CN110914714B - Method of manufacturing and using an X-ray detector - Google Patents
Method of manufacturing and using an X-ray detector Download PDFInfo
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- CN110914714B CN110914714B CN201780093158.XA CN201780093158A CN110914714B CN 110914714 B CN110914714 B CN 110914714B CN 201780093158 A CN201780093158 A CN 201780093158A CN 110914714 B CN110914714 B CN 110914714B
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- 238000004519 manufacturing process Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 8
- 238000010521 absorption reaction Methods 0.000 claims abstract description 131
- 238000000034 method Methods 0.000 claims abstract description 43
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- 238000002955 isolation Methods 0.000 claims description 4
- 238000003491 array Methods 0.000 abstract description 13
- 238000001514 detection method Methods 0.000 abstract 2
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Classifications
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- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
- G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
- G01T1/16—Measuring radiation intensity
- G01T1/20—Measuring radiation intensity with scintillation detectors
- G01T1/2006—Measuring radiation intensity with scintillation detectors using a combination of a scintillator and photodetector which measures the means radiation intensity
-
- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
- G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
- G01T1/16—Measuring radiation intensity
- G01T1/24—Measuring radiation intensity with semiconductor detectors
- G01T1/241—Electrode arrangements, e.g. continuous or parallel strips or the like
-
- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
- G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
- G01T1/16—Measuring radiation intensity
- G01T1/161—Applications in the field of nuclear medicine, e.g. in vivo counting
- G01T1/164—Scintigraphy
- G01T1/1641—Static instruments for imaging the distribution of radioactivity in one or two dimensions using one or several scintillating elements; Radio-isotope cameras
- G01T1/1645—Static instruments for imaging the distribution of radioactivity in one or two dimensions using one or several scintillating elements; Radio-isotope cameras using electron optical imaging means, e.g. image intensifier tubes, coordinate photomultiplier tubes, image converter
-
- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
- G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
- G01T1/16—Measuring radiation intensity
- G01T1/20—Measuring radiation intensity with scintillation detectors
- G01T1/2002—Optical details, e.g. reflecting or diffusing layers
-
- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
- G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
- G01T1/29—Measurement performed on radiation beams, e.g. position or section of the beam; Measurement of spatial distribution of radiation
- G01T1/2914—Measurement of spatial distribution of radiation
- G01T1/2921—Static instruments for imaging the distribution of radioactivity in one or two dimensions; Radio-isotope cameras
- G01T1/2928—Static instruments for imaging the distribution of radioactivity in one or two dimensions; Radio-isotope cameras using solid state detectors
-
- H—ELECTRICITY
- H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
- H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
- H01L27/00—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate
- H01L27/14—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate including semiconductor components sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation
- H01L27/144—Devices controlled by radiation
- H01L27/146—Imager structures
- H01L27/14665—Imagers using a photoconductor layer
- H01L27/14676—X-ray, gamma-ray or corpuscular radiation imagers
Abstract
Methods of making and using arrays of absorption cells suitable for X-ray detection and detectors including such arrays of absorption cells are disclosed herein. The method of manufacturing the absorption cell array (410) may include forming the absorption cell array (410A) on the substrate (400), and forming a guard ring (431 a,431 b) surrounding more than one absorption cell (420) of the absorption cell array (410) after separating the absorption cell array (410) from the substrate (400); or may include forming a plurality of absorption units (420) on a portion of the substrate (400) after separating the portion from the substrate (400), and a guard ring (431B) surrounding more than one absorption unit (420). The method of using the absorption cell array (410) may include using some absorption cells (420) of the absorption cell array (410) as a protection ring (431B) by applying a voltage. A detector (100) adapted for X-ray detection comprises an absorption layer (110) and an electron layer (120), wherein the absorption layer (110) comprises an array of absorption cells (410).
Description
[ field of technology ]
The present disclosure relates to methods for manufacturing and using an X-ray detector having an array of absorbing elements.
[ background Art ]
The X-ray detector may be a device for measuring the flux, spatial distribution, spectrum or other characteristics of the X-rays.
X-ray detectors are useful in many applications. One important application is imaging. X-ray imaging is a radiographic technique that can be used to reveal the internal structure of non-uniformly composed, opaque objects (e.g., human bodies).
Early X-ray detectors used for imaging included photographic plates and films. The photographic plate may be a glass plate with a photosensitive emulsion coating. Although photographic plates are replaced by photographic film, they can still be used in special situations because of their good quality and stability. The photographic film may be a plastic film (e.g., tape or sheet) with a photosensitive emulsion coating.
In the 80 s of the 20 th century, photo-excited fluorescent plates (PSP plates) have emerged. The PSP sheet may contain a fluorescent material having a color center in its crystal lattice. Upon exposure of the PSP plate to X-rays, the X-ray excited electrons become trapped in the color center until they are excited by the laser beam that is scanned over the plate surface. As the laser scans the plate, the trapped excitation electrons emit light that is collected by a photomultiplier tube. The collected light is converted into a digital image. In contrast to photographic plates and films, PSP plates can be reused.
Another type of X-ray detector is an X-ray image intensifier. The components of the X-ray image intensifier are typically sealed in a vacuum. In contrast to photographic plates, photographic films and PSP plates, X-ray image intensifiers can produce real-time images, i.e., do not require post-exposure processing to produce an image. The X-rays first strike an input phosphor (e.g., cesium iodide) and are converted to visible light. Then, the visible light impinges on the photocathode (e.g., a thin metal layer containing cesium and antimony compounds) and causes electron emission. The number of emitted electrons is proportional to the intensity of the incident X-rays. The emitted electrons are projected through electron optics onto an output phosphor and cause the output phosphor to produce a visible light image.
