CN105834564A - Welding tool and clamp-free welding technical method using same - Google Patents
Welding tool and clamp-free welding technical method using same Download PDFInfo
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- CN105834564A CN105834564A CN201610272237.4A CN201610272237A CN105834564A CN 105834564 A CN105834564 A CN 105834564A CN 201610272237 A CN201610272237 A CN 201610272237A CN 105834564 A CN105834564 A CN 105834564A
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B23—MACHINE TOOLS; METAL-WORKING NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
- B23K—SOLDERING OR UNSOLDERING; WELDING; CLADDING OR PLATING BY SOLDERING OR WELDING; CUTTING BY APPLYING HEAT LOCALLY, e.g. FLAME CUTTING; WORKING BY LASER BEAM
- B23K9/00—Arc welding or cutting
- B23K9/32—Accessories
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B23—MACHINE TOOLS; METAL-WORKING NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
- B23K—SOLDERING OR UNSOLDERING; WELDING; CLADDING OR PLATING BY SOLDERING OR WELDING; CUTTING BY APPLYING HEAT LOCALLY, e.g. FLAME CUTTING; WORKING BY LASER BEAM
- B23K2101/00—Articles made by soldering, welding or cutting
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- Plasma & Fusion (AREA)
- Mechanical Engineering (AREA)
- Butt Welding And Welding Of Specific Article (AREA)
Abstract
The invention provides a welding tool and a clamp-free welding technical method using the same. The welding tool comprises a welding gun body, wherein a welding head is arranged on the welding gun body; a knocking device is arranged on one side of the welding gun body and is fixed on the welding gun body through a height adjusting mechanism; and a hammer is arranged on the knocking device, and can be driven by a motor to finish a reciprocating hammering process. In a welding process, a welding region is knocked at any time to remove a great amount of welding stress, and therefore, the precision of a welding part can still be guaranteed under the condition of clamp-free welding.
Description
Technical field
The invention mainly relates to manufacturing industry, the welding stress being specifically related in structural member welding processing eliminates skill
Art, a kind of soldering appliance and use the method for connection technology without welding fixture of this instrument.
Background technology
The shape and size of the weldment that the internal stress produced in weldment in welding process and welding thermal process cause become
Change.The uneven temperature field of welding process and the local plastic deformation caused by it tissue different with specific volume
It it is the basic reason producing welding stress and distortion.When the uneven temperature field that welding causes not yet disappears,
This stress in weldment and deformation are referred to as transient state welding stress and distortion;Stress after field of welding temperature disappearance
It is referred to as remaining welding stress and distortion with deformation.Under conditions of not having External Force Acting, welding stress is at weldment
Inside is balance.Welding stress and distortion can affect function and the outward appearance of weldment under certain condition, therefore
It it is the problem that must take in design and manufacture.
The welding of existing structural member inevitably results from welding stress and causes part deformation, and weldering to be eliminated
Scoop out the power impact on producing, it usually needs make frock clamp and prevent part deformation, or in welding processing
Post-equalization eliminates deformation.Traditional way need to put into bigger manpower and materials, make frock clamp, frock
The design of fixture is the Working position that weldment can be made to be installed on rapidly and accurately fixture, utilizes fixture
It is accurately positioned and reliable grip, it is ensured that the crudy of part, reduces percent defective, improve production efficiency.As
The part processed of fruit is sheet member, due to thin plate welded light weight, the most movable and be difficult to be fixed,
The design difficulty making welding tool setup is big, it is big to put into, and correction difficulty is bigger.
Summary of the invention
The deficiency of the current technology of this solution, the present invention combines prior art, from reality application, it is provided that one
Plant soldering appliance and use the method for connection technology without welding fixture of this soldering appliance, using this soldering appliance and method
Carry out welding without making frock clamp, only need to be according to set welding group point, welding sequence and welding job
Time electric current, Voltage Cortrol, the mutual elimination of the stress that when realizing part welding, each position produces, reach
Part welding is without the effect of deformation.
