen-type molecules and molecular ions is given in FIGURE 3.
  • the exothermic reaction involving transitions from one potential energy level to a lower level below the "ground state” is also hereafter referred to as ⁇ ydroCatalysis .
  • a hydrogen-type molecule with its electrons in a lower than "ground state" energy level corresponding to a fractional quantum number is hereafter referred to as a dihvdri no molecule .
  • the designation for a dihydrino molecule of F5 internuclear distance, 2c' °- where p is an integer, is
  • FIGURE 4 A schematic drawing of the size of hydrogen- type molecules as a function of total energy is given in FIGURE 4.
  • the ellipsoidal "ground state" field of the hydrogen molecule can be considered as the superposition of Fourier components.
  • the resultant electric field is a time harmonic solution of the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates.
  • energy holes each of approximately mX48.6 eV ⁇ are provided by electron transfer reactions of reactants including electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be released from hydrogen molecules as their electrons are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state".
  • electrochemical reactant(s) electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be released from hydrogen molecules as their electrons are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state".
  • the energy removed by an electron transfer reaction, energy hole is resonant with the hydrogen energy released to stimulate this transition.
  • the source of hydrogen molecules can be the production on the surface of a cathode during electrolysis of water in the case of an electrolytic energy reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the case of a pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy reactor.
  • the present invention of an electrolytic cell energy reactor, pressurized gas energy reactor, and a gas discharge energy reactor comprises: a source of hydrogen; one of a solid, molten, liquid, and gaseous source of energy holes; a vessel containing hydrogen and the source of energy holes wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen with the source of energy holes; and a means for removing the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen so as to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • the shrinkage reaction rate and let power output are increased by conforming the energy hole to match the resonance shrinkage energy.
  • power output can be optimized by controlling the temperature, pressure of the hydrogen gas, the source of the energy hole including the electrocatalytic ion or couple which provides the energy hole, the counterion of the electrocatalytic ion or couple, and the area of the surface on which the shrinkage reaction occurs.
  • the present invention further comprises a hydrogen spillover catalyst, a multifunctionality material having a functionality which dissociates molecular hydrogen to provide free hydrogen atoms which spill over to a functionality which supports mobile free hydrogen atoms and a functionality which can be a source of the energy holes.
  • a preferred pressurized hydrogen gas energy reactor comprises a vessel; a source of hydrogen; a means to control the pressure and flow of hydrogen into the vessel; a material to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen, and a material which can be a source of energy holes in the gas phase.
  • the gaseous source of energy holes includes those that sublime, boil, and/or are volatile at the elevated operating temperature of the gas energy reactor wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs in the gas phase.
  • FIGURE 1 is a schematic drawing of the total energy well of the hydrogen atom
  • FIGURE 2 is a schematic drawing of the size of electron orbitspheres as a function of potential energy
  • FIGURE 4 is a schematic drawing of the size of hydrogen- type molecules, as a function of total energy
  • FIGURE 5 is a schematic drawing of an energy reactor in accordance with the invention.
  • FIGURE 6 is a schematic drawing of an electrolytic cell energy reactor in accordance with the present invention
  • FIGURE 7 is a schematic drawing of a pressurized gas energy reactor in accordance with the present invention
  • FIGURE 8 is a schematic drawing of a gas discharge energy reactor in accordance with the invention.
  • FIGURE 9 is a plot of the excess heat release from flowing hydrogen in the presence of nickel oxide powder containing strontium niobium oxide (Nb 3+ / Sr 2* electrocatalytic couple) by the very accurate and reliable method of heat measurement, thermopile conversion of heat into an electrical output signal.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transition of an electron of a species to an excited state species including a continuum excited state(s) of atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the excited state transition of an electron of one species whereby the transition energy of the accepting species equals approximately mX21.2 ⁇ eV where m is an integer.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transfer of an electron between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of an electron from one species to another species whereby the sum of the ionization energy of the electron donating species minus the ionization energy or electron affinity of the electron accepting species equals approximately mX21.2 ⁇ eV where m is an integer.
  • An energy hole is provided by the ionization of an electron from a participating species including an atom, an ion, a molecule, and an ionic or molecular compound to a vacuum energy level.
  • the energy hole comprises the ionization of an electron from one species to a vacuum energy level whereby the ionization energy of the electron donating species equals approximately mX21.2 ⁇ eV where m is an integer.
  • the shrinkage cascade for the pth cycle is represented by ⁇ _
  • Rubidium is a so a cata yst (e ectrocatalytic ion).
  • the second ionization energy is 27.28 eV.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately mX21.2 ⁇ eV where m and t are integers.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one species to another whereby the t consecutive electron affinities and/or ionization energies of the electron donating species minus the t consecutive ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor equals approximately mX21.2 ⁇ eV where m and t are integers .
  • the electron acceptor species is an oxide such as MnO x , AlO x , SiO x .
  • a preferred molecular electron acceptor is oxygen, O 2 .
  • a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the ionization of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to a vacuum energy level such that the sum of two ionization energies is approximately 27.21 eV.
  • a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom or molecule such that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of two electron affinities of the participating atoms, ions, and/or molecules is approximately 27.21 eV.
  • a catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom to a molecule involves palladium and oxygen.
  • the first and second ionization energies of palladium are 8.34 eV and 19.43 eV, respectively.
  • the first and second electron affinities of the oxygen molecule are 0.45 eV and 0.1 1 eV, respectively.
  • the energy hole resulting from a two electron transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption.
  • the combination of Pd to Pd 2+ and O 2 to O 2 ⁇ then, has a net energy change of 27.21 eV.
  • Additional atoms, molecules, or compounds which could be substituted for O 2 are those with first and second electron affinities of approximately 0.45 eV and 0.11 eV, respectively, such as a mixed oxide (MnO x , AlO x , SiO x ) containing O to form
  • a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of one ionization energy and one electron affinity of the participating atoms, ions, and/or molecules is approximately 27.21 eV.
  • a catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom to an ion involves xenon and lithium.
  • the first and second ionization energies of xenon are 12.13 eV and 21.21 eV, respectively.
  • the first ionization energy and the first electron affinity of lithium are 5.39 eV and 0.62 eV, respectively.
  • the energy hole resulting from a two electron transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption.
  • the combination of Xe to Xe 2* and Li * to Li ' then, has a net energy change of 27.33 eV.
  • a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of two ionization energies of the participating atoms and/or molecules is approximately 27.21 eV.
  • a catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of two electrons from a first ion to a second ion involves silver( Ag * ) and silver (Ag 2 *).
  • the second and third ionization energies of silver are 21.49 eV and 34.83 eV, respectively.
  • the second and first ionization energies of silver are 21.49 eV and 7.58 eV, respectively.
  • the energy hole resulting from a two electron transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption.
  • a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of three electrons from an ion to another ion such that the sum of the electron affinity and two ionization energies of the first ion minus the sum of three ionization energies of the second ion is approximately 27.21 eV.
  • a catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of three electrons from an ion to a second ion involves Li ' and Cr 3* .
  • the electron affinity, first ionization energy, and second ionization energy of lithium are 0.62 eV, 5.392 eV, and 75.638 eV, respectively.
  • the third, second, and first ionization energies of Cr 3* are 30.96 eV, 1 6.50 eV, and 6.766 eV, respectively.
  • the energy hole resulting from a three electron transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption.
  • a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of three electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such that the sum of three consecutive ionization energies of the electron donating species minus the sum of three consecutive ionization energies of the electron accepting species is approximately 27.21 eV.
  • a catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of three electrons from an atom to an ion involves Ag and Ce 3* .
  • the first, second, and third ionization energies of silver are 7.58 eV, 21.49 eV, and 34.83 eV, respectively.
  • the third, second, and first ionization energies of Ce 3* are 20.20 eV, 10.85 cV, and 5.47 eV, respectively.
  • the energy hole resulting from a three electron transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption.
  • an energy hole of energy equal to the total energy released for a below "ground state" electronic transition of the hydrogen atom is provided by the transfer of an electron between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of an electron from one species to another species whereby the sum of the ionization energy of the electron donating species minus the ionization energy or electron affinity of the electron m accepting species equals approximately —27.21 eV; where m is an integer.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately —27.21 eV where m and t are integers.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transition of an electron of a species to an excited state species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the excited state transition of an electron of one species whereby the transition energy of the accepting species is mp 2 XA8.6 eV where m and p are integers.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transfer of an electron between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of an electron from one species to another species whereby the sum of the ionization energy of the electron donating species minus the ionization energy or electron affinity of the electron accepting species equals approximately mp 2 XA8.6 eV where m and p are integers.
  • An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of three resonator cavities involves yttrium.
  • the fourth ionization energy of gallium is 64.00 eV. This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption.
  • Pb 2* releases 15.03 eV when it is reduced to Pb*.
  • An energy hole is provided by the ionization of an electron from a participating species including an atom, an ion, a molecule, and an ionic or molecular compound to a vacuum energy level.
  • the energy hole comprises the ionization of an electron from one species to a vacuum energy level whereby the ionization energy of the electron donating species equals approximately mp 2 XA8.6 eV where m and p are integers.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately mp 2 XA8.6 eV where m, p, and t are integers.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one species to another whereby the t consecutive electron affinities and/or ionization energies of the electron donating species minus the t consecutive ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor equals approximately mp 2 XA8.6 eV where m, p, and t are integers.
  • the electron acceptor species is an oxide such as MnO x , AlO x , SiO x .
  • a preferred molecular electron acceptor is oxygen, O 2 .
  • a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the ionization of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to a vacuum energy level such that the sum of two ionization energies is approximately mp 2 XA8.6 eV where m, and p are integers.
  • a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom or molecule such that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of two electron affinities of the participating atoms, ions, and/or molecules is approximately mp 2 XA8.6 eV where m and p are integers.
  • a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of one ionization energy and one electron affinity of the participating atoms, ions, and/or molecules is approximately mp 2 XA8.6 eV where m and p are integers.
  • energy holes In another embodiment, energy holes, each of approximately
  • electrochemical reactant(s) electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be released from hydrogen molecules as their electrons are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state".
  • the energy removed by an electron transfer reaction, energy hole, is resonant with the hydrogen energy released to stimulate this transition.