The operation of a scintillator is somewhat similar to an X-ray image intensifier in that the scintillator (e.g., sodium iodide) absorbs X-rays and emits visible light, which can then be detected by an image sensor adapted for the visible light. In the scintillator, visible light propagates and scatters in various directions, thereby reducing spatial resolution. Reducing the scintillator thickness helps to improve spatial resolution, but also reduces X-ray absorption. Therefore, the scintillator must achieve a compromise between absorption efficiency and resolution.
Semiconductor X-ray detectors overcome this problem to a large extent by converting X-rays directly into electrical signals. The semiconductor X-ray detector may include a semiconductor layer that absorbs X-rays at a wavelength of interest. When X-ray photons are absorbed in the semiconductor layer, a plurality of carriers (e.g., electrons and holes) are generated that are swept toward electrical contacts on the semiconductor layer under an electric field. The cumbersome thermal management required in existing semiconductor X-ray detectors (e.g., medipix) can make it difficult or impossible to produce detectors with large areas and large numbers of pixels.
[ invention ]
Disclosed herein is a method of fabricating an array of absorption cells suitable for detecting X-rays, the method comprising: forming an array of absorption units on a substrate, wherein the array of absorption units comprises a plurality of absorption units configured to absorb X-rays, wherein before the array of absorption units is separated from the substrate, no guard ring is included within at least one of the plurality of absorption units, and at least one of the plurality of absorption units is not enclosed in a guard ring; the absorption unit array is separated from the substrate.
According to an embodiment, the array of absorption cells comprises silicon, germanium, gaAs, cdTe, cdZnTe or a combination thereof.
According to an embodiment, each of the plurality of absorbing units comprises an electrical contact.
According to an embodiment, each of the plurality of absorption units comprises a diode.
According to an embodiment, each of the plurality of absorption units comprises a resistor.
According to an embodiment, the method further comprises: after the absorption cell array is separated from the substrate, a doped sidewall is formed on the absorption cell array, wherein the doped sidewall surrounds more than one absorption cell.
According to an embodiment, forming the doped sidewalls includes doping and annealing the sidewalls of the absorber cell array.
Disclosed herein is a method of fabricating an array of absorption cells adapted to detect X-rays, the method comprising: separating a portion of the substrate from the substrate; after separating the portion, an array of absorption cells is formed on the portion of the substrate, wherein the array of absorption cells comprises a plurality of absorption cells and doped sidewalls, wherein the absorption cells are configured to absorb X-rays, wherein the doped sidewalls enclose more than one absorption cell.
According to an embodiment, the array of absorption cells comprises silicon, germanium, gaAs, cdTe, cdZnTe or a combination thereof.
According to an embodiment, each of the plurality of absorbing units comprises an electrical contact.
According to an embodiment, each of the plurality of absorption units comprises a diode.
According to an embodiment, each of the plurality of absorption units comprises a resistor.
According to an embodiment, forming the array of absorber cells includes forming the doped sidewalls by doping sidewalls of a portion of the substrate.
According to an embodiment, the doped sidewalls are formed before the absorber unit is formed.
According to an embodiment, the doped sidewalls are formed after the absorber cells are formed.
Disclosed herein is a method of using an array of absorption units adapted to detect X-rays, the method comprising: obtaining an absorption cell array including a first plurality of absorption cells along a periphery of the absorption cell array and a second plurality of absorption cells located inside the absorption cell array; the second plurality of absorption cells is electrically shielded by applying a voltage to the first plurality of absorption cells.
According to an embodiment, the first plurality of absorption units is identical to the second plurality of absorption units.
According to an embodiment, the array of absorption cells comprises silicon, germanium, gaAs, cdTe, cdZnTe or a combination thereof.
According to an embodiment, each of the plurality of absorbing units comprises an electrical contact.
According to an embodiment, each of the plurality of absorption units comprises a diode.
According to an embodiment, each of the plurality of absorption units comprises a resistor.
Disclosed herein is a detector, comprising: an X-ray absorbing layer comprising an array of absorbing cells, wherein the array of absorbing cells comprises a plurality of absorbing cells, wherein each absorbing cell of the plurality of absorbing cells comprises an electrical contact, wherein no guard ring is included within at least one absorbing cell of the plurality of absorbing cells, wherein at least some absorbing cells of the plurality of absorbing cells are configured to absorb X-rays and generate an electrical signal from the absorbed X-rays on their electrical contacts; a first voltage comparator configured to compare a voltage of the electrical contact with a first threshold; a second voltage comparator configured to compare the voltage with a second threshold; a controller; a plurality of counters, each counter associated with a bin and configured to record a number of X-ray photons absorbed by at least one of the plurality of absorption units, wherein X-ray photon energy falls into the bin; wherein the controller is configured to start a time delay from a time when the first voltage comparator determines that an absolute value of a voltage is greater than or equal to an absolute value of the first threshold; wherein the controller is configured to determine whether X-ray photon energy falls into the bin; wherein the controller is configured to increment a number recorded by a counter associated with the bin by one.
According to an embodiment, the detector further comprises a capacitor module electrically connected to the electrical contacts, wherein the capacitor module is configured to collect charge carriers from the electrical contacts.
According to an embodiment, the controller is configured to activate the second voltage comparator at the beginning or expiration of the time delay.
