CN105798301A - Stress slow release method for TC4 titanium alloy additive manufacturing component based on double electron beams - Google Patents
Stress slow release method for TC4 titanium alloy additive manufacturing component based on double electron beams Download PDFInfo
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- 238000004519 manufacturing process Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 75
- 229910001069 Ti alloy Inorganic materials 0.000 title claims abstract description 63
- 238000000034 method Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 45
- 238000010894 electron beam technology Methods 0.000 title abstract description 16
- 239000000654 additive Substances 0.000 title abstract 10
- 230000000996 additive effect Effects 0.000 title abstract 10
- 239000000945 filler Substances 0.000 claims abstract description 6
- 239000000463 material Substances 0.000 claims description 59
- 238000005253 cladding Methods 0.000 claims description 43
- 230000008569 process Effects 0.000 claims description 23
- 238000003466 welding Methods 0.000 claims description 12
- 238000001816 cooling Methods 0.000 claims description 10
- 239000000758 substrate Substances 0.000 claims description 10
- 238000007711 solidification Methods 0.000 claims description 8
- 230000008023 solidification Effects 0.000 claims description 8
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Classifications
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B22—CASTING; POWDER METALLURGY
- B22F—WORKING METALLIC POWDER; MANUFACTURE OF ARTICLES FROM METALLIC POWDER; MAKING METALLIC POWDER; APPARATUS OR DEVICES SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR METALLIC POWDER
- B22F10/00—Additive manufacturing of workpieces or articles from metallic powder
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B22—CASTING; POWDER METALLURGY
- B22F—WORKING METALLIC POWDER; MANUFACTURE OF ARTICLES FROM METALLIC POWDER; MAKING METALLIC POWDER; APPARATUS OR DEVICES SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR METALLIC POWDER
- B22F10/00—Additive manufacturing of workpieces or articles from metallic powder
- B22F10/20—Direct sintering or melting
- B22F10/25—Direct deposition of metal particles, e.g. direct metal deposition [DMD] or laser engineered net shaping [LENS]
-
- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B22—CASTING; POWDER METALLURGY
- B22F—WORKING METALLIC POWDER; MANUFACTURE OF ARTICLES FROM METALLIC POWDER; MAKING METALLIC POWDER; APPARATUS OR DEVICES SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR METALLIC POWDER
- B22F10/00—Additive manufacturing of workpieces or articles from metallic powder
- B22F10/30—Process control
- B22F10/36—Process control of energy beam parameters
-
- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B22—CASTING; POWDER METALLURGY
- B22F—WORKING METALLIC POWDER; MANUFACTURE OF ARTICLES FROM METALLIC POWDER; MAKING METALLIC POWDER; APPARATUS OR DEVICES SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR METALLIC POWDER
- B22F10/00—Additive manufacturing of workpieces or articles from metallic powder
- B22F10/80—Data acquisition or data processing
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B33—ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
- B33Y—ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING, i.e. MANUFACTURING OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL [3-D] OBJECTS BY ADDITIVE DEPOSITION, ADDITIVE AGGLOMERATION OR ADDITIVE LAYERING, e.g. BY 3-D PRINTING, STEREOLITHOGRAPHY OR SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING
- B33Y10/00—Processes of additive manufacturing
-
- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B33—ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
- B33Y—ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING, i.e. MANUFACTURING OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL [3-D] OBJECTS BY ADDITIVE DEPOSITION, ADDITIVE AGGLOMERATION OR ADDITIVE LAYERING, e.g. BY 3-D PRINTING, STEREOLITHOGRAPHY OR SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING
- B33Y50/00—Data acquisition or data processing for additive manufacturing
- B33Y50/02—Data acquisition or data processing for additive manufacturing for controlling or regulating additive manufacturing processes
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
- Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
- Y02P10/00—Technologies related to metal processing
- Y02P10/25—Process efficiency
Abstract
The invention discloses a stress slow release method for a TC4 titanium alloy additive manufacturing component based on double electron beams, particularly relates to a stress slow release control method for the large-size TC4 titanium alloy additive manufacturing component based on the double electron beams, and relates to the technical field of additive manufacturing. The method comprises the steps of A, establishing and correcting a temperature field model of the double electron beams; and B, carrying out filler wire additive manufacturing through the double electron beams. According to the method, the phase change is controlled in real time in the additive manufacturing process through the double electron beam technology, slow release of stress of the large-size TC4 titanium alloy additive manufacturing component is realized through the mode of improving the integral plasticity by controlling the phase change, a new method is provided for solving the key technological problem of manufacturing of the large-size TC4 titanium alloy additive manufacturing component, the utilization potentiality of the additive manufacturing technology in the field of aviation, aerospace, petroleum, the chemical industry and metallurgy is improved, and theoretical and technical guidance is provided for additive manufacturing of other metal material.