  • the source of hydrogen molecules is the production on the surface of a cathode during electrolysis of water in the case of an electrolytic energy reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the case of a pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy reactor.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transfer of one or more electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately mX67.8 eV where m and t are integers.
  • the energy removed by an electron transfer reaction, energy hole is resonant with the hydrogen energy released to stimulate this transition.
  • the source of hydrogen molecules is the production on the surface of a cathode during electrolysis of water in the case of an electrolytic energy reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the case of a pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy reactor.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transfer of one or more electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately mX3 ⁇ .9A eV ( ⁇ q. (222)) where m and t are integers.
  • An energy hole is provided by the transfer of one or more electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds.
  • the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximr ely mX95.1 eV where m and t are integers.
  • An energy reactor 50 in accordance with the invention, is shown in FIGURE 5 and comprises a vessel 52 which contains an energy reaction mixture 54, a heat exchanger 60, and a steam generator 62.
  • the heat exchanger 60 absorbs heat released by the shrinkage reaction, when the reaction mixture, comprised of shrinkable material, shrinks.
  • the heat exchanger exchanges heat with the steam generator 62 which absorbs heat from the exchanger 60 and produces steam.
  • the energy reactor 50 further comprises a turbine 70 which receives steam from the steam generator 62 and supplies mechanical power to a power generator 80 which converts the steam energy into electrical energy, which can be received by a load 90 to produce work or for dissipation.
  • the energy reaction mixture 54 comprises an energy releasing material 56 including a source of hydrogen isotope atoms or a source of molecular hydrogen isotope, and a source of energy holes 58 which resonantly remove approximately mX27.2 ⁇ eV to cause atomic hydrogen "shrinkage" and approximately m 48.6 eV to cause molecular hydrogen
  • the source of hydrogen can be hydrogen gas, dissociation of water including thermal dissociation, electrolysis of water, hydrogen from hydrides, or hydrogen from metal-hydrogen solutions.
  • the source of energy holes can be one or more of an electrochemical, chemical, photochemical, thermal, free radical, sonic, or nuclear reaction(s) or inelastic photon or particle scattering reaction(s).
  • the present invention of an energy reactor comprises a particle source 75b and/or photon source 75a to supply the said energy holes.
  • a photon source 75a dissociates hydrogen molecules to hydrogen atoms.
  • the photon source producing photons of at least one energy of m approximately mX27.2 ⁇ eV, — 27.21 eV, or 40.8 eV causes stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen atoms undergo the shrinkage reaction.
  • a photon source 75a producing photons of at least one energy of approximately mXAS. ⁇ eV, 95.7 eV, or mX3l.9A eV causes stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen molecules undergo the shrinkage reaction.
  • a selected external energy device 75 such as an electrode may be used to supply an electrostatic potential or a current (magnetic field) to decrease the activation energy of the resonant absorption of an energy hole.
  • the mixture 54 further comprises a surface or material to dissociate and/or absorb atoms and/or molecules of the energy releasing material 56.
  • Such surfaces or materials to dissociate and/or absorb hydrogen, deuterium, or tritium comprise an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite).
  • transition elements and inner transition elements iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, I
  • a source of energy holes to shrink hydrogen atoms comprises a catalytic energy hole material 58, typically comprising electrocatalytic ions and couples that provide an energy hole of approximately m 27.21 eV plus or minus 1 eV.
  • a source of energy holes to shrink hydrogen molecules comprises a catalytic energy hole material 58, typically comprising electrocatalytic ions and couple(s) including those that provide an energy hole of approximately 777X48.6 eV plus or minus 5 eV .
  • the electrocatalytic ions and couple(s) include the electrocatalytic ions and couples described in my previous U.S . Patent Applications entitled “Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Serial No.
  • a further embodiment is the vessel 52 containing a source of energy holes including an electrocatalytic ion or couple(s) (source of energy holes) in the molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid state and a source of hydrogen including hydrides and gaseous hydrogen.
  • a source of energy holes including an electrocatalytic ion or couple(s) (source of energy holes) in the molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid state and a source of hydrogen including hydrides and gaseous hydrogen.
  • the embodiment further comprises a means to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen including an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements, inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Lr, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd. Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated
  • the present invention of an electrolytic cell energy reactor, pressurized gas energy reactor, and a gas discharge energy reactor comprises: a source of hydrogen; one of a solid, molten, liquid, and gaseous source of energy holes; a vessel containing hydrogen and the source of energy holes wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen with the source of energy holes; and a means for removing the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen so as to prevent an exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • the present energy invention is further described in my previous U.S . Patent Applications entitled “Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Serial No. 08/467,051 filed on June 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Serial No. 08/416,040 filed on April 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Serial No.
  • a preferred embodiment of the energy reactor of the present invention comprises an electrolytic cell forming the reaction vessel 52 of FIGURE 5 including a molten electrolytic cell.
  • the electrolytic cell 100 is shown generally in FIGURE 6.
  • An electric current is passed through the electrolytic solution 102 having a electrocatalytic ions or couples providing energy holes equal to the resonance shrinkage energy (including the electrocatalytic ions and couples described in my previous U.S. Patent Applications incorporated herein by reference) by the application of a voltage to an anode 104 and cathode 106 by the power controller 108 powered by the power supply 110.
  • Ultrasonic or mechanical energy may also be imparted to the cathode 106 and electrolytic solution 102 by vibrating means 112. Heat can be supplied to the electrolytic solution 102 by heater 114.
  • the pressure of the electrolytic cell 100 can be controlled by pressure regulator means 1 16 where the cell can be closed.
  • the reactor further comprises a means 101 that removes the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen such as a selective venting valve to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • the electrolytic cell is operated at zero voltage gap by applying an overpressure of hydrogen with hydrogen source 121 where the overpressure can be controlled by pressure control means 122 and 1 16.
  • Water can be reduced to hydrogen and hydroxide at the cathode 106, and the hydrogen can be oxidized to protons at the anode 104.
  • An embodiment of the electrolytic cell energy reactor comprises a reverse fuel cell geometry which removes the lower-energy hydrogen under vacuum.
  • a preferred cathode 106 of this embodiment has a modified gas diffusion layer and comprises a gas route means including a first Teflon membrane filter and a second carbon paper/Teflon membrane filter composite layer.
  • a further embodiment comprises a reaction vessel that can be closed except for a connection to a condensor 140 on the top of the vessel 100.
  • the cell can be operated at a boil such that the steam evolving from the boiling electrolyte 102 can be condensed in the condensor 140, and the condensed water can be returned to the vessel 100.
  • the lower-energy state hydrogen can be vented through the top of the condensor 140.
  • the condensor contains a hydrogen/oxygen recombiner 145 that contacts the evolving electrolytic gases. The hydrogen and oxygen are recombined, and the resulting water can be returned to the vessel 100.
  • the heat released from the exothermic reaction whereby the electrons of the electrolytically produced hydrogen atoms (molecules) are induced to undergo transitions to energy levels below the "ground state” and the heat released due to the recombination of the electrolytically generated normal hydrogen and oxygen can be removed by a heat exchanger 60 of FIGURE 5 which can be connected to the condensor 140.
  • the energy hole to stimulate a hydrogen atom (molecule) to undergo a shrinkage transition is mX27.2 ⁇ eV (mXA8.6 eV) where m is an integer.
  • This resonance shrinkage energy can be altered when the atom (molecule) is in a media different from vacuum.
  • An example is a hydrogen atom (molecule) absorbed to the cathode 106 present in the aqueous electrolytic solution 102 having an applied electric field and an intrinsic or applied magnetic field provided by external magnetic field generator 75. Under these conditions the energy hole required can be slightly different from mX27.2 ⁇ eV (mXA8.6 eV).
  • a source of energy holes including electrocatalytic ion and couple reactants can be selected which has a redox (electron transfer) energy resonant with the resonance shrinkage energy when operating under these conditions.
  • a nickel cathode 106 is used to electrolyze an aqueous solution 102 where the cell is operating within a voltage range of 1.4 to 5 volts
  • the K+/K+ and Rb+ (Fe 3 +/Li+ and Sc3+/Sc3+) electrocatalytic ions and couples are preferred embodiments to shrink hydrogen atoms (molecules).
  • the cathode provides hydrogen atoms (molecules), and the shrinkage reaction occurs at the surface of the cathode where hydrogen atoms (molecules) and the source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) are in contact.
  • the shrinkage reaction can be dependent on the surface area of the cathode.
  • an increase in surface area increases the reactants available to undergo the shrinkage reaction.
  • an increase in cathode surface area decreases the resistance of the electrolytic cell which improves the electrolysis efficiency.
  • a preferred cathode of the electrolytic cell including a nickel cathode has the properties of a high surface area, a highly stressed and hardened surface such as a cold drawn or cold worked surface, and a large number of grain boundaries.
  • the source of energy holes can be incorporated into the cathode, mechanically by methods including cold working the source of energy holes into the surface of the cathode; thermally by methods including melting the source of energy holes into the surface of the cathode and evaporation of a solvent of a solution of the source of energy holes in contact with the surface of the cathode, and electrostatically by methods including electrolytic deposition, ion bombardment, and vacuum deposition.
  • the shrinkage reaction rate can be dependent upon the composition of the cathode 106. Hydrogen atoms (molecules) are reactants to produce energy via the shrinkage reaction. Thus, the cathode must efficiently provide a high concentration of hydrogen atoms (molecules).
  • 106 can be comprised of any element, compound, alloy, or mixture of a conductor or semiconductor including transition elements and compounds, actinide and lanthanide elements and compounds, and group IIIB and IVB elements and compounds.
  • Transition metals dissociate hydrogen gas into atoms to a more or lesser extent depending on the metal.
  • Nickel and titanium readily dissociate hydrogen molecules and are preferred embodiments for shrinking hydrogen atoms.
  • the cathode can alter the energy of the absorbed hydrogen atoms (molecules) and affect the energy of the shrinkage reaction.
  • a cathode material can be selected which provides resonance between the energy hole and the resonance shrinkage energy.
  • the relationship of the cathode material to the reaction rate can be: Pt ⁇ Pd « Ti,Fe ⁇ Ni
  • reaction rate can be increased by using a cathode which weakly absorbs the hydrogen atoms with little perturbation of their electronic energies.