According to an embodiment, the controller is configured to connect the electrical contact to an electrical ground.
According to an embodiment, at the expiration of the time delay, the rate of change of the voltage is substantially zero.
According to an embodiment, the array of absorption cells of the detector comprises a guard ring surrounding more than one absorption cell.
[ description of the drawings ]
Fig. 1A schematically illustrates an array of absorption units according to an embodiment.
Fig. 1B schematically shows a detailed cross-sectional view of an array of absorption units according to an embodiment.
Fig. 1C schematically shows an alternative detailed cross-sectional view of an array of absorption units according to an embodiment.
Fig. 2A schematically shows a detailed cross-sectional view of an array of absorption units according to an embodiment.
Fig. 2B schematically illustrates an alternative detailed cross-sectional view of the absorbent cell array of fig. 2B, in accordance with an embodiment.
Fig. 2C and 2D schematically illustrate a process of forming the absorbent cell array of fig. 2A or 2B.
Fig. 3A to 3C schematically illustrate forming an absorption cell array based on the absorption cell array of fig. 2A or 2B according to an embodiment.
Fig. 4A schematically shows a detailed cross-sectional view of an array of absorption units according to an embodiment.
Fig. 4B schematically illustrates an alternative detailed cross-sectional view of the absorbent cell array of fig. 4A, in accordance with an embodiment.
Fig. 4C-4E schematically illustrate a process of forming the absorbent cell array of fig. 4A or 4B according to an embodiment.
Fig. 5 schematically illustrates a method of using an array of absorption cells according to an embodiment.
Fig. 6 schematically shows a detector according to an embodiment.
Fig. 7A schematically shows a cross-sectional view of a detector according to an embodiment.
Fig. 7B schematically shows a detailed cross-sectional view of a detector according to an embodiment.
Fig. 7C schematically shows an alternative detailed cross-sectional view of a detector according to an embodiment.
Fig. 8A and 8B each show an electronic system component diagram of a detector according to an embodiment.
Fig. 9 schematically shows a temporal change in electrical contact current (upper curve) caused by carriers generated by X-ray photons incident on a pixel associated with an electrical contact, and a corresponding temporal change in electrical contact voltage (lower curve), according to an embodiment.
[ detailed description ] of the invention
Fig. 1A schematically illustrates an absorption cell array 410 according to an embodiment. The array of absorber cells 410 has an array of absorber cells 420, each absorber cell 420 may include a semiconductor and electrical contacts. Each of the absorption units 420 may be configured to absorb incident X-rays and generate an electrical signal. The electrical signal may be a voltage signal on an electrical contact. The array of absorber cells 410 may include guard rings to prevent premature breakdown due to localized concentrated electric fields and surface potential differences at electrical contacts, or to provide electrical isolation for the absorber cells 420. The absorber cell array 410 may comprise a semiconductor material, such as silicon, germanium, gaAs, cdTe, cdZnTe, or a combination thereof. The semiconductor material may have a high mass attenuation coefficient for the X-ray energy of interest. In an embodiment, the absorber unit array 410 does not include a scintillator. The array of absorbent cells 410 may be a rectangular array, a honeycomb array, a hexagonal array, or any other suitable array. The absorbent cells 420 on the array 410 may be arranged in one or more grids. For example, the absorption units 420 may be arranged in two grids with a gap between the grids.
Fig. 1B schematically shows a detailed cross-sectional view of an absorbent cell array 410 according to an embodiment. The absorption cell array 410 includes a plurality of absorption cells 420. The absorber cell array 410 may include a guard ring 431B. The guard ring 431B may surround more than one of the plurality of absorption units 420. Each absorption cell 420 may include a diode (e.g., p-i-n or p-n) formed from the discrete regions 114 of the first and second doped regions 111, 113. Each absorptive unit 420 may include electrical contacts 119A and 119B. The second doped region 113 and the first doped region 111 may be separated by an optional intrinsic region 112. The discrete regions 114 are separated from each other by either the first doped region 111 or the intrinsic region 112. The electrical contact 119B can include a number of discrete portions, each of which is in electrical contact with the discrete region 114. The first doped region 111 and the second doped region 113 have opposite types of doping (e.g., region 111 is p-type and region 113 is n-type, or region 111 is n-type and region 113 is p-type). In the example of fig. 1B, each absorption cell 420 includes a diode formed by the discrete region 114 of the second doped region 113, the first doped region 111, and the optional intrinsic region 112. That is, in the example of fig. 1B, the absorption unit 420 has the first doped region 111 as a shared electrode. The first doped region 111 may also have discrete portions. In the example of fig. 1B, each absorber unit 420 may include a guard ring 431A. The guard ring 431A may be disposed around the discrete region 114 of the absorber unit 420. The guard rings 431A and 431B may be formed of a doped region or formed by shallow trench isolation (shallow trench isolation).