Description
Technical field
The present invention relates to increasing material manufacturing technology field, refer specifically to a kind of large scale TC4 titanium alloy based on twin-cathode ray beam and increase material manufacture component stress Controlled release method.
Background technology
The material of TC4 titanium alloy consists of Ti-6Al-4V, belong to (alpha+beta) Type Titanium Alloy, it has good corrosion resistance, low-density, high specific strength, excellent toughness and the series of advantages such as mechanical behavior under high temperature and weldability, in the application that the departments such as Aero-Space, petrochemical industry, shipbuilding, automobile, medicine all succeed.Especially, along with titanium alloy demand is become increasingly conspicuous by aerospace field so that titanium alloy increases material manufacture and becomes, as a kind of saving, efficient technology, the Main way that following titanium alloy manufactures.
But meanwhile, because TC4 titanium alloy phase transformation bulk effect is little, the stress proportion that the crystal structure change in volume that phase transformation causes produces is only small, almost can ignore.Therefore, titanium alloy welding is as follows with difficult point with the subject matter increasing material manufacture:
First, titanium alloy high-temperature molten bath is very easily oxidized.In view of titanium alloy activity is relatively big, at high temperature, titanium alloy very easily reacts with the element such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, causes the defect such as pore, crackle.
Second, titanium alloy cladding layer stress is concentrated yielding.Owing to titanium alloy heat conductivity is poor, weld dimensions different from rate of cooling can produce thermal stress because being heated under Source, and this is the immediate cause causing titanium alloy member stress excessive.On the other hand, conventional increasing manufacture process rate of cooling is exceedingly fast, after rate of cooling control measure owing to lacking necessity make solidification, tissue is mainly formed (as shown in Figure 1) by the α ' martensitic phase that plasticity is poor, α ' martensitic phase makes its distortion of lattice serious due to the super saturated solid solution of solute element, causing its firmly crisp feature, after which results in solidification, the stress of cladding layer cannot obtain slow release.Further, owing to the stress of monolayer cannot be improved timely, in follow-up increasing material manufacture process, the stress effect of each layer will accumulate, and the deformation of member occurs when time larger in size, cracking even occurs, result in large scale part and manufactures difficulty.This is the remote cause (as shown in Figure 2) causing titanium alloy member stress excessive.
Increase, for titanium alloy, the above-mentioned Major Difficulties that material manufactures, using vacuum electron beam as thermal source, desirably prevent the oxidation of titanium alloy in increasing material manufacture process.If adopted someway on this basis, thermal stress can be reduced on the one hand, α martensitic phase content can be reduced again on the other hand, increase the good α phase of plasticity and toughness and β phase content, carrying out slow release by improving component entirety plasticity counter stress in real time, this has important directive significance by breakthrough large-scale titanium alloy is increased material manufacture parts key technology bottleneck.