  • a paramagnetic or ferromagnetic cathode increases the reaction rate by increasing the coupling of the resonance shrinkage energy of the hydrogen atom and energy hole comprising an electrocatalytic ion or couple.
  • a magnetic field can be applied with the magnetic field generator 75. Magnetic fields at the cathode alter the energy of absorbed hydrogen and concomitantly alter the resonance shrinkage energy. Magnetic fields also perturb the energy of the electrocatalytic reactions (energy hole) by altering the energy levels of the electrons involved in the reactions.
  • the magnetic properties of the cathode are selected as well as the strength of the magnetic field which is applied by magnetic field generator 75 to optimize shrinkage reaction rate-the power output.
  • a preferred ferromagnetic cathode is nickel.
  • a preferred method to clean the cathode of the electrolytic cell including a nickel cathode is to anodize the cathode in a basic electrolytic solution including approximately 0.57 M X2CO3 (X is the alkali cation of the electrolyte including K+) and to immerse the cathode in a dilute solution of H2O2 such as approximately 3% H2O 2.
  • a further embodiment of the cleaning method cyclic voltametry with a second electrode of the same material as the first cathode is performed. The cathode can be then thoroughly rinsed with distilled water.
  • Organic material on the surface of the cathode inhibits the catalytic reaction whereby the electrons of the electrolytically produced hydrogen atoms (molecules) are induced to undergo transitions to energy levels below the "ground state”. Cleaning by this method removes the organic material from the cathode surface and adds oxygen atoms onto the cathode surface.
  • Doping the metal surface, including a nickel surface, with oxygen atoms by anodizing the cathode and cleaning the cathode in H2O 2 increases the power output by decreasing hydrogen recombination to molecular hydrogen and by decreasing the bond energy between the metal and the hydrogen atoms (molecules) which conforms the resonance shrinkage energy of the absorbed hydrogen to the energy hole provided by the source of energy holes including the K+/K+ (Sc 3 +/Sc 3+ ) electrocatalytic couples.
  • Nickel, platinum, and dimensionally stable anodes including platinized titanium are preferred anodes.
  • nickel is a preferred anode.
  • Nickel is also a preferred anode for use in basic solutions with a nickel cathode. Nickel is inexpensive relative to platinum, and fresh nickel can be electroplated onto the cathode during electrolysis .
  • a preferred method to clean a dimensionally stable anode including a platinized titanium anode is to place the anode in approximately 3 M HC1 for approximately 5 minutes and then to rinse it with distilled water.
  • hydrogen atoms at the surface of the cathode 106 form hydrogen gas which can form bubbles on the surface of the cathode. These bubbles act as an boundary layer between the hydrogen atoms and the electrocatalytic ion or couple.
  • the boundary can be ameliorated by vibrating the cathode and/or the electrolytic solution 102 or by applying ultrasound with vibrating means 112; and by adding wetting agents to the electrolytic solution 102 to reduce the surface tension of the water and prevent bubble formation.
  • the use of a cathode having a smooth surface or a wire cathode prevents gas adherence.
  • an intermittent current, provided by an on- off circuit of power controller 108 provides periodic replenishing of hydrogen atoms which are dissipated by hydrogen gas formation followed by diffusion into the solution while preventing excessive hydrogen gas formation which could form a boundary layer.
  • the shrinkage reaction can be temperature dependent. Most chemical reactions double their rates for each 10 °C rise in temperature. Increasing the temperature increases the collision rate between the hydrogen atoms (molecules) and the electrocatalytic ion or couple which will increase the shrinkage reaction rate. With large temperature excursions from room temperature, the kinetic energy distribution of the reactants can be sufficiently altered to cause the energy hole and the resonance shrinkage energy to conform to a more or lesser extent. The rate can be proportional to the extent of the conformation or resonance of these energies. The temperature can be adjusted to optimize the shrinkage reaction rate-energy production rate. In the case of the K+/K+ electrocatalytic couple, a preferred embodiment can be to run the reaction at a temperature above room temperature by applying heat with heater 114.
  • the shrinkage reaction can be dependent on the current density.
  • An increase in current density can be equivalent, in some aspects, to an increase in temperature.
  • the collision rate increases, and the energy of the reactants increases with current density.
  • the rate can be increased by increasing the collision rate of the reactants; however, the rate may be increased or decreased depending on the effect of the increased reactant energies on the conformation of the energy hole and the resonance shrinkar; energy.
  • increased current dissipates more energy jy ohmic heating and may cause hydrogen bubble formation, in the case of the shrinkage of hydrogen atoms. But, a high flow of gas may dislodge bubbles which diminishes any hydrogen gas boundary layer.
  • the current density can be adjusted with power controller 108 to optimize the excess energy production. In a preferred embodiment, the current density can be in the range 1 to 1000 milliamps per square centimeter.
  • the pH of the aqueous electrolytic solution 102 can affect the shrinkage reaction rate.
  • an increase in the pH will reduce the concentration of hydronium at the negative cathode; thus, the concentration of the electrocatalytic ion or couple cations will increase.
  • An increase in reactant concentration increases the reaction rate.
  • a preferred pH can be basic (7.1-14).
  • the counterion of the electrocatalytic ion or couple of the electrolytic solution 102 can affect the shrinkage reaction rate by altering the energy of the transition state.
  • the transition state complex of the K+/K+ electrocatalytic couple with the hydrogen atom has a plus two charge and involves a three body collision which can be unfavorable.
  • a negative two charged oxyanion can bind the two potassium ions; thus, it provides a neutral transition state complex of lower energy whose formation depends on a binary collision which can be greatly favored.
  • the rate can be dependent on the separation distance of the potassium ions as part of the complex with the oxyanion. The greater the separation distance, the less favorable can be the transfer of an electron between them. A close juxtaposition of the potassium ions will increase the rate.
  • the relationship of the reaction rate to the counterion in the case where the K+/K+ couple is used can be :
  • a planar negative two charged oxyanion including carbonate with at least two binding sites for K+ which provides close juxtaposition of the K+ ions can be preferred as the counterion of the K+/K+ electro atalytic couple.
  • the carbonate counterion can be also a preferred counterion for the Rb+ electrocatalytic ion.
  • a power controller 108 comprising an intermittent current, on-off, electrolysis circuit will increase the excess heat by providing optimization of the electric field as a function of time which provides maximum conformation of reactant energies, provides an optimal concentration of hydrogen atoms (molecules) while minimizing ohmic and electrolysis power losses and, in the case of the shrinkage of hydrogen atoms, minimizes the formation of a hydrogen gas boundary layer.
  • the frequency, duty cycle, peak voltage, step waveform, peak current, and offset voltage are adjusted to achieve the optimal shrinkage reaction rate and shrinkage reaction power while minimizing ohmic and electrolysis power losses.
  • a preferred embodiment can be to use an intermittent square-wave having an offset voltage of approximately 1.4 volts to 2.2 volts; a peak voltage of approximately 1.5 volts to 3.75 volts; a peak current of approximately 1 mA to 100 mA per square centimeter of cathode surface area; approximately a 5 -90% duty cycle; and a frequency in the range of 1 Hz to 1500 Hz.
  • a cathode 106 can be used which will facilitates multiple shrinkage reactions of hydrogen atoms (molecules).
  • One embodiment is to use a cathode which can be fissured and porous to the electrocatalytic ion or couple such that it can contact shrunken atoms (molecules) which have diffused into a lattice, including a metal lattice.
  • a further embodiment is to use a cathode of alternating layers of a material which provides hydrogen atoms (molecules) during electrolysis including a transition metal and an electrocatalytic ion or couple such that shrunken hydrogen atoms (molecules) periodically or repetitively diffuse into contact with the electrocatalytic ion or couple.
  • the shrinkage reaction can be dependent on the dielectric constant of the media.
  • the dielectric constant of the media alters the electric field at the cathode and concomitantly alters the energy of the reactants.
  • Solvents of different dielectric constants have different solvation energies, and the dielectric constant of the solvent can also lower the overpotential for electrolysis and improve electrolysis efficiency.
  • a solvent, including water, can be selected for the electrolytic solution 102 which optimizes the conformation of the energy hole and resonance shrinkage energy and maximizes the efficiency of electrolysis.
  • the solubility of hydrogen in the reaction solution can be directly proportional to the pressure of hydrogen above the solution. Increasing the pressure increases the concentration of reactant hydrogen atoms (molecules) at the cathode 106 and thereby increases the rate. But, in the case of the shrinkage of hydrogen atoms this also favors the development of a hydrogen gas boundary layer.
  • the hydrogen pressure can be controlled by pressure regulator means 116 to optimize the shrinkage reaction rate.
  • the cathode 106 of the electrolytic cell comprises the catalytic material including a hydrogen spillover catalyst described in the Pressurized Gas
  • the cathode comprises multiple hollow vessels comprising a thin film conductive shell whereby lower-energy hydrogen diffuses through the thin film and collects inside each vessel and undergoes disproportionation reactions therein.
  • the heat output can be monitored with thermocouples present in at least the vessel 100 and the condensor 140 of FIGURE 6 and the heat exchanger 60 of FIGURE 5.
  • the output power can be controlled by a computerized monitoring and control system which monitors the thermistors and controls the means to alter the power output. Pressurized Gas Energy Reactor
  • a pressurized gas energy reactor comprises the first vessel 200 of FIGURE 7 containing a source of hydrogen including hydrogen from metal-hydrogen solutions, hydrogen from hydrides, hydrogen from the dissociation of water including thermal dissociation, hydrogen from the electrolysis of water, or hydrogen gas.
  • the reactor further comprises a means to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen such as a dissociating material including an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite) or electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided by photon source 205 such that the dissociated hydrogen atoms (molecules) contact a source of energy holes including a molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes including the electrocata dissociating material including an element, compound, alloy, or
  • thermoelectric lower-energy hydrogen such as a selective venting valve to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • One embodiment comprises heat pipes as heat exchanger 60 of FIGURE 5 which have a lower-energy hydrogen venting valve at a cold spot.