When an X-ray photon hits the absorption cell array 410 including a diode, the X-ray photon may be absorbed by a number of mechanisms and one or more carriers are generated. One X-ray photon may generate 10 to 100000 carriers. Carriers may drift under an electric field to an electrode of one of the plurality of absorption units. The electric field may be an external electric field. In an embodiment, the carriers may drift in directions such that carriers generated by a single X-ray photon are not substantially shared by two different absorption units 420 (herein, "not substantially shared" means that less than 2%, less than 0.5%, less than 0.1%, or less than 0.01% of these carriers flow to discrete regions 114 of absorption units 420 other than their Yu Zailiu carriers). Carriers generated by X-ray photons incident on one absorption unit 420 are not substantially shared with the other absorption unit 420. Substantially all (greater than 98%, greater than 99.5%, greater than 99.9%, or greater than 99.99%) of the carriers generated by the X-ray photons incident on the absorption unit 420 flow to the discrete regions 114 of the absorption unit. That is, less than 2%, less than 0.5%, less than 0.1%, or less than 0.01% of the carrier streams flow out of the absorption unit. The guard ring 431B may prevent premature breakdown caused by localized concentrated electric fields at the edges of the electrical contact 119B and the discrete region 114, or prevent surface potential differences at the electrical contact 119B and the discrete region 114.
Fig. 1C schematically shows an alternative detailed cross-sectional view of an array of absorption units 410 according to an embodiment. The absorption unit array 410 may include a plurality of absorption units 420. Each absorber cell 420 may include an electrical contact 119A, a discrete portion of an electrical contact 119B, and a resistor formed from a region of semiconductor material such as silicon, germanium, gaAs, cdTe, cdZnTe, or a combination thereof. The absorption cell array 410 does not include a diode. Semiconductors may have a high mass attenuation coefficient for X-ray energy of interest.
When an X-ray photon strikes the array of absorption cells 410, which includes a resistor but no diode, it may be absorbed and one or more carriers generated by a variety of mechanisms. One X-ray photon may generate 10 to 100000 carriers. Carriers may drift under an electric field to electrical contacts 119A and 119B. The electric field may be an external electric field. In an embodiment, the carriers may drift in directions such that carriers generated by a single X-ray photon are not substantially shared by two different absorption units 420 (herein, "not substantially shared" means that less than 2%, less than 0.5%, less than 0.1%, or less than 0.01% of these carriers flow to discrete portions of the electrical contacts 119B of the absorption units 420 that are different from their Yu Zailiu carriers). Carriers generated by X-ray photons incident on one absorption unit 420 are not substantially shared with the other absorption unit 420. Substantially all (greater than 98%, greater than 99.5%, greater than 99.9%, or greater than 99.99%) of the carriers generated by X-ray photons incident on an absorption unit 420 flow to discrete portions of the absorption unit's electrical contacts 119B. That is, less than 2%, less than 0.5%, less than 0.1%, or less than 0.01% of these carriers flow out of the discrete portions of the electrical contact 119B of the absorber unit 420.
Fig. 2A schematically illustrates a detailed cross-sectional view of an array of absorption cells 410A according to an embodiment, wherein the absorption cells 420 in the array of absorption cells 410A comprise diodes. Fig. 2B schematically shows an alternative detailed cross-sectional view of an absorber cell array 410A according to an embodiment, wherein the absorber cell array 410A comprises a resistor but no diode. At least one of the absorber units 420 does not include a guard ring therein. More than one absorption unit 420 is not surrounded by a guard ring. The absorber cell array 410A in these examples may not include any guard rings.
Fig. 2C and 2D schematically illustrate a process of forming the absorbent cell array 410A according to an embodiment.
Fig. 2C schematically illustrates forming an absorption cell array 410A on a substrate 400. The absorbing unit array 410A may be formed using a semiconductor photolithography process including a combination of steps of forming an oxide film, applying a photoresist, exposing, developing, etching, doping, wiring, and the like. The substrate 400 may include one or more absorption cell arrays 410A. In the example of fig. 2C, a plurality of absorption cell arrays 410A are formed on a substrate 400. In the example of fig. 2C, the areas of the absorption cell array 410A are exposed one by one in the exposure process to pattern the same circuit pattern.
Fig. 2D schematically illustrates the separation of the absorption cell array 410A from the substrate 400. The absorption cell array 410A may be separated from the substrate using a dicing process including dicing and wire breaking, mechanical sawing, or laser cutting. In the example of fig. 2D, the absorption cell array 410 is separated from the substrate 400 by dicing along die streets (die streets) or gaps between the absorption cell arrays 410.
Fig. 3A-3C schematically illustrate the formation of the absorption cell array 410B from the absorption cell array 410A after separating the array 410A from the substrate according to an embodiment.
Fig. 3A schematically illustrates a forming process according to an embodiment in a perspective view of the absorbent cell arrays 410A and 410B. After separating the array 410A from the substrate 400, the absorbing unit array 410B is formed by forming doped sidewalls 423 (sometimes referred to as "active edges") on the absorbing unit array 410A. The doped sidewall 423 may be formed by doping and annealing the sidewall of the absorbing cell array 410A. The doped sidewall 423 may be doped with the same type of dopant as the discrete region 114 of the absorber cell array 410A, but at a different doping concentration (e.g., the doped sidewall 423 is P-type and the discrete region 114 is P-type + Type). The annealing may be laser annealing.
Fig. 3B schematically illustrates a forming process according to an embodiment in a detailed cross-sectional view of the absorber cell arrays 410A and 410B, wherein the absorber cell arrays 410A and 410B comprise diodes. In the example of fig. 3B, the doped sidewall 423 encloses more than one absorber cell 420 (e.g., all of the absorber cells 420 of the absorber cell array 410B when the doped sidewall 423 is placed around the perimeter of the absorber cell array 410B).
Fig. 3C schematically illustrates a forming process according to an embodiment in an alternative detailed cross-sectional view of the absorber cell arrays 410A and 410B, wherein the absorber cell array 410B includes a resistor but no diode.