For achieving the above object, technical scheme is as follows:
A kind of soldering appliance, including torch body, described torch body is provided with plumb joint, and described welding gun is originally
Body side is provided with knocking device, and described knocking device is fixed on torch body by height adjustment mechanism, institute
Stating height adjustment mechanism and include engaging lug, connecting rod, fixing bar and fixing nut, described engaging lug is two,
And be each attached on torch body, engaging lug is provided with strip hole, and described connecting rod is arranged on two engaging lugs
Between, connecting rod is provided with connecting hole, and fixing bar is arranged in connecting hole, and fixing bar two ends are respectively by two
Strip hole on engaging lug stretches out, and is provided with fixing nut at the fixing boom end stretching out strip hole, beats mechanism
Including connecting seat, tup and motor, being provided with tup and accommodate chamber in described connection seat, tup is provided with in accommodating chamber
Spring, described tup one end be arranged on tup accommodate chamber outer with plumb joint with the use of, tup other end setting
Abutting with spring within tup accommodates chamber and by stressed plate, described stressed plate and tup form a T-shaped structure,
Accommodating at tup and be provided with the limiting plate preventing tup abjection tup from accommodating chamber bottom chamber, described motor is fixed on even
Joint chair side, is provided with decelerator below motor, the output shaft of described decelerator connects cam, motor drives
Moving cam rotates, and described cam extend in tup accommodates chamber and coordinates with stressed plate, and cam rotates through
Stressed plate can be driven when journey contacts with stressed plate to drive tup to accommodate chamber internal motion compression spring to tup,
When departing from stressed plate in cam rotary course, tup ejects in being accommodated chamber by tup under the action of the spring,
On described tup, the one end for beaing is spherical.
A kind of method of connection technology without welding fixture using above-mentioned soldering appliance, comprises the following steps:
(1) first weld main structural framework, be allowed to form a frame by welding four angles of main structure simultaneously
Shelf structure, then weld mid portion one complete main structural framework of formation, in main structural framework welding process,
Opening the motor in soldering appliance, each point making the tup in soldering appliance beat weld seam peripheral region makes gold
Belong to and launch to eliminate the deformation that welding stress produces;
(2) after weld metal cools down completely, weld other after main structural framework has been welded again constitute zero
Part, the welding of other parts according to from inside outwards, first short and then long, first vertical after horizontal order weld;
(3) adjustment of Current Voltage is determined during welding according to welding base metal thickness, weld bead height size,
Prevent welding heat overheated while making to meet welding requirements and make part deformation;
(4) to the flatness of weldment and angle is detected after having welded, if flatness or diagonal angle
Spend overproof, then part is lain on verification platform, measure the region that there is deformation with ruler, in deformation
In the range of divide equally three points, use flame gun to burn at red 3 and be corrected, the baking duration and degree of heating is with deflection size
Depending on, the most again measure after baking, until qualified.
When welding other constituent parts, when there is two or more pieces weld seam at same position, welding direction should
For a positive and a negative, stress and torsion is made mutually to eliminate.
The edge of a wing angle welding first reserving one section of 20mm when weld seam two ends weld is not welded, in order to welding is received
The stress that contracting produces can discharge from there, the most just edge of a wing angle welding is soldered, in allowing edge of a wing angle welding bear
Stress.
During the more structural member of welded seam, should first weld the short weld seam staggered, the more straight-through long weld seam of weldering, in case in weldering
Seam junction cracks, if weld seam is longer, uses backstep welding and wandering sequence, makes homogeneous temperature divide
Cloth, reduces welding stress and distortion.
When carrying out main structural framework welding, need to use many people simultaneously according to the concrete structure of main structural framework
The method of welding, enables frame structure disposably to have welded.
Detection to flatness includes the detection in direction in length and breadth, uses ruler by flat piece surface, uses clearance ruler
Measure flatness error;To the detection of angle being used two yarns diagonal angles tensions, by stratosphere part plane, use
Clearance ruler measures plane has slotted section, the error at reading maximum and minimum to be angular error.
Beneficial effects of the present invention: combined with soldering tip by tup, makes the tup in welding process can the moment
Automatically tap the weld seam welded, eliminate most welding stress in time, use the welding side of this soldering appliance
Method substitutes the method that traditional fabrication frock clamp eliminates welding stress, saves manufacturing cost, saves human input,
Reduce cost, shorten the R&D and production cycle, it is to avoid after welding, deform the excessive risk that cannot correct.By meter
Calculate the mutual elimination with the stress at each position in welding process of welding group's point, design elements, it is achieved part without
The effect of deformation, saves the manpower and materials input making frock clamp.