  • a preferred embodiment of the pressurized gas energy reactor of the present invention comprises a first reaction vessel 200 with inner surface 240 comprised of a material to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen including an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite).
  • a material to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen including an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel
  • the inner surface 240 can be comprised of a proton conductor.
  • the first reaction vessel 200 can be sealed in a second reaction vessel 220 and receives hydrogen from source 221 under pressure which can be controlled by pressure measurement and control means 222 and 223.
  • the hydrogen pressure can be in the range of 10 -3 atmospheres to 100 atmospheres.
  • the wall 250 of the first vessel 200 can be permeable to hydrogen.
  • the outer surface 245 and/or outer vessel 220 has a source of energy holes equal to the resonance shrinkage energy.
  • the source of energy holes can be a mixture or solution containing energy holes in the molten, liquid, or solid state.
  • an electric current can be passed through the material having a source of energy holes.
  • the reactor further comprises a means to control the reaction rate such as current source 225 and heating means 230 which heat the first reaction vessel 200 and the second reaction vessel 220.
  • the outer reaction vessel 220 contains oxygen
  • the inner surface 240 comprises one or more of a coat of nickel, platinum, or palladium.
  • the outer surface 245 can be coated with one or more of copper, tellurium, arsenic, cesium, platinum, or palladium and an oxide such as CuO x , PtO , PdO x , MnO x , AlO x , SiO x .
  • the electrocatalytic ion or couple can be regenerated spontaneously or via a regeneration means including heating means 230 and current source 225.
  • the pressurized gas energy reactor comprises only a single reaction vessel 200 with a hydrogen impermeable wall 250.
  • a hydrogen dissociating materials including transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite) are coated on the inner surface 240 with a source of energy holes including one or more of copper, tellurium, arsenic, cesium, platinum, or palladium and an oxide such as
  • the source of energy hole can be one of a inelastic photon or particle scattering reaction(s).
  • the photon source 205 supplies the energy holes where the energy hole corresponds to stimulated emission by the photon.
  • the photon source 205 dissociates hydrogen molecules into hydrogen atoms.
  • the photon source producing photons of at least one energy of approximately mX27.2 ⁇ eV, — X27.21 eV, or 40.8 eV causes stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen atoms undergo the shrinkage reaction.
  • a photon source 205 producing photons of at least one energy of approximately m 48.6 eV , 95.7 eV, or m 31.94 eV causes stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen molecules undergo the shrinkage reaction.
  • a preferred inner surface, 240, and outer surface, 245, of the pressurized gas energy reactor including a nickel surface has the properties of a high surface area, a highly stressed and hardened surface such as a cold drawn or cold worked surface, and a large number of grain boundaries.
  • the source of energy holes can be incorporated into the inner surface, 240, and outer surface, 245, mechanically by methods including cold working the source of energy holes into the surface material and thermally by methods including melting the source of energy holes into the surface material (fusion).
  • a preferred method to clean the inner surface 240 and the outer surface 245 including a nickel surface is to fill the inner vessel and the outer vessel with a basic electrolytic solution including approximately 0.57 M X2CO3 (X is the alkali cation of the electrolyte including K+) and to fill the inner vessel and the outer vessel with a dilute solution of H2O2.
  • X is the alkali cation of the electrolyte including K+
  • Each of the inner vessel and the outer vessel can be then thoroughly rinsed with distilled water.
  • at least one of the vessel 200 or the vessel 220 can be then filled with a solution of the energy hole including an approximately 0.57 M K2CO3 solution.
  • textural and/or structural promoters are incorporated with the source of energy holes to increase the shrinkage reaction rate.
  • hydrogen can be introduced inside of the first vessel from source 221 under pressure which can be controlled by pressure control means 222.
  • the molecular hydrogen can be dissociated into atomic hydrogen by a dissociating material or electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided by photon source 205 such that the dissociated hydrogen atoms contact a source of energy holes including a molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes.
  • the atomic (molecular) hydrogen releases energy as its electrons are stimulated to undergo transitions to lower energy levels by the energy holes.
  • the hydrogen dissociates on the inner surface 240, diffuses though the wall 250 of the first vessel 200 and contacts a source of energy holes on the outer surface 245 or contact a source of energy holes including a molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes as hydrogen atoms or recombined hydrogen molecules.
  • the atomic (molecular) hydrogen releases energy as its electrons are stimulated to undergo transitions to lower energy levels by the energy holes.
  • the electrocatalytic ion or couple can be regenerated spontaneously or via a regeneration means including heating means 230 and current source 225.
  • the (molecular) lower- energy hydrogen can be removed from vessel 200 and/or vessel 220 by a means to remove the (molecular) lower- energy hydrogen such as a selective venting valve means 201 which prevents the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • a means to remove the (molecular) lower- energy hydrogen such as a selective venting valve means 201 which prevents the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • an electric current can be passed through the material having a source of energy holes equal to the resonance shrinkage energy with current source 225, and/or the first reaction vessel 200 and the second reaction vessel 220 are heated by heating means 230.
  • the heat output can be monitored with thermocouples present in at least the first vessel 200, the second vessel 220, and the heat exchanger 60 of FIGURE 5.
  • the output power can be controlled by a computerized monitoring and control system which monitors the thermistors and controls the means to alter the power output.
  • the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen can be removed by a means 201 to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • a method of preparation of the catalytic material of the present invention of catalytic systems that hinge on the transfer of an electron from a cation to another capable of producing energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms includes the steps of:
  • Example of a Ceramic Catalytic Material Strontium Niobium Oxide ( SrNboO ⁇ on Ni Powder: To prepare the ceramic catalytic material: strontium niobium oxide (SrNb 2 ⁇ 6) on Ni powder, 2.5 kg of SrNb 2 ⁇ 6 are added to 1.5 kg of -300 mesh Ni powder. The materials are mixed to make a homogeneous mixture. The powder can be sintered or calcinated in an oven at 1600°C in atmospheric air for 24 hours. The material can be cooled and ground to remove lumps. The material can be re-sintered at 1600°C in air for another 24 hours. The material can be cooled to room temperature and powderized.
  • SrNboO ⁇ on Ni Powder To prepare the ceramic catalytic material: strontium niobium oxide (SrNb 2 ⁇ 6) on Ni powder, 2.5 kg of SrNb 2 ⁇ 6 are added to 1.5 kg of -300 mesh Ni powder. The materials are mixed to make a homogeneous mixture. The powder can
  • a method of preparation of the catalytic material of the present invention of catalytic systems that hinge on the transfer of an electron from a cation to another capable of producing energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms includes the steps of:
  • ionic salts of the cations • Dissolving ionic salts of the cations into a solvent.
  • the ionic salts are dissolved in deionized demineralized water to concentration of 0.3 to 0.5 molar.
  • potassium carbonate (K 2 C0 3 ) on Ni powder a 1 liter solution of 0.5 M K2CO3 in water is poured over 500 grams of -300 mesh Ni powder. The materials are stirred to remove air pockets around the grains of Ni. The excess solution can be drained off. The powder can be dried in an oven at 200°C. If necessary the material can be ground to remove lumps.
  • the source of hydrogen atoms for the catalytic shrinkage reaction comprises a hydrogen spillover catalyst.
  • a hydrogen spillover catalyst according to the present invention comprises: • A hydrogen dissociation material or means which forms free hydrogen atoms or protons;
  • a support material into which the former materials are embedded as a mixture, compound, or solution.
  • Such hydrogen dissociation materials include surfaces or materials to dissociate hydrogen, deuterium, or tritium, comprise an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu,
  • Such conduit materials onto which free hydrogen atoms spill and which supports free, mobile hydrogen atoms and which provides a path or conduit for the flow of hydrogen atoms include nickel, platinum, carbon, tin, iron, aluminum, and copper and their compounds, mixtures, or alloys.
  • support materials into which the former materials are embedded as a mixture, compound, or solution includes carbon, silica, nickel, copper, titania, zinc oxide, chromia, magnesia, zirconia, alumina, silica-alumina, and zeolites.
  • one or more of the other components are deposited on the support material by electroplating.
  • the source of energy holes to cause atomic hydrogen "shrinkage” are preferably of approximately 777X27.21 eV and/or to cause molecular hydrogen "shrinkage" are of approximately rnX48.6 eV where m is an integer including the electrocatalytic ions and couples described in my previous U.S. Patent Applications entitled “Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Serial No. 08/467,051 filed on June 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Serial No. 08/416,040 filed on April 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Serial No.
  • organic ions including benzoic acid, phthalate, salicylate, aryl sulfonate, alky sulfate, alkyl sulfonate, and alkyl carboxylate, and the anion of an acid which forms an acid anhydride including sulfite, sulfate, carbonate, bicarbonate, nitrite, nitrate, perchlorate, phosphite, hydrogen phosphite, dihydrogen phosphite, phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, and dihydrogen phosphate.
  • the anion can be in equilibrium with its acid and its acid anhydride.
  • the functionalities of the hydrogen spillover catalyst are combined with the other functionalities as separate species or as combinations comprising a mixture, solution, compound, or alloy of more than one functionality.
  • the hydrogen dissociation material and the source of energy holes each comprise homogeneous crystals- each crystal contains one component, and these functionalities are mixed with the conduit material without a support material.
  • the hydrogen dissociation material and the source of energy holes comprise heterogeneous crystals-each crystal contains both of the components, and the heterogeneous crystals are mixed with the conduit material which coats a support material.
  • the source of energy holes can be embedded in the conduit material, and this combined species can be mixed with the hydrogen dissociation material which can be embedded in the same or a different conduit material without a support material.
  • a method of preparation of the hydrogen spillover catalytic material of the present invention includes the steps of:
  • a further method of preparation of the hydrogen spillover catalytic material of the present invention includes the steps of:
  • An incipient wetness method of preparation of the hydrogen spillover catalytic material of the present invention comprising a source of energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms that hinge on the transfer of an electron from a cation to another includes the steps of:
  • the ionic salts are dissolved in deionized demineralized water. • Preparing an incipiently wet conduit-hydrogen dissociation material by uniformly wetting the conduit-hydrogen dissociation material with the dissolved salt solution so that the pores of the material are just filled.
  • the total volume of solvent required can be the desired amount, and the weight percent of the ionic salts of the cations in the final material can be determined by the desired weight of the ionic salts of the cations dissolved in the desired volume of solvent.