Fig. 4A shows a detailed cross-sectional view of an absorption cell array 410C according to an embodiment, wherein the absorption cell array 410C is one type of absorption cell array 410 comprising diodes. Fig. 4B schematically shows an alternative detailed cross-sectional view of an absorber cell array 410C according to an embodiment, wherein the absorber cell array 410C comprises a resistor but no diode. The absorption cell array 410C includes a plurality of absorption cells 420 and doped sidewalls 423. The doped sidewalls 423 surround more than one absorber unit 420. The absorber cell array 410C may include more than one guard ring.
Fig. 4C to 4E schematically illustrate a process of forming the absorbent cell array 410C according to an embodiment.
Fig. 4C schematically illustrates a portion of the substrate 510 separated from the substrate 500. Separating a portion of the substrate 510 from the substrate 500 may be a dicing process including dicing and wire breaking, mechanical sawing, or laser cutting. A portion of the substrate 510 may include a semiconductor material, such as silicon, germanium, gaAs, cdTe, cdZnTe, or a combination thereof. The semiconductor material may have a high mass attenuation coefficient for the X-ray energy of interest. A portion of the substrate 510 may include a doped region.
Fig. 4D schematically illustrates forming an absorption cell array 410C on a portion of a substrate 510 (after separating the portion from the substrate 500), wherein the absorption cell array 410C includes a diode, according to an embodiment. Fig. 4E schematically illustrates a process of forming the absorber cell array 410C according to an embodiment in the form of an alternative detailed cross-sectional view of a portion of the substrate 510 and the absorber cell array 410C. Wherein the absorption cell array 410C includes a resistor but does not include a diode. The absorbing unit 420 may be formed by a semiconductor photolithography process including a combination of steps such as forming an oxide film, applying photoresist, exposing, developing, etching, doping, and wiring. The doped sidewall 423 may be formed before, after, or during the formation of the absorbing unit 420, and the doped sidewall 423 may be formed by doping a sidewall of a portion of the substrate 510 and annealing. The annealing may be laser annealing.
Fig. 5 schematically illustrates a method of using the absorbent cell array 410. A voltage is applied to a first plurality of absorber cells 420 (e.g., those absorber cells 420 that are shaded) along the perimeter of the array of absorber cells 410 such that the first plurality of absorber cells 420 provide an electrical shield or act as a protective ring for a second plurality of absorber cells within the array of absorber cells 410. The second plurality of absorption units may be configured to absorb X-rays and generate an electrical signal.
Fig. 6 schematically shows a detector 100 according to an embodiment. In an embodiment, the detector 100 may have an array of pixels 150 such as any of the arrays of absorption cells described herein. The array may be a rectangular array, a pentagonal array, a honeycomb array, a hexagonal array, or any other suitable array. Each pixel 150 is configured to detect an X-ray photon incident thereon and measure the energy of the X-ray photon. For example, each pixel 150 is configured to count the number of X-ray photons incident thereon in a plurality of bins over a period of time. All pixels 150 may be configured to count the number of X-ray photons incident thereon that are energy in a plurality of bins for the same period of time. Each pixel 150 may have its own analog-to-digital converter (ADC) configured to digitize an analog signal representative of the energy of the incident X-ray photon into a digital signal. Each pixel 150 may be configured to measure its dark current, for example, before or in parallel with each X-ray photon being incident on the pixel. Each pixel 150 may be configured to subtract the contribution of dark current from the X-ray photon energy incident on the pixel. The pixels 150 may be configured to operate in parallel. For example, while one pixel 150 measures an incident X-ray photon, another pixel 150 may wait for the X-ray photon to arrive. The pixels 150 may not necessarily be individually addressable.
The detector 100 may have at least 100, 2500, 10000 or more pixels 150. The detector 100 may be configured to sum the number of X-ray photons of bins with the same energy range counted by all pixels 150. For example, the detector 100 may add the number of pixels 150 stored in bins with energies from 70KeV to 71KeV, add the number of pixels 150 stored in bins with energies from 71KeV to 72KeV, and so on. The detector 100 may compile the sum number for bins as the X-ray photon energy spectrum incident on the detector 100.
Fig. 7A schematically shows a cross-sectional view of a detector 100 according to an embodiment. The detector 100 may include an X-ray absorbing layer 110 and an electronic layer 120 (e.g., an ASIC) for processing or analyzing electrical signals generated in the X-ray absorbing layer 110 by incident X-rays. In an embodiment, the detector 100 does not include a scintillator. The X-ray absorbing layer 110 may comprise a semiconductor material, such as silicon, germanium, gaAs, cdTe, cdZnTe, or a combination thereof. Semiconductors may have a high mass attenuation coefficient for X-ray energy of interest.
As shown in the detailed cross-sectional view of the detector 100 in fig. 7B, the X-ray absorbing layer 110 may include one or more arrays 410 of absorbing cells with diodes, according to an embodiment. Fig. 7C schematically shows an alternative detailed cross-sectional view of the detector 100 according to an embodiment, wherein the X-ray absorbing layer 110 comprises a resistor but no diode. The absorber cell array 410 may include a guard ring (e.g., 431B). At least some of the absorption units 420 of the absorption unit array 410 are configured to absorb X-rays and generate electrical signals. For example, a first plurality of absorber cells 420 along the perimeter of the first plurality of absorber cell arrays 410 may act as a guard ring or provide electrical shielding for a second plurality of absorber cells 420 within the absorber cell arrays 410 by applying a voltage (e.g., diodes of the first plurality of absorber cells 420 are at a higher reverse bias than diodes of the second plurality of absorber cells 420). The second plurality of absorption units 420 may be configured to absorb X-rays and generate electrical signals. Each absorption unit of the second plurality of absorption units 420 may be associated with a pixel 150.
