Classifications

• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M1/00—Details of apparatus for conversion
  • H02M1/0048—Circuits or arrangements for reducing losses
  • H02M1/0054—Transistor switching losses
  • H02M1/0058—Transistor switching losses by employing soft switching techniques, i.e. commutation of transistors when applied voltage is zero or when current flow is zero
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M3/00—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output
  • H02M3/22—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC
  • H02M3/24—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters
  • H02M3/28—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC
  • H02M3/325—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal
  • H02M3/335—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only
  • H02M3/33569—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only having several active switching elements
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M1/00—Details of apparatus for conversion
  • H02M1/0003—Details of control, feedback or regulation circuits
  • H02M1/0009—Devices or circuits for detecting current in a converter
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M1/00—Details of apparatus for conversion
  • H02M1/08—Circuits specially adapted for the generation of control voltages for semiconductor devices incorporated in static converters
  • H02M1/083—Circuits specially adapted for the generation of control voltages for semiconductor devices incorporated in static converters for the ignition at the zero crossing of the voltage or the current
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M3/00—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output
  • H02M3/22—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC
  • H02M3/24—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters
  • H02M3/28—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC
  • H02M3/325—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal
  • H02M3/335—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M3/00—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output
  • H02M3/22—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC
  • H02M3/24—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters
  • H02M3/28—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC
  • H02M3/325—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal
  • H02M3/335—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only
  • H02M3/33507—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only with automatic control of the output voltage or current, e.g. flyback converters
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M3/00—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output
  • H02M3/22—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC
  • H02M3/24—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters
  • H02M3/28—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC
  • H02M3/325—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal
  • H02M3/335—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only
  • H02M3/33507—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only with automatic control of the output voltage or current, e.g. flyback converters
  • H02M3/33523—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output with intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode to produce the intermediate AC using devices of a triode or a transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only with automatic control of the output voltage or current, e.g. flyback converters with galvanic isolation between input and output of both the power stage and the feedback loop
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02B—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES RELATED TO BUILDINGS, e.g. HOUSING, HOUSE APPLIANCES OR RELATED END-USER APPLICATIONS
  • Y02B70/00—Technologies for an efficient end-user side electric power management and consumption
  • Y02B70/10—Technologies improving the efficiency by using switched-mode power supplies [SMPS], i.e. efficient power electronics conversion e.g. power factor correction or reduction of losses in power supplies or efficient standby modes

Definitions

• a direct current (DC)-to-DC or alternating current (AC)-to-DC flyback converter converts the input voltage to an output voltage and provides a galvanic isolation between the two voltages.
• One category of flyback converters is a quasi-resonant flyback converter in which variable frequency is used to determine when to turn on valley switching. For a quasi-resonant flyback converter, turnon losses by a switch can be eliminated or reduced by operating in a valley switching mode.
• a control circuit for a converter includes a terminal adapted to be coupled to a switch node of the converter.
• the control circuit includes a valley sensing circuit coupled to the terminal and configured to detect valleys in an oscillating voltage on the switch node.
• the valley sensing circuit has a first output and is configured to assert a first control signal on the first output indicative of occurrence of a valley.
• a logic gate has a second output. The logic gate is configured to assert a second control signal on the second output to turn on a switching transistor coupled to the switch node.
• a switch-on control circuit has a first input and a second input. The first input is coupled to the first output. The second input is coupled to the second output. The switch-on control circuit is configured to assert a third control signal to turn on the switching transistor responsive to the second control signal indicating that the switching transistor is to be turned on while the first control indicates occurrence of a valley.
• a method of controlling a flyback converter includes turning off a switching transistor coupled to a transformer’s primary coil at a switch node, the method includes detecting when current through the secondary coil of the transformer falls to approximately 0 amperes. The method further includes determining when each valley of an oscillatory voltage on the switch node occurs. Responsive to receipt of a signal to turn on the switching transistor, the method includes turning on the switching transistor upon a subsequent occurrence of a valley.
• FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic of the control circuit for a flyback converter in an example.
• FIG. 2 illustrates a timing diagram of the operation of a primary-side regulated flyback converter in an example.
• FIG. 3 illustrates a timing diagram for detecting a switch valley in an example.
• a flyback voltage converter converts an input voltage (or current) to a desired output voltage (or current) using a transformer with a primary and secondary coil which is connected between the input and output, respectively.
• the transformer provides galvanic isolation between the input and output.
• the converter includes a switching element (e.g., a transistor) connected to the primary coil to turn on and off current to the primary coil.
• a flyback converter is a quasi- resonant flyback converter.