  • KNO 3 potassium nitrate
  • the aqueous KNO3 solution can be slowly added to 0.6 kg of l %-Pd-on--300-mesh-graphitic carbon powder as the slurry can be mixed.
  • the slurry can be then placed on an evaporation dish which can be inserted into an oven at 150°C for one hour. Heating causes the water to evaporate from the slurry.
  • the KNO3 coated 1 %-Pd-on-graphitic carbon can be ground into a powder.
  • Another incipient wetness method of preparation of the hydrogen spillover catalytic material of the present invention comprising a source of energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms that hinge on the transfer of an electron from a cation to another includes the steps of:
  • the ionic salts are dissolved in deionized demineralized water.
  • Example of a Ionic Hydrogen Spillover Catalytic Material 40% by Weight Potassium Nitrate (KNO J) on Graphitic Carbon Powder with 5% by Weight 1 %-Pd-on-Graphitic Carbon Powder:
  • KNO J Potassium Nitrate
  • Incipient wetness requires 1 ml of H 0 per gram of -300 mesh graphite powder, and 0.40 grams of KNO3 are required per gram of graphite powder to achieve a 40% by weight KNO3 content in the final material.
  • the aqueous KNO 3 solution can be slowly added to 0.55 kg of graphite powder as the slurry can be mixed.
  • the slurry can be then placed on an evaporation dish which can be inserted into an oven at 150°C for one hour. Heating causes the water to evaporate from the slurry.
  • the KNO3 coated graphite can be ground into a powder.
  • the powder can be weighed. Approximately 50 grams (5% of the weight of the KNO 3 coated graphite) of 1 %- Pd-on— 300-mesh graphitic carbon powder can be mixed into the KNO3 coated graphitic carbon powder.
  • the catalytic material can be placed into the pressurizable vessel 200.
  • the vessel can be flushed with an inert gas such as He, Ar, or Ne to remove air contaminants in the vessel.
  • the vessel and its contents are heated to the operational temperature, typically 100 °C to 400 °C, before the vessel can be pressurized with hydrogen, typically 20 to 140 PSIG.
  • the source of energy holes is potassium ions (K+/K+) or rubidium ions (Rb + ) intercalated into carbon.
  • the source of energy holes is an amalgam of the electrocatalytic ion or couple and its reduced metallic form such as rubidium ions (Rb+) and rubidium metal or potassium ions (K+/K+) and potassium metal .
  • the source of hydrogen atoms is a hydrogen dissociation means including a hydrogen gas stream blown over a hot filament or grid such as a hot refractory metal including a filament or grid of Ti, Ni, Fe, W, Au, Pt, or Pd at an elevated temperature such as 1800°C.
  • the dissociation means provides hydrogen atoms as well as hydrogen ions, and the momentum of the atoms brings them in contact with the source of energy holes. Or, the hydrogen atoms and ions sputter onto the spillover catalyst.
  • a low pressure can be maintained by pressure regulator means 222 and a pump means 223 to minimize hydrogen atom recombination into molecular hydrogen and remove (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen.
  • the source of hydrogen atoms is water which dissociates to hydrogen atoms and oxygen on a water dissociation material such as an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y. Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce. Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd,
  • a water dissociation material such as an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y. Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce. Pr, Nd,
  • the water dissociation material can be maintained at an elevated temperature by a heat source and temperature control means 230.
  • the source of hydrogen can be from hydrocarbons including natural gas which can be reformed on a reforming a material such as nickel, cobalt, iron, or a platinum-group metal to hydrogen atoms and carbon dioxide.
  • the reforming material can be maintained at an elevated temperature by a heat source and a temperature control means 230.
  • the source of hydrogen atoms can be from the decomposition of a metal hydride where the decomposition can be controlled by controlling the temperature of the metal hydride with the heat source and temperature control means 230.
  • the hydride can be coated by methods including electroplating with another material such as the hydrogen dissociation material .
  • a product of the shrinkage reaction (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen
  • a product of the shrinkage reaction (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen
  • the forward energy yielding reaction rate can be increased.
  • One means to remove lower-energy (molecular) hydrogen is to supply the reaction mixture with a scavenger for lower-energy hydrogen.
  • the scavenger absorbs or reacts with the product, lower-energy, hydrogen, and the resulting species can be removed from the reaction mixture.
  • lower-energy hydrogen which is absorbed on the catalysts can be removed via displacement with an inert molecule or atom such as helium that flows through the vessel 200.
  • the reactor comprises a trickle-bed reactor, a bubble-column reactor, or a slurry reactor.
  • the fluidized bed reactor 200 comprises the hydrogen spillover catalytic material: 40% by weight potassium nitrate (KN0 3 ) on graphitic carbon powder with 5% by weight 1 %-Pd-on-graphitic carbon powder.
  • the reacting hydrogen gas can be passed up through a bed of the finely divided solid catalytic material, preferably having a particle size in the range of about 20 to 100 ⁇ m , which can be highly agitated and assumes many of the characteristics of a fluid.
  • a cyclone separator 275 returns the fines to the bed.
  • the hydrogen pressure and flow rate are controlled by pressure and flow rate control means 222.
  • the corresponding maximum linear velocity can be less than 60 cm/s .
  • a preferred hydrogen gas energy reactor for the release of energy by an electrocatalytic and/or a disproportination reaction, wherein the electrons of hydrogen atoms undergo transitions to lower energy states in the gas phase comprises a vessel 200 of FIGURE 7 capable of containing a vacuum or pressures greater than atmospheric; a source of hydrogen 221 ; a means 222 to control the pressure and flow of hydrogen into the vessel; a source of atomic hydrogen in the gas phase, and a source of energy holes in the gas phase.
  • the reaction vessel 200 comprises a vacuum or pressure vessel comprised of a temperature resistance material such as ceramic, stainless steel, tungsten, alumina, Incoloy, and Inconel .
  • the source of hydrogen atoms in the gas phase is a hydrogen dissociation means including a hydrogen gas stream blown over a hot filament or grid 280 such as a hot refractory metal including a filament or grid of Ti, Ni, Fe, W, Au, Pt, or Pd at an elevated temperature such as 1800°C.
  • the dissociation means provides hydrogen atoms as well as hydrogen ions, and the momentum of the atoms brings them in contact with the source of energy holes.
  • a low pressure can be maintained by pressure regulator means 222 and a pressure measurement and pump means 223 to minimize hydrog i atom recombination into molecular hydrogen.
  • the pressure can be measured by measuring the power dissipated in the hot filament or grid which can be operated at constant resistance by a servo loop 285 comprising a voltage and current measurement means, a power supply, and a voltage and current controller where the hydrogen pressure versus power dissipation of the filament or grid at the operating resistance has been calibrated.
  • the source of atomic hydrogen comprises one or more hydrogen dissociation materials which provide hydrogen atoms by dissociation of molecular hydrogen.
  • Such hydrogen dissociation materials include surfaces or materials to dissociate hydrogen, deuterium, or tritium, including a hydrogen spillover material such as palladium or platinum on carbon and an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W,
  • a hydrogen spillover material such as palladium or platinum on carbon and an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W,
  • nonequilibrium conditions of the hydrogen and hydride are maintained by controlling the temperature and hydrogen pressure to provide atomic hydrogen in the gas phase.
  • the source of atomic hydrogen comprises a tungsten capillary which on the outlet can be heated by electron bombardment to 1800-2000 K such as the atomic hydrogen source described by Bischler [Bischler, U.; Bertel, E., J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A.
  • the tungsten capillary can be heated by the energy released by the hydrogen shrinkage reaction.
  • the source of atomic hydrogen comprises an inductively coupled plasma flow tube such as that described by Gardner [Gardner, W. L., J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A. (1995), 13(3, Pt. 1), 763-6] which is incorporated herein by reference, and the hydrogen dissociation fraction can be measured with the sensor of Gardner.
  • the source of energy holes can be placed in a chemically resistant open container such as a ceramic boat 290 inside the reaction vessel. Or, the source of energy holes can be placed in a vessel which has a connection for the passage of the gaseous source of energy holes to the reaction vessel.
  • the gaseous source of energy holes includes those that sublime, boil, and/or are volatile at the elevated operating temperature of the gas energy reactor wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs in the gas phase.
  • RbNO,and KNO-. are each volatile at a temperature much less than that at which each decomposes [C. J. Hardy, B. 0. Field, J. Chem. Soc, (1963), pp. 5130-5134].
  • the ionic hydrogen spillover catalytic material 40% by weight potassium or rubidium nitrate on graphitic carbon powder with 5% by weight 1 %-Pd-on-graphitic carbon powder can be operated at a temperate at which the potassium or rubidium nitrate can be volatile. Further disproportionation reactions of the product, lower-energy hydrogen atoms, release additional heat energy.
  • the source of energy holes is a thermally stable salt of rubidium or potassium such as RbF, RbCl, RbBr, Rbl, Rb 2 S 2 , RbOH, Rb 2 S0 4 , Rb 2 CO ? , Rb,P0 4 , and
  • the following compounds are preferred gaseous sources of energy holes in the gas energy reactor. Higher temperatures result in a higher vapor pressure of the source of energy holes which increases the reaction rate; however, the increase in total pressure increases the recombination rate of hydrogen atoms to hydrogen molecules.
  • the operating temperature of the energy reactor can be that which provides an optimal reaction rate.
  • the cell temperature can be about 50°C higher than the (highest) melting point of the source of energy holes (in the case that the source of energy holes comprises an electron transfer between two cations—an electrocatalytic couple).
  • the hydrogen pressure can be maintained at about
  • molecular hydrogen can be dissociated with a hot filament or grid 280 of FIGURE 7.
  • Single Ion Catalysts Single-ion catalysts (electrocatalytic ions) capable of producing energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms.
  • Two-ion catalysts capable of producing energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms.
  • the anion in an embodiment wherein the anion can be reduced by hydrogen, the anion is chemically stabilized.
  • the product of the reduction is added to the gas cell to stabilize the anion.
  • the anion can be replaced continuously or intermittently.
  • the product ammonia can be removed from the vessel, oxidized to nitrate, and returned to the cell.