The electronics layer 120 may include an electronics system 121 adapted to process or interpret signals generated by X-ray photons incident on the X-ray absorbing layer 110. The electronic system 121 may include: analog circuits such as filter networks, amplifiers, integrators, and comparators; or digital circuits such as microprocessors and memories. The electronics 121 may include components that are shared by pixels or components that are dedicated to a single pixel. For example, the electronic system 121 may include an amplifier dedicated to each pixel and a microprocessor shared among all pixels. The electronic system 121 may be electrically connected to the pixel through the via 131. The space between the vias may be filled with a filler material 130 that may increase the mechanical stability of the connection of the electronics layer 120 to the X-ray absorbing layer 110. Other bonding techniques for connecting the electronics 121 to the pixel are possible without the use of vias.
Fig. 8A and 8B each show a component diagram of the electronic system 121 according to an embodiment. The electronic system 121 may include a first voltage comparator 301, a second voltage comparator 302, a plurality of counters 320 (including counters 320A, 320B, 320C, 320D …), a switch 305, an ADC 306, and a controller 310.
The first voltage comparator 301 is configured to compare the voltage of the discrete portion of the electrical contact 119B to a first threshold value. The first voltage comparator 301 may be configured to monitor the voltage directly or calculate the voltage by integrating the current flowing through the diode or electrical contact over a period of time. The first voltage comparator 301 may be controllably activated or deactivated by the controller 310. The first voltage comparator 301 may be a continuous comparator. That is, the first voltage comparator 301 may be configured to be continuously activated and continuously monitor the voltage. The first voltage comparator 301, configured as a continuous comparator, reduces the chance that the system 121 misses the signal generated by the incident X-ray photon. The first voltage comparator 301, which is configured as a continuous comparator, is particularly suitable when the incident X-ray intensity is relatively high. The first voltage comparator 301 may be a clocked comparator, which has the benefit of lower power consumption. The first voltage comparator 301, configured as a clocked comparator, may cause the system 121 to miss signals generated by some incident X-ray photons. At low incident X-ray intensities, the chance of missing an incident X-ray photon is low because the interval between two consecutive photons is relatively long. Thus, the first voltage comparator 301, which is configured as a clocked comparator, is particularly suitable when the incident X-ray intensity is relatively low. The first threshold may be 1-5%, 5-10%, 10% -20%, 20-30%, 30-40%, or 40-50% of the maximum voltage that an incident X-ray photon may produce on electrical contact 119B. The maximum voltage may depend on the energy of the incident X-ray photons (i.e., the wavelength of the incident X-rays), the material of the X-ray absorbing layer 110, and other factors. For example, the first threshold may be 50mV, 100mV, 150mV, or 200mV.
The second voltage comparator 302 is configured to compare the voltage to a second threshold. The second voltage comparator 302 may be configured to monitor the voltage directly or calculate the voltage by integrating the current flowing through the diode or electrical contact over a period of time. The second voltage comparator 302 may be a continuous comparator. The second voltage comparator 302 may be controllably activated or deactivated by the controller 310. When the second voltage comparator 302 is disabled, the power consumption of the second voltage comparator 302 may be less than 1%, less than 5%, less than 10%, or less than 20% of the power consumption when the second voltage comparator 302 is enabled. The absolute value of the second threshold is greater than the absolute value of the first threshold. As used herein, the term "absolute value" or "modulus" of a real number x, is a non-negative value of x regardless of its sign. That is to say,the second threshold may be 200% -300% of the first threshold. For example, the second threshold may be 100mV, 150mV, 200mV, 250mV, or 300mV. The second voltage comparator 302 and the first voltage comparator 310 may be the same component. That is, the system 121 may have one voltage comparator that may compare the voltage to two different thresholds at different times.
The first voltage comparator 301 or the second voltage comparator 302 may comprise one or more operational amplifiers or any other suitable circuit. The first voltage comparator 301 or the second voltage comparator 302 may have a high speed to allow the system 121 to operate at high incident X-ray fluxes. However, having a high speed is generally at the cost of power consumption.
The counter 320 may be a software component (e.g., the number stored in computer memory) or a hardware component (e.g., 4017IC and 7490 IC). Each counter 320 is associated with a bin for a range of energies. For example, counter 320A may be associated with a bin of 70-71KeV, counter 320B may be associated with a bin of 71-72KeV, counter 320C may be associated with a bin of 72-73KeV, and counter 320D may be associated with a bin of 73-74 KeV. When the energy of an incident X-ray photon is determined by ADC 306 to be in the bin with which counter 320 is associated, the number recorded in counter 320 is incremented by one.
The controller 310 may be a hardware component such as a microcontroller and microprocessor. The controller 310 is configured to start a time delay from a time when the first voltage comparator 301 determines that the absolute value of the voltage is greater than or equal to the absolute value of the first threshold (e.g., the absolute value of the voltage increases from below the absolute value of the first threshold to equal to or exceeds the absolute value of the first threshold). Here, an absolute value is used because the voltage may be negative or positive, depending on whether the voltage of the cathode or anode of the diode is used or which electrical contact is used. The controller 310 may be configured to keep disabling the second voltage comparator 302, the counter 320, and any other circuitry not required for the operation of the first voltage comparator 301 until the time the first voltage comparator 301 determines that the absolute value of the voltage is greater than or equal to the absolute value of the first threshold. The time delay may terminate after the voltage has stabilized (i.e., the rate of change of the voltage is substantially zero). The phrase "the rate of change is substantially zero" means that the time change is less than 0.1%/ns. The phrase "the rate of change is substantially non-zero" means that the time variation of the voltage is at least 0.1%/ns.