Accompanying drawing explanation
Accompanying drawing 1 is the soldering appliance structural front view of the present invention;
Accompanying drawing 2 is the soldering appliance structure top view of the present invention;
Accompanying drawing 3 is the schematic diagram that the present invention is applied to compressor domain structure;
Accompanying drawing 4 is the fundamental diagram of the present invention;
Accompanying drawing 5 is midplane degree error detection method schematic diagram of the present invention;
Accompanying drawing 6 is torsional angle detection method schematic diagram in diagonal angle in the present invention.
Detailed description of the invention
In conjunction with the drawings and specific embodiments, the invention will be further described.Only should be understood that these embodiments
For the present invention being described rather than limiting the scope of the present invention.In addition, it is to be understood that say having read the present invention
After the content awarded, the present invention can be made various changes or modifications by those skilled in the art, these shapes of equal value
Formula falls within the application appended claims limited range equally.
A kind of soldering appliance, including torch body 2, described torch body 2 is provided with plumb joint 1, described weldering
Gun body 2 side is provided with knocking device, and described knocking device is fixed on torch body 2 by height adjustment mechanism
On, described height adjustment mechanism includes engaging lug 3, connecting rod 5, fixing bar 16 and fixing nut 14, institute
Stating engaging lug 3 to be two and be each attached on torch body 2, engaging lug 3 is provided with strip hole 4, described connection
Bar 5 is arranged between two engaging lugs 3, and connecting rod 5 is provided with connecting hole 15, fixing bar 16 company of being arranged on
Connecing in hole 15, fixing bar 16 two ends are stretched out by the strip hole 4 on two engaging lugs 3 respectively, are stretching out length
Fixing bar 16 end of cylindrical void 4 is provided with fixing nut 14, beats mechanism and includes connecting seat 6, tup 13 and
Motor 8, is provided with tup and accommodates chamber 7 in described connection seat 6, tup is provided with spring 17 in accommodating chamber 7, described
Tup 13 one end be arranged on tup accommodate chamber 7 outer with plumb joint 1 with the use of, tup 13 other end setting
Abut with spring 17 within tup accommodates chamber 7 and by stressed plate 9, described stressed plate 9 and tup 13 shape
Become a T-shaped structure, be provided with bottom tup receiving chamber 7 and prevent tup 13 from deviating from the spacing of tup receiving chamber 7
Plate 12, described motor 8 is fixed on connection seat 6 side, is provided with decelerator 10, described deceleration below motor 8
Connect cam 11 on the output shaft of device 10, motor 8 drive cam 11 to rotate, described cam 11
It extend in tup accommodates chamber 7 and coordinate with stressed plate 9, when cam 11 rotary course contacts with stressed plate 9
Stressed plate 9 can be driven to drive tup 13 to accommodate chamber 7 internal motion compression spring 17 to tup, and cam 11 revolves
When departing from stressed plate 9 during Zhuaning, tup 13 is accommodated bullet in chamber 7 by tup under the effect of spring 17
Going out, on described tup 13, the one end for beaing is spherical.
The torch body 2 of the present invention can be that hand-held welding gun is alternatively automatic welding device upper end welding gun, welding gun
Body 2 side is provided with knocking device, and the tup 13 on knocking device mainly plays in welding process timely
Beaing the region that plumb joint 1 welded, to eliminate welding stress, the operation principle of knocking device is as follows:
Motor 8 imparts power to decelerator 10 after starting, and decelerator 10 connects cam 11, drives cam
11 rotate, and due to the structure of cam 11 self, its lug boss can for some time in rotary course
Contacting with stressed plate 9, when cam 11 contacts with stressed plate 9, can lift stressed plate 9, stressed plate 9 is pressed
Contracting spring 17 and drive tup 13 are retracted, when cam 11 is rotated further, and cam 11 meeting and stressed plate 9
Suddenly separating, now tup 13 moment can be ejected by the elasticity of spring 17, it is achieved the percussion function of tup 13,
The beating position of tup 13 is corresponding with the welding position of plumb joint 1.The height adjustment mechanism of the present invention is adjustable
The position of whole tup 13, only need to unclamp fixing nut 14 during adjustment, adjust fixing bar 16 at strip hole
Position in 4.Automatically the tup 13 tapped is arranged on the side of plumb joint 1 by the present invention, in welding
During, starting motor 8, make tup 13 moment tap the position welded, it is simple to operate, can be once
Property complete two work, and most welding stress can be eliminated during tapping, it is ensured that the chi of soldering part
Very little precision.