  • the product ammonia can be removed from the vessel by collection in a condensor and can be oxidized to nitrate on a platinum or iridium screen at elevated temperatures such as 912 °C.
  • the nitrate ion to ammonia reaction can be minimized by decreasing the hydrogen pressure while optimizing the vapor phase catalytic hydrogen shrinkage reaction.
  • a low pressure of hydrogen atoms can be generated by dissociation of molecular hydrogen on a hot filament or grid 280 of FIGURE 7. A low pressure of molecular hydrogen can be maintained via the hydrogen supply 221 , the hydrogen flow control means 222, and the hydrogen pressure measurement and vacuum means 223.
  • the hydrogen pressure can be maintained at a low pressure by adjusting the supply through the inlet with flow controller 222 versus the amount pumped away at the outlet by the pressure measurement and pump means 223.
  • the pressure can be adjusted to maximize the output power while minimizing the degradation of nitrate.
  • the optimal hydrogen pressure can be less than about one torr.
  • the source of hydrogen atoms in the gas phase can be a hydrogen dissociation means including a hydrogen gas stream blown over a hot filament or grid 280 such as a hot refractory metal including a filament or grid of Ti, Ni, Fe, W, Au, Pt, or Pd at an elevated temperature such as 1800°C.
  • the hydrogen molecular source can be directed over the filament or grid and onto the gaseous source of energy holes.
  • the pressure and flow of the hydrogen atoms prohibits the collision of the counterion of the source of energy holes (such as the nitrate ion) from contacting the hot filament or grid.
  • the thermal decomposition or reduction of the anion on the filament or grid can be prevented.
  • a negative potential can be maintained as a grid electrode 287 surrounding the filament or grid.
  • the grid electrode permits the passage of hydrogen atoms rom the filament or grid and repels the anion from contacting the hot filament or grid.
  • the thermal or chemical breakdown of the anion (couterion) can be prevented.
  • the source of energy holes is an electrocatalytic ion or electrocatalytic couple comprising cation-anion pairs in the gas phase wherein the cation-anion pairs are dissociated by external source means 75 of FIGURE 5 which includes, for example, a particle source 75b and/or photon source 75a and/or a source of heat, acoustic energy, electric fields, or magnetic fields.
  • the cation-anion pairs are thermally dissociated by heat source 230 or photodissociated by photon source 205 of FIGURE 7.
  • the source of energy holes is atomized with an atomizer means 295 to provide a gaseous source of energy holes.
  • atoms are boiled, sublimed, or vaporized by a heating means such as the boat heating means 299, and the gaseous atoms are ionized to form a source of energy holes including the electrocatalytic ions or electrocatalytic couples of my previous patent applications incorporated herein by reference.
  • the atoms are thermally ionized by the heating means 230, by the hydrogen atom source 280 including a hot filament or grid, or by an inductively coupled plasma flow tube.
  • the gas energy cell shown in Figure 7 comprises rubidium or potassium metal in the boat 290 which has a vapor pressure that can be controlled by controlling the temperature of the boat by heating means 230 and or 299. Hydrogen molecules are dissociated to atoms on the hot filament or grid 280.
  • the rubidium (potassium) metal in the gas phase can be ionized to Rb+ (K+) by the same or different hot filament or grid 280.
  • the Rb+ (K+/K+) electrocatalytic ion (couple) serves as a source of energy holes to shrink the hydrogen atoms.
  • the hot filament c grid 280 comprises a metal(s) or can be electroplated with a metal(s) which boils off as a cation(s) that are a source of energy holes.
  • Mo 2 + ions Mo 2 + electrocatalytic ion
  • the hot molybdenum filament or grid 280 also dissociates hydrogen molecules to hydrogen atoms.
  • Ni 2+ and Cu + ions Ni 2 +/Cu+ electrocatalytic couple
  • the photon source 75a and the particle source 75b of FIGURE 5, including an electron beam ionize species such as atoms in the gas phase to form the source of energy holes including the electrocatalytic ions or electrocatalytic couples of my previous patent applications incorporated herein by reference.
  • the atoms or ions are ionized chemically by a volatilized reactant such as an ionic species which oxidizes or reduces the atoms or ions to form a source of energy holes.
  • the power of the gas energy reactor can be controlled by controlling the amount of the source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) in the gas phase and/or by controlling the concentration of atomic or lower-energy hydrogen.
  • the concentration of the gaseous source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) can be controlled by controlling the initial amount of the volatile source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) present in the reactor, and/or by controlling the temperature of the reactor with temperature control means 230 which determines the vapor pressure of the volatile source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple).
  • the reactor temperature further controls the power by changing the rate of the catalytic hydrogen shrinkage reaction.
  • the concentration of atomic hydrogen can be controlled by controlling the amount of atomic hydrogen provided by the atomic hydrogen source 280.
  • the amount of hydrogen atoms in the gas phase can be controlled by controlling the flow of hydrogen over or through the hot filament or grid, the tungsten capillary heated by electron bombardment, or the inductively coupled plasma flow tube; by controlling the power dissipated in the inductively coupled plasma flow tube; by controlling the temperature of the hot filament or grid, or the tungsten capillary heated by electron bombardment; by controlling the pressure of the hydrogen and temperature of the hydride maintained under nonequilibrium conditions, and by controlling the rate of removal of recombined hydrogen from the cell by pump means 223.
  • Another means to control the shrinkage reaction rate can be by controlling the pressure of a non reactive gas with non reactive gas source 299, non reactive gas flow control means 232, and pressure measurement and pump means 223.
  • the non reactive gas such as a noble gas competes with collisions between the source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) and hydrogen atoms or competes with collisions that yield lower-energy hydrogen disproportionation reactions.
  • Noble gases include He, Ne, and Ar.
  • reaction non reactive " reaction quenching" gases include carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
  • the hydrogen partial pressure can be further controlled by throttling hydrogen into the cell by a hydrogen value control means 222 while monitoring the pressure with a pressure measurement means 222 and 223.
  • the hydrogen pressure can be controlled by controlling the temperature with heating means 230 of the gas energy reactor which further comprises a hydrogen storage means such as a metal hydride or other hydride including saline hydrides, titanium hydride, vanadium, niobium, and tantalum hydrides, zirconium and hafnium hydrides, rare earth hydrides, yttrium and scandium hydrides, transition element hydrides, intermetalic hydrides, and their alloys known in the art as given by W. M. Mueller, J. P. Blackledge, and G.
  • a hydrogen storage means such as a metal hydride or other hydride including saline hydrides, titanium hydride, vanadium, niobium, and tantalum hydrides, zirconium and hafnium hydrides, rare
  • the temperature of the cell can be controlled by a temperature control and measurement means 230 such that the vapor pressure of the hydrogen in equilibrium with the hydrogen storage material can be the desired pressure.
  • nonequilibrium conditions of the hydrogen and hydride are maintained by controlling the temperature and hydrogen pressure to provide atomic hydrogen.
  • the hydrogen storage means can be a rare earth hydride with an operating temperature of about 800 °C; lanthanum hydride with an operating temperature of about 700 °C; gadolinium hydride with an operating temperature of about 750 °C; neodymium hydride with an operating temperature of about 750 °C; yttrium hydride with an operating temperature of about 800 °C; scandium hydride with an operating temperature of about 800 °C; ytterbium hydride with an operating temperature of about 850-900 °C; titanium hydride with an operating temperature of about 450 °C; cerium hydride with an operating temperature of about 950 °C; praseodymium hydride with an operating temperature of about 700 °C; zirconium-titanium (50%/50%) hydride with an operating temperature of about 600 °C; an alkali metal/alkali metal hydride mixture such as Rb/RbH or K/KH with an
  • the heat output can be monitored with thermocouples present in at least the vessel 200 and the heat exchanger 60 of
  • the rate of the shrinkage reaction rate can be monitored by ultraviolet or electron spectroscopy of the photons or electrons emitted via lower-energy hydrogen transitions, by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of lower-energy hydrogen, and by mass spectroscopy, Raman or infrared spectroscopy, and gas chromatography of the molecular lower-energy hydrogen (dihydrino).
  • XPS X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
  • mass spectroscopy Raman or infrared spectroscopy
  • gas chromatography of the molecular lower-energy hydrogen (dihydrino).
  • Lower-energy hydrogen atoms and molecules are identified by XPS as higher binding energy species than normal hydrogen.
  • the dihydrino can be identified by gas chromatography at low temperature such as gas chromatography with an activated carbon (charcoal) column at liquid nitrogen temperature or with a column that will separate para from ortho hydrogen such as an Rt-Alumina column, or a HayeSep column at liquid nitrogen temperature wherein normal hydrogen can be retained to a greater extent than dihydrino.
  • the dihydrino can be identified by Raman and infrared spectroscopy as a molecule with higher vibrational and rotational energy levels as compared to those of normal hydrogen.
  • the output power can be controlled by a computerized monitoring and control system which monitors the thermistors, spectrometers, and gas chromatograph and controls the means to alter the power output.
  • the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen can be removed by a means 201 to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • hydrogen atoms are produced by a pyrolysis reaction such as the combustion of a hydrocarbon wherein the catalytic source of energy holes can be in the gas phase with the hydrogen atoms.
  • the pyrolysis reaction occurs in an internal combustion engine whereby the hydrocarbon or hydrogen containing fuel comprises a source of energy holes that are vaporized (become gaseous) during the combustion.
  • the source of energy holes is a thermally stable salt of rubidium or potassium such as RbF, RbCl, RbBr, Rbl, Rb 2 S 2 , RbOH, Rb 2 S0 4 , Rb 2 C0 3 , Rb 3 P0 4 , and KF, KG, KBr, KI, K 2 S 2 , KOH, K S0 4 , K 2 C0 3 , K 3 P0 4 ,K GeF 4 .
  • a thermally stable salt of rubidium or potassium such as RbF, RbCl, RbBr, Rbl, Rb 2 S 2 , RbOH, Rb 2 S0 4 , Rb 2 C0 3 , Rb 3 P0 4 , and KF, KG, KBr, KI, K 2 S 2 , KOH, K S0 4 , K 2 C0 3 , K 3 P0 4 ,K GeF 4 .