The controller 310 may be configured to activate the second voltage comparator during a time delay, including start and end. In an embodiment, the controller 310 is configured to activate the second voltage comparator at the beginning of the time delay. The term "enabling" means causing a component to enter an operational state (e.g., by sending a signal such as a voltage pulse or logic level, by providing power, etc.). The term "deactivated" means causing a component to enter a non-operational state (e.g., by sending a signal such as a voltage pulse or logic level, by cutting off power, etc.). The operational state may have a higher power consumption (e.g., 10 times higher, 100 times higher, 1000 times higher) than the non-operational state. The controller 310 itself may be disabled until the output of the first voltage comparator 301 activates the controller 310 when the absolute value of the voltage is greater than or equal to the absolute value of the first threshold.
If during the time delay, the second voltage comparator 302 determines that the absolute value of the voltage is greater than or equal to the absolute value of the second threshold and the energy of the X-ray photon falls in the bin associated with the counter 320, the controller 310 may be configured to cause the number of one record in the counter 320 to increase by one.
The controller 310 may be configured to cause the ADC 306 to digitize the voltage at the expiration of the time delay and determine in which bin the energy of the X-ray photon falls based on the voltage.
The controller 310 may be configured to connect the electrical contact 119B to electrical ground in order to reset the voltage and discharge any carriers accumulated on the electrical contact 119B. In an embodiment, electrical contact 119B is connected to electrical ground after the time delay expires. In an embodiment, electrical contact 119B is connected to electrical ground for a limited reset period. The controller 310 may connect the electrical contact 119B to electrical ground by controlling the switch 305. The switch may be a transistor, such as a Field Effect Transistor (FET).
In an embodiment, system 121 does not have an analog filter network (e.g., an RC network). In one embodiment, system 121 has no analog circuitry.
The ADC 306 may feed the voltage it measures as an analog or digital signal to the controller 310. The ADC may be a Successive Approximation Register (SAR) ADC (also referred to as a successive approximation ADC). The SAR ADC digitizes the analog signal via a binary search through all possible quantization levels before finally converging on the digital output of the analog signal. The SAR ADC may have four main subcircuits: a sample and hold circuit for acquiring an input voltage (Vin); an internal digital-to-analog converter (DAC) configured to supply an analog voltage equal to a digital code output of a Successive Approximation Register (SAR) to an analog voltage comparator that compares Vin with an output of the internal DAC and outputs a comparison result to the SAR, the SAR configured to supply an approximated digital code of Vin to the internal DAC. SAR may be initialized such that the Most Significant Bit (MSB) is equal to the number 1. The code is fed into an internal DAC, which then supplies the analog equivalent of the digital code (Vref/2) into a comparator for comparison with Vin. If the analog voltage exceeds Vin, the comparator causes SAR to reset the bit; otherwise, the bit leaves a 1. The next bit of the SAR is then set to 1 and the same test is performed, continuing the binary search until each bit in the SAR has been tested. The resulting code is a digital approximation of Vin and is finally output by SAR at the end of the digitization.
The system 121 may include a capacitor module 309 electrically connected to the electrical contact 119B, wherein the capacitor module is configured to collect carriers from the electrical contact 119B. The capacitor module may include a capacitor in a feedback path of the amplifier. The amplifier thus configured is called a capacitive transimpedance amplifier (CTIA). CTIA has a high dynamic range by preventing the amplifier from saturating and improves the signal-to-noise ratio by limiting the bandwidth in the signal path. Carriers from the electrode over a period of time ("integration period") (e.g., as shown in fig. 9, at t s To t 0 Between) build up on the capacitor. After the integration period has expired, the capacitor voltage is sampled by the ADC 306 and then reset by a reset switch. The capacitor module 309 can include a capacitor that is directly connected to the electrical contact 119B.
Fig. 9 schematically shows the temporal variation of the current flowing through electrical contact 119B (upper curve) and the corresponding temporal variation of the voltage of electrical contact 119B (lower curve) caused by carriers generated by X-ray photons incident on pixel 150 associated with electrical contact 119B. The voltage may be an integration of the current with respect to time. At time t 0 The X-ray photons strike a diode or resistor, carriers begin to be generated in the pixel 150, current begins to flow through the electrical contact 119B, and the absolute value of the voltage of the electrical contact 119B begins to increase. At time t 1 The first voltage comparator 301 determines that the absolute value of the voltage is equal to or greater than the absolute value of the first threshold V1, the controller 310 starts the time delay TD1, and the controller 310 may deactivate the first voltage comparator 301 at the start of TD 1. If the controller 310 is at t 1 Previously deactivated, at t 1 The controller 310 is started. During TD1, the controller 310 activates the second voltage comparator 302. The term "during" as used herein means beginning and ending (i.e., ending) and any time therebetween. For example, the controller 310 may activate the second voltage comparator 302 when TD1 terminates. If during TD1, the second voltage comparator 302 determines that at time t 2 The absolute value of the voltage is equal to or greater than the absolute value of the second threshold, and the controller 310 waits for the voltage to stabilize. The voltage is at time t e And stabilizes, at which time all carriers generated by the X-ray photons drift out of the X-ray absorbing layer 110. At time t s The time delay TD1 ends. At time t e Or time t e The controller 310 then causes the ADC 306 to digitize the voltage and determine in which bin the energy of the X-ray photon falls. The controller 310 then causes the number recorded by the counter 320 corresponding to the bin to be increased by one. In the example of FIG. 9, time t s At time t e Afterwards; i.e., TD1, is terminated after all carriers generated by the X-ray photons drift out of the X-ray absorbing layer 110. If it is not easy to measure the time t e TD1 may be empirically selected to allow enough time to collect substantially all carriers generated by an X-ray photon but not so long as to risk having another incident X-ray photon. That is, TD1 may be empirically selected such that time t s Empirically at time t e And then, the method is carried out. Time t s Not necessarily at time t e Later, because the controller 310 may ignore TD1 and wait for time t once V2 is reached e . The rate of change of the difference between the voltage and the contribution of dark current to the voltage is thus at t s Substantially zero. The controller 310 may be configured to deactivate the second voltage comparator 302 at the termination of TD1 or at any time in between t 2.