The method of connection technology without welding fixture of the soldering appliance in the use present invention, comprises the following steps:
(1) first weld main structural framework, be allowed to form a frame by welding four angles of main structure simultaneously
Shelf structure, then weld mid portion one complete main structural framework of formation, in main structural framework welding process,
Opening the motor in soldering appliance, each point making the tup in soldering appliance beat weld seam peripheral region makes gold
Belong to and launch to eliminate the deformation that welding stress produces;Owing to main structural framework stress is relatively big, easily deform, weldering
Termination process is now welded main structural framework weld mid portion again welding stress can be enable relatively evenly to be distributed
On each parts of main structure, prevent unbalanced stress from causing the deformation of part, welded and treated weld seam gold
During belonging to cooling, owing to being produced tension during weld contraction by resistance, when weld seam and overlay cladding exist
Under fervid state, rap weld metal zone with hammer and metal can be made to launch, make metal launch to eliminate welding stress product
Raw cross-direction shrinkage and longitudinal contraction, offset the tension that weld metal zone metal produces when cooling meat, and weld seam expands
Exhibition can reduce the contraction of weld seam, and welding stress can reduce 1/2~1/4.
(2) after weld metal cools down completely, weld other constituent parts after main structural framework has been welded again,
The welding of other parts according to from inside outwards, first short and then long, first vertical after horizontal order weld;Same
There is two or more pieces weld seam at position, and welding direction should be a positive and a negative, makes stress and torsion mutually to eliminate,
The edge of a wing angle welding first reserving one section of about 20mm during the weld of weld seam two ends is not welded, in order to welding is shunk
The stress produced can discharge from there, the most just edge of a wing angle welding is soldered, allows edge of a wing angle welding bear planted agent
Power.
Welding procedure selects the most suitable welding sequence, is for making weld seam free shrink as far as possible.Welding
During the more structural member of weld seam, should first weld the short weld seam staggered, the more straight-through long weld seam of weldering, in case handing at weld seam
The place of connecing cracks, if weld seam is longer, can use backstep welding and wandering sequence, make Temperature Distribution more equal
Even, thus decrease welding stress and distortion.
(3) adjustment of Current Voltage is determined during welding according to welding base metal thickness, weld bead height size,
Prevent welding heat overheated while making to meet welding requirements and make part deformation;Welding current kind and polarity
Affect the size of electric arc input weldment heat, therefore can affect appearance of weld, the droplet transfer can also be affected simultaneously
Process and the removal to mother metal surface film oxide.The size welding quality of welding current and welding productivity
Impact is very big, and electric current is too small, and electric arc is unstable, and fusion penetration is little, easily causes the defects such as lack of penetration and slag inclusion, and
And productivity ratio is low;Electric current is excessive, then weld seam easily produces undercut and the defect such as burns, and causes splashing simultaneously.
Therefore, welding current must select suitably, typically can select according to core diameter empirically formula, then
Suitable adjustment is carried out according to position while welding, joint form, welding level, weldment thickness etc..Arc voltage
Being determined by arc length, electric arc is long, and arc voltage is high;Electric arc is short, then arc voltage is low.Arc voltage
Size mainly affects the molten width of weld seam, and in welding process, electric arc is unsuitable long, and otherwise, arc burning is unstable,
Increase the splashing of metal, but also weld seam can be made to produce pore due to the intrusion of air.Therefore, during welding
The selection of electric current will according to mother metal thickness during welding, weld bead height, joint form etc. because usually adjusting, with
This outer shape ensureing weldment and surface quality, improve the productivity ratio of product.