  • the hydrocarbon or hydrogen containing fuel further comprises water as a mixture and a solvated source of energy holes including emulsified electrocatalytic ions or couples.
  • water serves as a further source of hydrogen atoms which undergo a shrinkage reaction catalyzed by the source of energy holes wherein the water can be dissociated to hydrogen atoms thermally or catalytically on a surface such as the cylinder or piston head which can be comprised of material which dissociates water to hydrogen and oxygen.
  • the water dissociation material includes an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite).
  • transition elements and inner transition elements iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm
  • R (8.8 X 10 '25 ) J ⁇ D ° ⁇ 2
  • r is the distance between the donor and the acceptor
  • J is the overlap integral between the resonance shrinkage energy distribution of the donor hydrino atom and the distribution of the energy hole provided by the acceptor hydrino atom
  • ⁇ is the dielectric constant
  • ⁇ 2 is a function of the mutual orientation of the donor and acceptor transition moments. Electronic transitions of lower-energy hydrogen atoms occur only by nonradiative energy transfer; thus, the quantum yield of the fluorescence of the donor, ⁇ D , of Eq.
  • Eq. (6.38) The factor of one half in Eq. (6.38) corrects for double counting of collisions [Levine, I., Physical Chemistry, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, (1978), pp. 420-421].
  • the power, P m ,p t is given by the product of the rate of the transition, Eq. (6.38), and the energy of the disproportination reaction (Eq. (5.27)).
  • reaction rate is dependent on the collision rate between the reactants and the efficiency of resonant energy transfer.
  • the average velocity, v avg can be calculated from the temperature, T, [Bueche, F. J., Introduction to Physics for Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, (1986), pp. 261-265].
  • the rate of the catalytic reaction, r , to cause resonant shrinkage is given by the product of the collision rate per unit volume, Z r . , the volume, V, and the efficiency, E, of
  • the power, P m p is given by the product of the rate of the transition, Eq. (6.45), and the energy of the transition, Eq.
  • an electron transfer occurs between two cations which comprises an energy hole for a hydrogen or hydrino atom.
  • the reaction rate is dependent on the collision rate between catalytic cations and hydrogen or hydrino atoms and the efficiency of resonant energy transfer with a concomitant electron transfer with each shrinkage reaction.
  • the rate of the catalytic reaction, r m p to cause resonant shrinkage is given by the product of the collision rate per unit volume, Z , the volume, V, and a L ⁇ Catalyst the efficiency, E e , of resonant energy transfer given by ⁇ q. (6.37) where r is given by the average distance between cations in the reaction vessel.
  • the power, P m p is given by the product of the rate of the transition, ⁇ q. (6.51). and the energy of the transition, ⁇ q. (5.8).
  • a gas discharge energy reactor comprises a hydrogen isotope gas filled glow discharge vacuum chamber 300 of FIGURE 8 including an ozonizer-type capacitor, a hydrogen source 322 which supplies hydrogen to the chamber 300 through control valve 325, and a voltage and current source 330 to cause current to pass between a cathode 305 and an anode 320.
  • a dielectric barrier such as glass or a ceramic moiety.
  • the cathode further comprises a source of energy holes of approximately mX27.21 eV to cause atomic hydrogen "shrinkage" and/or approximately mX48.6 eV to cause molecular hydrogen
  • a preferred cathode 305 for shrinking hydrogen atoms is a palladium cathode whereby a resonant energy hole can be provided by the ionization of electrons from palladium to the discharge current.
  • a second preferred cathode 305 for shrinking hydrogen atoms comprises a source of energy holes via electron transfer to the discharge current including at least one of beryllium, copper, platinum, zinc, and tellurium and a hydrogen dissociating means such as a source of electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided by photon source 350 or a hydrogen dissociating material including the transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo.
  • a hydrogen dissociating means such as a source of electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided by photon source 350 or a hydrogen dissociating material including the transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo.
  • the reactor further comprises a means to control the energy dissipated in the discharge current when electrons are transferred from an electron donating species to provide an energy hole for hydrogen atoms (molecules) including pressure controller means 325 and current (voltage) source 330.
  • the gas discharge energy reactor further comprises a means 301 to remove the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen such as a selective venting valve to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • the source of energy hole can be one of a inelastic photon or particle scattering reaction(s).
  • the photon source 350 supplies the energy holes where the energy hole corresponds to stimulated emission by the photon.
  • the photon source 350 dissociates hydrogen molecules into hydrogen atoms.
  • a photon source 350 producing photons of at least one energy of approximately mXA8.6 eV , 95.7 eV , or mX31.94 eV causes stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen molecules undergo the shrinkage reaction.
  • a magnetic field can be applied by magnetic field generator 75 of FIGURE 5 to produce a magnetized plasma of the gaseous ions which can be a nonlinear media. Coupling of resonator cavities and enhancement of the transfer of energy between them can be increased when the media is nonlinear.
  • the reaction rate transfer of the resonance shrinkage energy of the hydrogen atoms to the energy holes, the electrocatalytic ions or couples
  • hydrogen from source 322 can be introduced inside of the chamber 300 through control valve
  • a current source 330 causes current to pass between a cathode 305 and an anode 320.
  • the hydrogen contacts the cathode which comprises a source of energy holes of approximately mX27.21 eV to cause atomic hydrogen "shrinkage" and approximately mX48.6 eV to cause molecular hydrogen "shrinkage" where m is an integer.
  • electrons are transferred from an electron donating species present on the cathode 305 to the discharge current to provide energy holes for hydrogen atoms (molecules).
  • the molecular hydrogen can be dissociated into atomic hydrogen by a dissociating material on the cathode 305 or by a source of electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided by photon source 350 such that the dissociated hydrogen atoms contact a source of energy holes including a molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes.
  • the atomic (molecular) hydrogen releases energy as its electrons are stimulated to undergo transitions to lower energy levels by the energy holes.
  • the energy dissipated in the discharge current when electrons are transferred from an electron donating species can be controlled to provide an energy hole equal to the resonance shrinkage energy for hydrogen atoms (molecules) by controlling the gas pressure from source 322 with pressure controller means 325 and the voltage with the current (voltage) source 330.
  • the heat output can be monitored with thermocouples present in at least the cathode 305, the anode 320, and the heat exchanger 60 of FIGURE 5.
  • the output power can be controlled by a computerized monitoring and control system which monitors the thermistors and controls the means to alter the power output.
  • the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen can be removed by a means 301 to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • a preferred cathode 305 comprises the catalytic material including a spillover catalyst described in the
  • gas discharge energy reactor comprises a gaseous source of energy holes wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs in the gas phase, and the gaseous hydrogen atoms are provided by a discharge of molecular hydrogen gas.
  • gaseous source of energy holes can be provided by a discharge current which produces the gaseous source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) such as a discharge in potassium metal to form K+/K+, rubidium metal to form Rb + , or titanium metal to form Ti 2 +.
  • the embodiment comprises a hydrogen isotope gas filled glow discharge chamber 300.
  • the glow discharge cell can be operated at an elevated temperature such this the source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) can be sublimed, boiled, or volatilized into the gas phase.
  • the counterion of the source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) can be the hydride anion ( H ⁇ ) such as rubidium hydride (Rb+ electrocatalytic ion) and/or potassium hydride (K+/K+ electrocatalytic couple).
  • the source of energy holes can be an electrocatalytic ion or electrocatalytic couple comprising cation-anion pairs in the gas phase wherein the cation-anion pairs are dissociated by external source means 75 of FIGURE 5 which includes, for example, a particle source 75b and/or photon source 75a and/or a source of heat, acoustic energy, electric fields, or magnetic fields.
  • the cation-anion pairs are thermally dissociated by heat source 75 of FIGURE 5 or photodissociated by photon source 350 of FIGURE 8.
  • Refrigeration Means A further embodiment of the present invention comprises a refrigeration means which comprises the electrolytic cell of FIGURE 6, the pressurized hydrogen gas cell of FIGURE 7, and the hydrogen gas discharge cell of FIGURE 8 of the present invention wherein a source of lower-energy atomic (molecular) hydrogen is supplied rather than a source of normal hydrogen.
  • the lower-energy hydrogen atoms are reacted to a higher energy state with the absorption of heat energy according to the reverse of the catalytic shrinkage reaction such as those given by Eqs. (4-6); (7-9); ( 10- 12); (13- 15); ( 16- 18); (48-50); (51 -53); (54-56); (57-59); (60-62), (63-
  • means 101 , 201 and 301 of FIGURES 6, 7, and 8, respectively, serve to remove the normal hydrogen such as a selective venting valves to prevent the endothermic reaction from coming to equilibrium.
  • compositions of Matter Comprising at Least Lower-Energy Hydrogen Atom(s) and/or Lower-Energy Hydrogen MoleculeCs
  • the present invention further comprises molecules containing lower-energy hydrogen atoms.
  • Lower-energy hydrogen can be reacted with any atom of the periodic chart or known organic or inorganic molecule or compound or metal, nonmetal, or semiconductor to form an organic or inorganic molecule or compound or metal, nonmetal, or semiconductor containing lower-energy hydrogen atoms and molecules.
  • the reactants with lower-energy hydrogen include neutral atoms, negatively or positively charged atomic and molecular ions, and free radicals.
  • lower-energy hydrogen can be reacted with water or oxygen to form a molecule containing lower-energy hydrogen and oxygen
  • lower-energy hydrogen can be reacted with singly ionized helium to form a molecule containing helium and lower-energy hydrogen.
  • Lower-energy hydrogen can be also reacted with metals.
  • lower- energy hydrogen produced during operation at the cathode can be incorporated into the cathode by reacting with it; thus, a metal-lower-energy hydrogen material can be produced. In all such reactions, the reaction rate and product yield are increased by applying heat, and/or pressure.
  • Lower-energy hydrogen molecules are purified from hydrogen gas by combustion of the normal hydrogen.
  • Oxygen can be mixed with the sample to be purified, and the sample can be ignited.
  • the sample can be flowed over a hydrogen recombiner which reacts with the normal hydrogen in the gas stream to form water.
  • lower-energy hydrogen molecules (dihydrinos) are collected in a cathode of an electrolytic energy reactor of the present invention such as a metal cathode including a nickel cathode or a carbon cathode.