Through the literature search of prior art is found, " China YouSe Acta Metallurgica Sinica " the 10th phase in 2007 has delivered one section of the Hu Meijuan article being entitled as " numerical simulation that 12mm thickness titanium alloy plate electron beam welds ".Have employed ANSYS finite element software in literary composition 12mm thickness titanium alloy plate electron beam welding temperature field and stress field are simulated, its experimental result is coincide better with analog result.But single beam electrons bundle welding process is only simulated by it.One section of the Chen Furong delivered for 2004 at " Dunhuang International Welding academic marketplace " is entitled as the article of " TC4 Titanium Alloy After Post-weld Electron Beam Local heat treatment temperature Numerical Simulation ".Wherein simulating joint after utilizing electron beam butt welding and carry out local heat treatmet, it only discusses the feature in temperature field." Tsing-Hua University's journal " the 5th phase in 2008 has delivered one section of the Yin Xin article being entitled as " numerical simulation of two-beam electron beam welding temperature field " again.Literary composition proposes a kind of two-beam electro-beam welding process, and temperature profile effect is simulated by double; two thermal source couplings, but it does not relate to or mentions the thinking carrying out Controlled release by controlling phase transition process counter stress.By retrieval result it can be seen that utilize the method accurately controlling to control to realize slow release cladding layer stress concentration by phase in version of auxiliary beam energy in twin-cathode ray beam have not been reported in increasing material manufacture process.
Summary of the invention
It is an object of the invention to effectively slow release cladding layer stress to solve the cumulative stress effect problem of large scale part, it is proposed that a kind of large scale TC4 titanium alloy increase material manufacture the real-time slow release of component stress control method.
The technical thought (as shown in Figure 3) of the present invention, is split electron beam based in increasing material manufacture process, and wherein, high-energy main beam filler wire forms molten bath, and the cladding layer of just solidification is quickly scanned heating by low-yield auxiliary bundle.In conjunction with the feature of beam energy controllable precise, two-beam slow cooling is utilized to control cladding layer solidification processing temperature cyclic curve.Reduce, by auxiliary bundle, the thermograde formed by main beam on the one hand, so that cladding layer and the neighbouring thermal treatment zone each position amount of plastic deformation is uniform, reduce thermal stress；On the other hand by extending the alpha+beta coexistence region time of staying (in accompanying drawing 1, rate of cooling reduction can realize extending the alpha+beta coexistence region time of staying), increase α and β phase content, α martensitic phase is suppressed to improve component entirety plasticity, to improve titanium alloy member deformability.Realize titanium alloy by two aspect comprehensive functions and increase reduction and the slow release of material manufacture monolayer cladding layer residual stress.Obtaining, on the basis of improvement in real time, utilizing the method successively to improve stress in real time in follow-up increasing material manufacture process at ground floor stress, this adds, with stacking, the cumulative stress effect caused by greatly weakening layer, and the final increasing material obtaining low stress manufactures component.
The technical scheme that a kind of large scale TC4 titanium alloy based on twin-cathode ray beam of the present invention increases material manufacture component stress release method is as follows:
Twin-cathode ray beam is adopted to carry out large scale TC4 titanium alloy increasing material manufacture, solidification processing temperature gradient is accurately controlled with regulating by the introducing of auxiliary bundle, extend α and β coexistence region high-temperature residence time, to increase primary alpha phase and to retain more remaining β phase and reduce and suppress the generation of α martensitic phase, titanium alloy member entirety plasticity is improved by controlling the mode of phase transformation, to improve titanium alloy member deformability, realizing large scale TC4 titanium alloy and increase the stress Controlled release of material manufacture parts, it specifically comprises the following steps that
The foundation of step A twin-cathode ray beam models for temperature field and correction；Step B utilizes twin-cathode ray beam to carry out the increasing material manufacture composition that fills silk.
The described TC4 titanium alloy based on twin-cathode ray beam increases material and manufactures component stress release method, its feature, and described step A also has the following steps:
A.1, before step increases material manufacture, use Marc Finite Element Simulation Software to set up twin-cathode ray beam increasing material manufacture process models for temperature field by loading TC4 titanium alloy thermophysical parameter, stress and strain model, heat source model and boundary condition；
A.2, thermocouple is welded in the cladding layer near zone on TC4 mother metal substrate by step, and its outfan is connected with outside temperature measuring equipment by the plug of vacuum chamber ring flange, then is connected with computer；
A.3, step utilizes thermocouple to be acquired increasing material manufacture process temperature, and model parameter titanium alloy thermophysical parameter, stress and strain model, heat source model and technological parameter factor are adjusted according to thermocouple temperature measurement result, revise to ensure the reliability of models for temperature field.