To the flatness of weldment and angle is detected after having welded, if flatness or super to angle
Difference, then lie in part on verification platform, measure the region that there is deformation with ruler, at the model of deformation
Divide equally three points in enclosing, use flame gun to burn at red 3 and be corrected, depending on the baking duration and degree of heating is with deflection size,
The most again measure after baking, until qualified.Detection to flatness includes the detection in direction in length and breadth,
Use ruler by flat piece surface, measure flatness error with clearance ruler;To the detection employing two to angle
Yarn diagonal angle is strained, and by stratosphere part plane, measuring plane with clearance ruler has slotted section, reading maximum with
The error at little place is angular error.The present invention is merely able to flatness with to the angle i.e. survey of diagonal angle torsional angle
Determine method simple and fast, reach the adjustment to weldment by the method, adjust welded workpiece further
Deformation.
Below in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, the welding method of the present invention (compressor body chassis) in actual applications is made
Enter an explanation:
In accompanying drawing 1, compressor chassis is mainly made up of main structural components 18 and secondary structure parts 19, main
Structure member 18 stress is relatively big, and main structural components 18 is to be welded by A, B, C, the D shown in accompanying drawing 2
The rectangular frame structure of composition, secondary structure parts 19 include E, F, G, H, wherein E, F, G, H
Being welded in main structural components 1, in accompanying drawing, 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6. mark is welding sequence,
Tip is designated welding direction, is the flatness detection method carrying out part 20, mainly uses in accompanying drawing 3
Instrument be ruler 21 and clearance ruler 22, accompanying drawing 4 is the detection side to the diagonal angle torsional angle that part 20 is carried out
Method, the main instrument used is clearance ruler 22 and yarn 23, when this compressor chassis is welded, its
Step is as follows:
1, preparation: scene needs a block plate and can put at the bottom of air compressor machine as composition backing, area
Dish is as the criterion, and the flatness error of composition backing not can exceed that 3mm, is placed on smooth for part on backing plate, weldering
Meet personnel 4, be on close level.
2, first weld main structural item A, B, C, D by order illustrated four people simultaneously, then weld E, F, G,
H, welding current 280A, voltage 27V, after being soldered main structural item, beat weld seam peripheral region with hand hammer
One time, beat and should keep uniform appropriateness, it is to avoid it is undue to beat, and to prevent crack, each point will strike
Arrive, beat and make weld seam be extended, make metal produce plastic elongation deformation, offset part welding and produced
Horizontal and vertical contraction distortion, thus reduce welding stress and distortion.
3, after main structure weld seam cools down, then by mark order 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6. weld, this
Place welding current 240A, voltage 24V, welding by from inside outwards, first short and then long, first vertical after in any case sequence processing,
There is two or more pieces weld seam at same position, and welding direction should be a positive and a negative, as 1., 2. figure mark locates arrow
Shown in head direction, remaining position is intended to weld by this principle, it is ensured that stress and the mutual elimination of torsion,
Welding procedure selects the most suitable welding sequence, is for making weld seam free shrink as far as possible, makes temperature divide
Cloth is more uniform, reduces welding stress and distortion.
4, detect after having welded: the upper flatness error of plane, torsional angle≤3mm.
Detection method: the flatness detection in direction in length and breadth: with ruler 21 by stratosphere part 1 plane, use clearance ruler
22 measure flatness error.
Diagonal angle torsional angle detection: with two yarns 23 diagonal angle tensions, by stratosphere part 1 plane, with clearance ruler 22
Measuring plane has slotted section, the error at reading maximum and minimum to be torsional angle error.
5, such as flatness or overproof to angle, then part 20 is lain on dressing plate, survey with ruler 21
Measure which section and there is deformation, in the range of deformation, divide equally three points, burn red three point calibrations by flame gun.Dry
Time of making a fire is fixed with deflection size, to be cooled after fire measures again, until qualified.
Use method as defined above that compressor chassis is welded, it is not necessary to use frock clamp, and can keep away
Deform the excessive risk that cannot correct after exempting from welding, saved human input and reduced cost.