• a quasi-resonant flyback converter can operate in continuous conduction mode (CCM), in discontinuous conduction mode (DCM), or in boundary conduction mode (BCM).
• CCM continuous conduction mode
• DCM discontinuous conduction mode
• BCM boundary conduction mode
• the embodiments described herein are directed to a control circuit for a quasi-resonant flyback converter capable of operating in DCM. However, the described techniques apply to BCM operation as well.
• the control circuit described herein is particularly useful for primary-side regulated flyback converters in which the control circuit regulates the current through the primary coil of a transformer to thereby regulate the output voltage on the secondary side of the transformer.
• the control circuit includes a feedback (FB) node adapted to be coupled to the switch node (SW) of a flyback converter.
• the control circuit is fabricated as an integrated circuit (IC) and the FB node is a pin of the IC.
• the control circuit includes circuitry that monitors the FB node for three reasons: (1) zero-cross current sensing, (2) output voltage (VOUT) sampling, and (3) SW node valley sensing.
• the main switching element e.g., a transistor
• the secondary coil current of the transformer jumps up and then starts to decay approximately linearly until the secondary current reaches (crosses) zero current, at which time the SW node voltage begins to ring sinusoidally.
• the ringing SW node voltage has a series of decaying peaks and valleys.
• the SW node voltage is coupled across the switching element.
• a valley sensing circuit within the control circuit prevents the switching element from turning on until the next SW node voltage valley occurs.
• switching losses in the switching element are reduced compared to what would be the case if the switching element were turned when the SW node voltage is larger than a valley point during the ringing SW node voltage waveform.
• FIG. 1 is a schematic of a DC-DC flyback converter 100 in an illustrative embodiment.
• the flyback converter 100 includes an input 108 adapted to receive an input voltage (VIN) and an output 109 that provides the output voltage VOUT.
• the converter 100 also includes a transformer TRI, a diode DI, and a transistor Ml (the switching element mentioned above).
• the transformer TRI includes a primary coil LI and a secondary coil L2.
• the diode DI is coupled to the secondary coil L2 and functions to rectify the voltage from the secondary coil.
• Current Ipri is the current through the primary coil LI
• current Isec is the current through the secondary coil L2.
• the converter may also include an output capacitor COUT. The voltage across capacitor COUT is VOUT. When Ml is on, current flows from VIN, through the primary coil LI and through Ml to ground. When Ml is off, the primary coil current is 0 amperes (amps).
• the converter has a control circuit 120 which functions to, among other things, determine when to turn Ml and off to thereby regulate the current through the primary side of the transformer in order to regulate VOUT.
• the flyback converter 100 in FIG. 1 thus employs primary side regulation (PSR).
• the control circuit 120 includes a valley sensing circuit 150 which ensures that Ml is turned on at a valley of the oscillatory phase of the SW node voltage.
• the control circuit 120 regulates VOUT by determining the magnitude of VOUT and adjusting the duty cycle of Ml to maintain VOUT at a target level.
• VOUT is provided on the secondary side of transformer TRI, but the control circuit is connected to the primary side of the transformer.
• the control circuit 120 does not have a galvanic connection to VOUT. Instead, the control circuit infers the magnitude of VOUT by monitoring the magnitude of the voltage on the SW node.
• FIG. 2 illustrates waveforms of the flyback converter 100 during a switching cycle.
• the waveforms include VIN, the SW node voltage, and currents Ipri and Isec.
• Ipri ramps up approximately linearly as shown at 201.
• Ton The period of time that Ml is on.
• Ipri drops to 0 amps and Isec jumps up as shown at 202.
• Isec then decreases approximately linearly as shown at 203.
• Isec reaches 0 (point 204).
• the next switching cycle starts at 210. Between point 202 and 210, Ml is off. This time period is identified as Toff in FIG. 2. Between points 204 and 210, not only is Ipri equal to 0 amps, but Isec is also equal to 0 amps.
• the SW node voltage is 0V when Ml is on. As soon as the control circuit 120 turns Ml off, the SW node voltage jumps up to a value that is larger than Vin as identified at 220.
• the magnitude of the SW node voltage is a function of the turns ratio of the transformer, VOUT, the forward voltage drop (Vf) of diode DI, and the product of Isec and Resr. Resr is the sum of the parasitic resistances of diode DI and capacitor Cout.
• the voltage of the FB node (Vfb) is directly proportional to the voltage of the SW node, and thus equation (1) provides the above relationship in terms of Vfb:
• Isec*Resr equals to 0 and thus Vfb is a function of Vout plus the forward voltage drop of diode DI (times the turns ratio of the transformer TRI).