Described step B also has the following steps:
B.1, TC4 titanium alloy plate is cut by step, the mother metal substrate thick to obtain 4～10mm, the polishing of TC4 titanium alloy surface of mother substrate is removed oxide-film, cleans with acetone, dry rear clamping and be fixed in vacuum chamber on workbench.
B.2, it is 30 °～60 ° that step adjusts wire feed angle, is sent by wire feeder by the TC4 titanium alloy welding wire that diameter is 0.8～1.2mm, deliver to lower spot position through spray nozzle device in vacuum chamber, and dry extension of electrode is 1cm.
B.3, step closes vacuum chamber evacuation, makes the vacuum of vacuum chamber reach 5 × 10-2Below Pa.
B.4, step adopts preposition silk filling orientation to carry out increasing material manufacture, according to model to increase material manufacture process technological parameter, accelerating potential, main beam line, wire feed rate, cladding speed, auxiliary bundle line and rate of scanning are set, main beam filler wire forms cladding layer, and the cladding layer of just solidification is quickly scanned heating by auxiliary bundle.
Step is B.5 by the rate of cooling adjusting control cladding layer to auxiliary bundle, to extend alpha+beta coexistence region high-temperature residence time.
Step is B.6 when, after the manufacture completing one cladding layer, making workbench along being perpendicular to 70%～80% distance increasing material manufacturing direction one cladding layer width of walking, to carry out the manufacture of lower road cladding layer with the 20%～30% of front road cladding layer one cladding layer width of overlap joint.
Step, B.7 after completing same plane manufacture, makes jacking system reduce a cladding layer thickness, and mobile working platform returns to former lower spot position.
B.8, step is passed through B.2～step large-scale titanium alloy that is repeatedly performed B.7 to step and is increased material manufacture process.
The present invention is different from existing stress relief annealing and processes, use the method controlled successively can improve stress in real time, the method has been filled up welding and has increased the blank that in the technical process of material manufacture field, titanium alloy phase and stress cannot control in real time, manufactures a key technology difficult problem for Aero-Space large scale TC4 titanium alloy increasing material manufacture component and provides a kind of new method.
Accompanying drawing explanation
Fig. 1 is TC4 alloy continuous cooling transformation (CCT) curve figure；
Fig. 2 is that the conventional material that increases manufactures stress accumulation procedural block diagram；
Fig. 3 is the stress slow release procedural block diagram that the present invention adopts under twin-cathode ray beam intervention；
Fig. 4 is the front view that vacuum electron beam of the present invention increases material manufacture equipment；
Fig. 5 is the top view that vacuum electron beam of the present invention increases material manufacture equipment.
Number in the figure explanation
1. vacuum chamber；2. wire feed nozzle；3. wire feeder；4.TC4 welding wire；5. main beam；6. auxiliary bundle；7. cladding layer；8.TC4 substrate；9. workbench；10. jacking system；11. thermocouple；12. ring flange；13. temperature measuring equipment；14. computer.
A. fill silk angle；B. stem elongation.
Detailed description of the invention
Below in conjunction with drawings and Examples, the invention will be further described
The embodiment of the present invention (as shown in accompanying drawing 4,5)
One, the foundation of twin-cathode ray beam models for temperature field and correction
Before step 1, increasing material manufacture, Marc Finite Element Simulation Software is used to set up twin-cathode ray beam increasing material manufacture process models for temperature field by loading TC4 titanium alloy thermophysical parameter, stress and strain model, thermal source and boundary condition.
Step 2, cladding layer 7 near zone being welded in by thermocouple 11 on TC4 mother metal substrate 8, its outfan is connected with outside temperature measuring equipment 13 by the plug of vacuum chamber 1 ring flange 12, then is connected with computer 14.