At time t e The voltage is proportional to the number of carriers generated by the X-ray photons, which is related to the energy of the X-ray photons. The controller 310 may be configured to determine the bin into which the energy of the X-ray photon falls based on the output of the ADC 306.
After TD1 is terminated or digitized by ADC 306, and based on the latter, controller 310 connects electrical contact 119B to electrical ground during reset period RST to allow carriers accumulated on electrical contact 119B to flow to ground and reset the voltage. After RST, system 121 is ready to detect another incident X-ray photon. The ratio of incident X-ray photons that the system 121 can handle in the example of fig. 9 is implicitly limited to 1/(td1+rst). If the first voltage comparator 301 is disabled, the controller 310 may activate it at any time before the RST is terminated. If the controller 310 is disabled, it may be activated before the RST is terminated.
Because the detector 100 has many pixels 150 that can operate in parallel, the detector can process a significantly higher proportion of incident X-ray photons. This is because the incidence on a particular pixel 150 is 1/N of the incidence on the entire array of pixels, where N is the number of pixels.
While various aspects and embodiments are disclosed herein, other aspects and embodiments will become apparent to those skilled in the art. The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scope and spirit being indicated by the following claims.
Claims (15)
1. A method for manufacturing a detector, comprising:
separating a portion of a substrate from the substrate;
after separating a portion of the substrate, forming an array of absorber cells on the portion of the substrate, the array of absorber cells comprising a doped sidewall and a plurality of absorber cells, wherein the plurality of absorber cells are configured to absorb X-rays, wherein the doped sidewall surrounds more than one of the plurality of absorber cells, and wherein a first plurality of the absorber cells provides electrical shielding for a second plurality of the absorber cells.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein the array of absorber cells comprises silicon, germanium, gaAs, cdTe, cdZnTe, or a combination thereof.
3. The method of claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of absorber cells comprises an electrical contact.
4. The method of claim 1, wherein each absorption unit of the plurality of absorption units comprises a diode.
5. The method of claim 1, wherein each absorption cell of the plurality of absorption cells comprises a resistor.
6. The method of claim 1, wherein forming the array of absorption cells comprises: the doped sidewalls are formed by doping sidewalls of a portion of the substrate.
7. The method of claim 1, wherein the doped sidewalls are formed prior to forming the plurality of absorber cells.
8. The method of claim 1, wherein the doped sidewalls are formed after the plurality of absorber cells are formed.
9. A method for manufacturing a detector, comprising:
forming an array of absorber cells on a substrate, the array of absorber cells comprising a plurality of absorber cells configured to absorb X-rays, wherein at least one absorber cell of the plurality of absorber cells does not include a guard ring therein for providing electrical isolation for the at least one absorber cell, and at least one absorber cell of the plurality of absorber cells is not enclosed in a guard ring, a first plurality of absorber cells along a perimeter of the array of absorber cells acting as a guard ring providing electrical shielding for a second plurality of absorber cells within the array of absorber cells, prior to separating the array of absorber cells from the substrate;
the absorption cell array is separated from the substrate.
10. The method of claim 9, wherein the array of absorber cells comprises silicon, germanium, gaAs, cdTe, cdZnTe, or a combination thereof.
11. The method of claim 9, wherein each of the plurality of absorber cells comprises an electrical contact.
12. The method of claim 9, wherein each absorption cell of the plurality of absorption cells comprises a diode.
13. The method of claim 9, wherein each of the plurality of absorption cells comprises a resistor.
14. The method of claim 9, further comprising:
after separating the array of absorber cells from the substrate, a doped sidewall is formed on the array of absorber cells, the doped sidewall surrounding more than one absorber cell of the plurality of absorber cells.
15. The method of claim 14, wherein forming the doped sidewalls comprises doping and annealing sidewalls of the array of absorber cells.
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| PCT/CN2017/094441 WO2019019041A1 (en) | 2017-07-26 | 2017-07-26 | Methods of making and using an x-ray detector |
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| CN110914714B true CN110914714B (en) | 2024-02-27 |
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| WO2023281856A1 (en) * | 2021-07-06 | 2023-01-12 | ソニーセミコンダクタソリューションズ株式会社 | Light-receiving device, x-ray imaging device, and electronic equipment |
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| CN110914714A (en) | 2020-03-24 |
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