Claims (7)
- null1. a soldering appliance,Including torch body (2),Described torch body (2) is provided with plumb joint (1),It is characterized in that: described torch body (2) side is provided with knocking device,Described knocking device is fixed on torch body (2) by height adjustment mechanism,Described height adjustment mechanism includes engaging lug (3)、Connecting rod (5)、Fixing bar (16) and fixing nut (14),Described engaging lug (3) is two,And be each attached on torch body (2),Engaging lug (3) is provided with strip hole (4),Described connecting rod (5) is arranged between two engaging lugs (3),Connecting rod (5) is provided with connecting hole (15),Fixing bar (16) is arranged in connecting hole (15),Fixing bar (16) two ends are stretched out by the strip hole (4) on two engaging lugs (3) respectively,It is provided with fixing nut (14) in fixing bar (16) end stretching out strip hole (4),Beat mechanism to include connecting seat (6)、Tup (13) and motor (8),It is provided with tup in described connection seat (6) and accommodates chamber (7),Tup is provided with spring (17) in accommodating chamber (7),Described tup (13) one end be arranged on tup accommodate chamber (7) outward with plumb joint (1) with the use of,Tup (13) other end is arranged in tup accommodates chamber (7) and is abutted with spring (17) by stressed plate (9),Described stressed plate (9) and tup (13) form a T-shaped structure,Accommodate bottom, chamber (7) at tup and be provided with the limiting plate (12) preventing tup (13) abjection tup from accommodating chamber (7),Described motor (8) is fixed on connection seat (6) side,Motor (8) lower section is provided with decelerator (10),Cam (11) is connected on the output shaft of described decelerator (10),Cam (11) is driven to rotate by motor (8),Described cam (11) extend in tup accommodates chamber (7) and coordinates with stressed plate (9),Stressed plate (9) can be driven when cam (11) rotary course contacts with stressed plate (9) to drive tup (13) to accommodate chamber (7) internal motion compression spring (17) to tup,When cam (11) rotary course departs from stressed plate (9),Tup (13) ejects in being accommodated chamber (7) by tup under the effect of spring (17),The upper one end for beaing of described tup (13) is spherical.
- 2. the method for connection technology without welding fixture of the soldering appliance used described in claim 1, it is characterised in that comprise the following steps:(1) main structural framework is first welded, it is allowed to form a frame structure by welding four angles of main structure simultaneously, weld mid portion again and form a complete main structural framework, in main structural framework welding process, opening the motor in soldering appliance, each point making the tup in soldering appliance beat weld seam peripheral region makes metal launch to eliminate the deformation that welding stress produces;(2) after weld metal cools down completely, weld other constituent parts after main structural framework has been welded again, the welding of other parts according to from inside outwards, first short and then long, first vertical after horizontal order weld;(3) to determine the adjustment of Current Voltage during welding according to welding base metal thickness, weld bead height size, prevent welding heat overheated while making to meet welding requirements and make part deformation;(4) to the flatness of weldment and angle is detected after having welded, if flatness or overproof to angle, then part is lain on verification platform, the region that there is deformation is measured with ruler, in the range of deformation, divide equally three points, use flame gun to burn at red 3 and be corrected, depending on the baking duration and degree of heating is with deflection size, the most again measure after baking, until qualified.
- 3. as claimed in claim 2 a kind of without welding fixture connection technology method, it is characterised in that: when welding other constituent parts, when there is two or more pieces weld seam at same position, welding direction should be a positive and a negative, makes stress and torsion mutually to eliminate.
- 4. as claimed in claim 3 a kind of without welding fixture connection technology method, it is characterized in that: the edge of a wing angle welding first reserving one section of 20mm when weld seam two ends weld is not welded, so that welding is shunk the stress produced and can be discharged from there, finally just edge of a wing angle welding is soldered, allows edge of a wing angle welding bear internal stress.
- 5. as claimed in claim 4 a kind of without welding fixture connection technology method, it is characterized in that: during the more structural member of welded seam, should first weld the short weld seam staggered, the straight-through long weld seam of weldering again, in case cracking in weld seam junction, if weld seam is longer, use backstep welding and wandering sequence, make homogeneous temperature be distributed, reduce welding stress and distortion.
- 6. as claimed in claim 2 a kind of without welding fixture connection technology method, it is characterised in that: when carrying out main structural framework welding, need to be according to the concrete structure of main structural framework, the method using many people simultaneously to weld, enable frame structure disposably to have welded.
- 7. as claimed in claim 2 a kind of without welding fixture connection technology method, it is characterised in that: the detection of flatness is included the detection in direction in length and breadth, uses ruler to lean on flat piece surface, measure flatness error with clearance ruler;To the detection of angle uses two yarns diagonal angles tensions, by stratosphere part plane, measuring plane with clearance ruler has slotted section, and the error at reading is maximum and minimum is angular error.
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