Step 3, utilize thermocouple 11 to increase material manufacture process temperature be acquired, according to thermocouple temperature measurement result, the factors such as model parameter such as titanium alloy thermophysical parameter, stress and strain model, heat source model and technological parameter are adjusted and revise ensureing the reliability of models for temperature field.
Two, twin-cathode ray beam is utilized to carry out the increasing material manufacture that fills silk
Step 4, TC4 titanium alloy plate is cut, the mother metal substrate 8 thick to obtain 4～10mm, TC4 titanium alloy mother metal substrate 8 surface finish is removed oxide-film, cleans with acetone, dry rear clamping and be fixed in vacuum chamber 1 on workbench 9.
Step 5, adjustment wire feed angle A are 30 °～60 °, sent by wire feeder 3 by the TC4 titanium alloy welding wire 4 that diameter is 0.8～1.2mm, deliver to lower spot position through spray nozzle device 2 in vacuum chamber 1, and dry extension of electrode B is 1cm.
Step 6, closedown vacuum chamber 1 evacuation, make the vacuum of vacuum chamber reach 5 × 10-2Below Pa.
Step 7, adopt preposition silk filling orientation carry out increase material manufacture, according to model to increase manufacture process parameter carry out as follows set:
Accelerating potential is 60～150kV, cladding speed is 100～300mm/min, electron beam beam splitting is with main beam 5 filler wire of 20～40mA, wire feed rate is 0.5m/min～2m/min, with line be 1～5mA, rate of scanning be that the auxiliary bundle 6 of 50～500Hz quickly scans the cladding layer 7 to just solidification and is heated.
Step 8, by auxiliary bundle 6 adjust control cladding layer 7 rate of cooling, rate of cooling controls within the scope of 20 DEG C/s～410 DEG C/s to extend alpha+beta coexistence region high-temperature residence time.
Step 9, when after the manufacture completing one cladding layer 7, make workbench along being perpendicular to 70%～80% distance increasing material manufacturing direction one cladding layer 7 width of walking, carry out the manufacture of lower road cladding layer 7 overlapping the 20%～30% of cladding layer 7 width with front road cladding layer 7, complete conplane increasing material manufacture in this way.
Step 10, when complete same plane manufacture after, make jacking system 10 reduce cladding layer 7 thickness, and mobile working platform 9 return to former lower spot position.
Step 11, by step 5～step 10 be repeatedly performed large-scale titanium alloy increase material manufacture process.
In sum, the present invention adopts twin-cathode ray beam technology in increasing material manufacture process, phase transformation to be controlled in real time, to control to achieve in the way of phase transformation improves component entirety plasticity the slow release of large scale TC4 titanium alloy increasing material manufacture component stress, the key technology difficult problem increasing material manufacture component manufacture for large scale TC4 titanium alloy provides a kind of new method, improving the increasing material manufacturing technology application potential in fields such as Aeronautics and Astronautics, oil, chemical industry, metallurgy, the increasing material manufacture for other metal material provides theory and technological guidance.
Claims (5)
1. the TC4 titanium alloy based on twin-cathode ray beam increases material manufacture component stress release method, it is characterised in that by the foundation of step A twin-cathode ray beam models for temperature field and correction, and step B utilizes twin-cathode ray beam to carry out the increasing material manufacture composition that fills silk.
2. the TC4 titanium alloy based on twin-cathode ray beam as claimed in claim 1 increases material manufacture component stress release method, it is characterised in that described step A is also as follows in steps:
A.1, before step increases material manufacture, use Finite Element Simulation Software to set up twin-cathode ray beam increasing material manufacture process models for temperature field by loading TC4 titanium alloy thermophysical parameter, stress and strain model, heat source model and boundary condition；
A.2, thermocouple is welded in the cladding layer near zone on TC4 mother metal substrate by step, and its outfan is connected with outside temperature measuring equipment by the plug of vacuum chamber ring flange, then is connected with computer；
A.3, step utilizes thermocouple to be acquired increasing material manufacture process temperature, and model parameter titanium alloy thermophysical parameter, stress and strain model, heat source model and technological parameter factor are adjusted according to thermocouple temperature measurement result, revise to ensure the reliability of models for temperature field.