• the control circuit 120 takes advantage ofthis factby sampling Vfb at the moment that Isec crosses 0. At that moment, Vfb is largely a function of just Vout. The sampling instant is identified at 221.
• control circuit 120 does not have direct electrical access to the secondary coil L2, the control circuit 120 infers when Isec crosses 0 by detecting the beginning of the oscillatory phase of the SW node voltage.
• control circuit includes a circuit that detects the “knee” 225 in the SW node voltage which occurs when Isec crosses 0. The knee is characterized by a dramatic change in the slope of the SW node voltage.
• the knee 225 is detected using the current mirror 115, resistor Rset, a low-pass filter 125, and a comparator COMP1.
• the switch node voltage is a function of VIN+VOUT.
• the current mirror includes transistors M2 and M3 and employs a current mirror ratio in this example of 5 : 1 (the current through M3 is five-times the current through M2.
• VIN is coupled to the source of M2.
• the same VIN voltage is also controlled onto the source of M3 due the current mirroring function performed by M2 and M3. For example, if the source of M3 (VFB) is greater than VIN, M3 will sink more current through resistor RFB and VFB will decrease.
• VFB is less than VIN
• M3 will sink less current and VFB will increase.
• the voltage difference across resistor Rfb is approximately VOUT.
• the current through resistor Rfb is thus approximately equal to Vout/Rfb.
• Current Ifb flows through M3 down to resistor Rset, thereby producing a voltage on the RSET node equal to approximately VOUT*RSET/Rfb. In other words, the voltage on the RSET node is proportional to VOUT.
• the RSET node voltage is low-pass filtered by the low-pass fitler 125 (which includes resistor Rip and Clp in this example), and sampled by the switch S3 and capacitor Ch.
• the current mirror 115, resistor Rset, the low-pass filter 125, and the comparator COMP1 are also used to detect the knee 225 in the SW node voltage.
• the voltage across resistor Rset is a function of the SW node voltage and thus has the same or similar waveform shape (including the knee 225 and subsequent ringing).
• the RSET voltage is couple to the inverting input of comparator COMP1.
• the low-pass filtered version of RSET is coupled to the non-inverting input of comparator COMP1.
• COMP1 compares a more slowly changing version of the SW node voltage to the unfiltered, faster changing live SW node voltage.
• the SW node voltage drops more sharply than the response of the output of the low-pass filter 125 and thus the output of COMP1 (ZX) becomes logic high. A logic high for ZX thus indicates that Iset has crossed 0 amps.
• the valley sensing circuit 150 includes OP1, transistor M4, current sources Isrcl and Iscr2, a ramp timer 154, switches SWA and SWB, capacitors CA and CB, and a comparator COMP2.
• FIG. 3 provides additional waveforms illustrating the operation of the valley sensing circuit 150.
• the ringing in the SW node voltage is approximately a damped-sinusoidal waveform. Accordingly, the time between a peak and the point in which Vsw crosses Vin is the same as the time between the point at which Vsw crosses Vin and the subsequent valley.
• Time point 301 is the time at which a peak occurs.
• Point 302 is the zero-crossing point.
• Point 303 identifies the subsequent valley.
• the time difference between points 301 and 302 is the same as the time difference between points 302 and 303.
• the valley sensing circuit 150 implements an analog timer to measure and save the time between points 301 and 302 and then uses that measured and saved time to estimate when the subsequent valley is occurring.
• ZX becomes logic high when the knee occurs which is generally coincident with a peak in the ringing phase of the SW node voltage.
• the ramp timer 154 responds to ZX being high by closing switch SWA.
• Current Isrc2 thus flows to and charges capacitor CA.
• the voltage on capacitor CA increases approximately linearly while switch SWA is closed.
• no current flows through the primary coil LI or resistor Rfb.
• the voltage of the FB node is the voltage of the SW node.
• the voltages on the inverting and non-inverting inputs of OP1 are approximately equal.
• the voltage on the non-inverting input of OP1 being the switch node voltage forces the inverting input voltage also to be the switch node voltage.
• the switch node voltage being higher than Vin, no current flows through transistor M4, and thus the input 156 to the ramp timer is logic low.
• the capacitance of CB is approximately equal to the capacitance of CA and the same current source Isrc2 is used to charge capacitor C2 when switch SWB is closed.
• the ramp timer Upon opening switch SWA, the ramp timer also closes switch SWB thereby initiating a charge cycle for capacitor CB.
• the voltage of capacitor CB then begins to increase linearly at the same rate as for capacitor CA.
• the output 157 of comparator COMP2 becomes logic high the moment that the voltage on capacitor CB reaches the voltage of capacitor CA, which is indicative of when a valley of the SW node voltage occurs.