  • the cathode can be heated in a vessel to a first temperature which causes normal hydrogen to preferentially off gas by external heating or by flowing a current through the cathode.
  • the normal hydrogen can be pumped off, then the cathode can be heated to a second higher temperature at which dihydrino gas can be released and collected.
  • the gas sample is purified by cryofiltration including gas chromatography at low temperature such as gas chromatography with an activated carbon (charcoal) column at liquid nitrogen temperature and with a column which will separate para from ortho hydrogen such as an Rt-Alumina column, or a HayeSep column at liquid nitrogen temperature wherein normal hydrogen can be retained to a greater extent than dihydrino.
  • the gas sample is purified by cryodistillation wherein normal hydrogen can be liquefied and separated from gaseous lower-energy hydrogen (dihydrino).
  • the dihydrino can be concentrated by liquefaction in liquid helium.
  • Transitions to these lower energy states are stimulated in the presence of pairs of potassium ions (K+/K+ electrocatalytic couple) which provide 27.2 eV energy sinks.
  • Mills et al. report the experimental evidence supporting the Mills theory that an exothermic reaction occurs wherein the electrons of hydrogen atoms and deuterium atoms are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state” via electrochemical reactants K+ and K+; Pd 2+ and Li+, or Pd and 0 of redox energy resonant with the energy hole which stimulates this transition.
  • Calorimetry of pulsed current and continuous electrolysis of aqueous potassium carbonate (K+/K+ electrocatalytic couple) at a nickel cathode was performed. The excess power out of 41 watts exceeded the total input power given by the product of the electrolysis voltage and current by a factor greater than 8.
  • the "ash” of the exothermic reaction is atoms having electrons of energy below the "ground state” which are predicted to form molecules.
  • the predicted molecules were identified by lack of reactivity with oxygen, by separation from molecular deuterium by cryofiltration, and by mass spectroscopic analysis.
  • Palladium sheets coated on one side with a hydrogen impermeant gold layer and coated on the other surface with an oxide coat were deuterium or hydrogen loaded at NTT Laboratories. Heat was observed from light and heavy hydrogen only when the mixed oxide coat was present (Pd/0 electrocatalytic couple).
  • NISHIOKA Direct Evidence for Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Deuterated Palladium
  • Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Cold Fusion , Nagoya, Japan, October 21-25, 1992, p. 179
  • E. YAMAGUCHI and T. NISHIOKA "Helium-4 Production from Deuterated Palladium at Low energies” NTT Basic Research Laboratories and IMRA Europe S. A., Personal Communication (1992)].
  • Example 3 Pennsylvania State University has determined excess heat release from flowing hydrogen in the presence of nickel oxide powder containing strontium niobium oxide (Nb 3 +/Sr 2 + electrocatalytic couple) by the very accurate and reliable method of heat measurement, thermopile conversion of heat into an electrical output signal [Phillips, J., "A Calorimetric Investigation of the Reaction of Hydrogen with Sample PSU #1 ", September 1 1 , 1994, A Confidential Report submitted to HydroCatalysis Power Corporation provided by HydroCatalysis Power Corporation, Great Valley Corporate Center, 41 Great Valley Parkway, Malvern, PA 19355]. Excess power and heat were observed with flowing hydrogen over the catalyst which increased with increasing flow rate.
  • the source of heat is assigned to the electrocatalytic, exothermic reaction whereby the electrons of hydrogen atoms are induced to undergo transitions to quantized energy levels below the conventional "ground state".
  • Nb3+/Sr2+ electrocatalytic couple which provide 27.2 eV energy sinks.
  • the paradox of the paucity of solar neutrinos to account for the solar energy output by the pp chain is resolved by assigning a major portion of the solar output to lower-energy hydrogen transitions.
  • the photosphere of the Sun is 6000 K; whereas, the temperature of the corona based on the assignment of the emitted X-rays to highly ionized heavy elements is in excess of 10 6 K. No satisfactory power transfer mechanism is known which explains the excessive temperature of the corona relative to that of the photosphere.
  • Example 5 Pennsylvania State University has determined excess heat release from flowing hydrogen in the presence of ionic hydrogen spillover catalytic material: 40% by weight potassium nitrate (KNO3) on graphitic carbon powder with 5% by weight 1 %-Pd-on-graphitic carbon (K+/K+ electrocatalytic couple) by the very accurate and reliable method of heat measurement, thermopile conversion of heat into an electrical output signal [Phillips, J., Shim, ⁇ ., "Additional Calorimetric Examples of Anomalous Heat from Physical Mixtures of K/Carbon and Pd/Carbon", January 1 , 1996, A Confidential Report submitted to HydroCatalysis Power Corporation provided by HydroCatalysis Power Corporation, Great Valley Corporate Center, 41 Great Valley Parkway, Malvern, PA 19355].
  • KNO3 potassium nitrate
  • Example 6 Excess heat from a pressurized gas energy cell having a gaseous source of energy holes has been observed by HydroCatalysis Power Corporation [manuscript in progress] with low pressure hydrogen in the presence of molybdenum iodide (MoI ) (Mo 2 + electrocatalytic ion) which was volatilized at the operating temperature of the cell, 210 °C.
  • MoI molybdenum iodide
  • the calorimeter was placed inside a large convection oven that maintained the ambient temperature of the cell at the operating temperature.
  • the cell comprised a 40 cc stainless steel pressure vessel that was surrounded by a 2 inch thick molded ceramic thermal insulator.
  • the cell was sealed with a vacuum tight flange that had a two hole Buffalo gland for a tungsten wire to dissociate molecular hydrogen, a perforation for a Type K thermocouple, a 1/16 inch inlet for hydrogen which was connected to a 1/4 inch stainless steel tube which connected to the hydrogen supply.
  • the flange was sealed with a copper gasket.
  • the bottom of the vessel had a 1/4" vacuum port connected to a stainless steel tube with a valve between the cell and a vacuum pump and vacuum gauge.
  • Less than one gram of M0I2 catalyst was placed in a ceramic boat inside the vessel. The vapor pressure of the catalyst was estimated to be about 50 millitorr at the operating temperature 210 °C.
  • the hydrogen pressure of about 200 to 250 millitorr was controlled manually by adjusting the supply through the inlet versus the amount pumped away at the outlet where the pressure was monitored in the outlet tube by the vacuum gauge. For each run, the total pressure was made (including the MoI 2 pressue in the case of the experimental run) precisely 250 millitorr.
  • the output power was determined by measuring difference between the cell temperature and the ambient oven temperature and comparing the result to a calibration curve generated by applying power to the inside of the cell with the tungsten filament. Excess power of 0.3 watts was observed from the 40 cc stainless steel reaction vessel containing less than 1 g of MoI 2 when hydrogen was flowed over the hot tungsten wire ( - 2000 °C). However, no excess power was observed when helium was flowed over the hot tungsten wire or when hydrogen was flowed over the hot tungsten wire with no MoI 2 present in the cell.
  • the gaseous contents of the reactor were monitored with a mass spectrometer. At the time that excess energy was produced corresponding to the case wherein hydrogen was flowed over the hot filament, a higher ionizing mass two species was observable; where ⁇ , during the control run wherein hydrogen was flowed over the hot tungsten wire with no MoI 2 present in the cell, a higher ionizing mass two species was not observed.
  • the higher ionizing mass two species is assigned to the dihydrino molecule, 2H 2

Abstract

Procédés et dispositifs de libération d'énergie à partir d'atomes (molécules) d'hydrogène par stimulation de leurs électrons, afin qu'ils se relâchent vers des niveaux inférieurs quantifiés d'énergie et vers des rayons plus petits (axes inférieurs demi-grand et demi-petit) que l'état fondamental, par l'intermédiaire de la création de puits d'énergie ou de moyens servant à supprimer l'énergie résonante avec l'énergie libérée de l'hydrogène, afin de stimuler ces transitions. Un puits d'énergie, ou trou d'énergie, peut être créé au moyen du transfert d'au moins un électron entre des espèces participantes, y compris des atomes, des ions, des molécules, ainsi que des composés ioniques et moléculaires. Dans un mode de réalisation, le trou d'énergie comprend le transfert de t électrons depuis une ou plusieurs espèces donneuses vers une ou plusieurs espèces receveuses. De ce fait, la somme des énergies d'ionisation et/ou des affinités d'électrons des espèces donneuses d'électrons moins la somme des énergies d'ionisation et/ou des affinités d'électrons des espèces receveuses d'électrons est égale à environ mX27,21 eV (mX48,6 eV) pour de l'hydrogène atomique (moléculaire) au-dessous des transitions d'état fondamental, où m et t sont des entiers. L'invention concerne, de plus, un catalyseur de débordement d'hydrogène, un matériau à fonctions multiples possédant une fonction permettant de dissocier l'hydrogène moléculaire et d'obtenir des atomes d'hydrogène libre débordant vers une fonction supportant des atomes mobiles d'hydrogène libre, ainsi que vers une fonction pouvant être une source de trous d'énergie. Le réacteur d'énergie comprend une des cellules choisie parmi une cellule électrolytique, une cellule d'hydrogène gazeux sous pression et une cellule de décharge d'hydrogène gazeux. Un réacteur préféré d'énergie d'hydrogène gazeux sous pression comprend une cuve; une source d'hydrogène, un moyen de régulation de la pression et de l'écoulement de l'hydrogène vers l'intérieur de la cuve; un matériau permettant de dissocier l'hydrogène moléculaire en hydrogène atomique et un matériau pouvant être une source de trous d'énergie dans la phase gazeuse. La source gazeuse des trous d'énergie comprend ceux qui subissent une sublimation, une ébullition et/ou sont volatils à la température élevée de fonctionnement du réacteur d'énergie d'hydrogène gazeuse, la réaction exothermique de transitions électroniques de l'hydrogène vers des états d'énergie inférieure apparaissant dans la phase gazeuse.
EP96919010A 1995-06-06 1996-05-31 Procedes et dispositifs relatifs aux niveaux inferieurs d'energie d'hydrogene Withdrawn EP0858662A4 (fr)

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CN111020617A (zh) * 2019-12-26 2020-04-17 初强 一种高能电子撞击水分子制取氢氧可燃混合气的技术与方法
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