3. the TC4 titanium alloy based on twin-cathode ray beam as claimed in claim 1 increases material manufacture component stress release method, it is characterised in that described step B is also as follows in steps:
B.1, TC4 titanium alloy plate is cut by step, the mother metal substrate thick to obtain 4～10mm, the polishing of TC4 titanium alloy surface of mother substrate is removed oxide-film, cleans with acetone, dry rear clamping and be fixed in vacuum chamber on workbench；
B.2, it is 30 °～60 ° that step adjusts wire feed angle, is sent by wire feeder by the TC4 titanium alloy welding wire that diameter is 0.8～1.2mm, deliver to lower spot position through spray nozzle device in vacuum chamber, and dry extension of electrode is 1cm；
B.3, step closes vacuum chamber evacuation, makes the vacuum of vacuum chamber reach 5 × 10-2Below Pa；
B.4, step adopts preposition silk filling orientation to carry out increasing material manufacture, according to model to increase material manufacture process technological parameter, accelerating potential, main beam line, wire feed rate, cladding speed, auxiliary bundle line and rate of scanning are set, main beam filler wire forms cladding layer, and the cladding layer of just solidification is quickly scanned heating by auxiliary bundle；
Step is B.5 by the rate of cooling adjusting control cladding layer to auxiliary bundle, to extend alpha+beta coexistence region high-temperature residence time；
Step is B.6 when, after the manufacture completing one cladding layer, making workbench along being perpendicular to 70%～80% distance increasing material manufacturing direction one cladding layer width of walking, to carry out the manufacture of lower road cladding layer with the 20%～30% of front road cladding layer one cladding layer width of overlap joint；
Step, B.7 after completing same plane manufacture, makes jacking system reduce a cladding layer thickness, and mobile working platform returns to former lower spot position；
Step B.8 repeat step B.2～step B.7 complete large-scale titanium alloy increase material manufacture.
4. the TC4 titanium alloy based on twin-cathode ray beam as claimed in claim 3 increases material and manufactures component stress release method, it is characterised in that described step B.4 wherein:
Accelerating potential is 60～150kV, and cladding speed is 100～300mm/min；
Main beam is with line 20～40mA filler wire；
Auxiliary bundle with line be 1～5mA, rate of scanning be that cladding layer is quickly scanned heating by 50～500Hz.
5. the TC4 titanium alloy based on twin-cathode ray beam as claimed in claim 3 increases material and manufactures component stress release method, it is characterised in that described step B.5 wherein:
Rate of cooling controls in 20 DEG C/s～410 DEG C/s.
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Cited By (11)
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| CN106583719A (en) * | 2016-08-23 | 2017-04-26 | 西北工业大学 | Preparation method capable of synchronously improving strength and plasticity of additive manufactured titanium alloy |
| CN107138924A (en) * | 2017-06-27 | 2017-09-08 | 中国航发北京航空材料研究院 | A kind of bimetallic dual-property titanium alloy blisk manufacture method |
| CN107498043A (en) * | 2017-07-04 | 2017-12-22 | 西安智熔金属打印系统有限公司 | Electron beam fuse increasing material manufacturing device and its control method |
| CN107866631A (en) * | 2016-09-23 | 2018-04-03 | 中国航空工业集团公司北京航空制造工程研究所 | A kind of crystal grain refinement device and method based on the shaping of electron beam fuse |
| CN109514069A (en) * | 2018-11-15 | 2019-03-26 | 中国航空制造技术研究院 | The stress deformation control method and device of electron beam fuse increasing material manufacturing technique |
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| CN112517924B (en) * | 2020-11-11 | 2023-03-10 | 三峡大学 | Electric arc additive manufacturing method based on reverse compensation |
| CN115229205A (en) * | 2022-07-18 | 2022-10-25 | 中国第二重型机械集团德阳万航模锻有限责任公司 | Method for manufacturing beta titanium alloy with double lamellar structures by electron beam additive manufacturing |
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