• FIG. 3 illustrates waveforms for VA (voltage on capacitor CA) and VB (voltage on capacitor CB).
• VA is determined during the first period of the ringing SW node voltage ringing and remains fixed for the ensuing ringing oscillations for comparison against VB.
• Capacitor CB is charged and discharged during each oscillation in order to be compared against VA to determine the occurrence of each valley.
• the output 157 of comparator COMP2 is provided to a one-shot 162.
• the one-shot produces a 20ns output pulse upon detecting a logic high on its input.
• FIG. 3 illustrates that the one-shot 162 produces an output pulse 310 coincident with each valley of the SW node voltage.
• the output of the one-shot 162 is coupled to an input of switch-on control circuit 165 which in this embodiment includes a D flip-flop (DFF) 167.
• the output of the one-shot 162 is coupled to the clock input of the DFF 167.
• the D input of the DFF 167 receives a control signal from AND gate 170.
• the inputs to the AND gate 170 are the ZX signal (described above) and a TFMAX signal.
• the ZX signal indicates when Isec crosses 0 amps.
• the control circuit 120 turns on Ml when ZX becomes logic high.
• the control circuit 120 turns on Ml when TFMAX becomes logic high.
• TFMAX is produced by a timer 171.
• the output signal 172 from AND gate indicates when a portion of the control circuit 120 determines to turn on Ml.
• the switch-on control circuit 165 functions to turn on Ml when two conditions are concurrently true: (1) AND gate output signal 172 is logic high and (2) the output signal 157 from the comparator COMP2 also is logic high. In other words, the switch-on control circuit 165 will turn on Ml when signal 172 is high but only when comparator COMP2 indicates that the next valley in the SW node voltage is occurring.
• the term “couple” may cover connections, communications, or signal paths that enable a functional relationship consistent with this description. For example, if device A generates a signal to control device B to perform an action: (a) in a first example, device A is coupled to device B by direct connection; or (b) in a second example, device A is coupled to device B through intervening component C if intervening component C does not alter the functional relationship between device A and device B, such that device B is controlled by device A via the control signal generated by device A.
• a device that is “configured to” perform a task or function may be configured (e.g., programmed and/or hardwired) at a time of manufacturing by a manufacturer to perform the function and/or may be configurable (or re-configurable) by a user after manufacturing to perform the function and/or other additional or alternative functions.
• the configuring may be through firmware and/or software programming of the device, through a construction and/or layout of hardware components and interconnections of the device, or a combination thereof.
• terminal As used herein, the terms “terminal”, “node”, “interconnection”, “pin” and “lead” are used interchangeably. Unless specifically stated to the contrary, these terms are generally used to mean an interconnection between or a terminus of a device element, a circuit element, an integrated circuit, a device or other electronics or semiconductor component.
• a circuit or device that is described herein as including certain components may instead be adapted to be coupled to those components to form the described circuitry or device.
• a structure described as including one or more semiconductor elements such as transistors), one or more passive elements (such as resistors, capacitors, and/or inductors), and/or one or more sources (such as voltage and/or current sources) may instead include only the semiconductor elements within a single physical device (e.g., a semiconductor die and/or integrated circuit (IC) package) and may be adapted to be coupled to at least some of the passive elements and/or the sources to form the described structure either at a time of manufacture or after a time of manufacture, for example, by an end-user and/or a third-party.
• semiconductor elements such as transistors
• passive elements such as resistors, capacitors, and/or inductors
• sources such as voltage and/or current sources
• MOSFET metal-oxide-silicon field effect transistor
• BJTs bipolar junction transistors
• Circuits described herein are reconfigurable to include additional or different components to provide functionality at least partially similar to functionality available prior to the component replacement.
• Components shown as resistors are generally representative of any one or more elements coupled in series and/or parallel to provide an amount of impedance represented by the resistor shown.
• a resistor or capacitor shown and described herein as a single component may instead be multiple resistors or capacitors, respectively, coupled in parallel between the same nodes.
• a resistor or capacitor shown and described herein as a single component may instead be multiple resistors or capacitors, respectively, coupled in series between the same two nodes as the single resistor or capacitor.
• ground in the foregoing description include a chassis ground, an Earth ground, a floating ground, a virtual ground, a digital ground, a common ground, and/or any other form of ground connection applicable to, or suitable for, the teachings of this description. Unless otherwise stated, “about,” “approximately,” or “substantially” preceding a value means +/- 10 percent of the stated value. Modifications are possible in the described examples, and other examples are possible within the scope of the claims.

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