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• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P25/00—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system
  • A61P25/06—Antimigraine agents
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K31/00—Medicinal preparations containing organic active ingredients
  • A61K31/16—Amides, e.g. hydroxamic acids
  • A61K31/165—Amides, e.g. hydroxamic acids having aromatic rings, e.g. colchicine, atenolol, progabide
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K31/00—Medicinal preparations containing organic active ingredients
  • A61K31/185—Acids; Anhydrides, halides or salts thereof, e.g. sulfur acids, imidic, hydrazonic or hydroximic acids
  • A61K31/19—Carboxylic acids, e.g. valproic acid
  • A61K31/195—Carboxylic acids, e.g. valproic acid having an amino group
  • A61K31/197—Carboxylic acids, e.g. valproic acid having an amino group the amino and the carboxyl groups being attached to the same acyclic carbon chain, e.g. gamma-aminobutyric acid [GABA], beta-alanine, epsilon-aminocaproic acid or pantothenic acid
  • A61K31/198—Alpha-amino acids, e.g. alanine or edetic acid [EDTA]
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K31/00—Medicinal preparations containing organic active ingredients
  • A61K31/33—Heterocyclic compounds
  • A61K31/395—Heterocyclic compounds having nitrogen as a ring hetero atom, e.g. guanethidine or rifamycins
  • A61K31/435—Heterocyclic compounds having nitrogen as a ring hetero atom, e.g. guanethidine or rifamycins having six-membered rings with one nitrogen as the only ring hetero atom
  • A61K31/44—Non condensed pyridines; Hydrogenated derivatives thereof
  • A61K31/4427—Non condensed pyridines; Hydrogenated derivatives thereof containing further heterocyclic ring systems
  • A61K31/4439—Non condensed pyridines; Hydrogenated derivatives thereof containing further heterocyclic ring systems containing a five-membered ring with nitrogen as a ring hetero atom, e.g. omeprazole
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P25/00—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system
  • A61P25/14—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system for treating abnormal movements, e.g. chorea, dyskinesia
  • A61P25/16—Anti-Parkinson drugs
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P29/00—Non-central analgesic, antipyretic or antiinflammatory agents, e.g. antirheumatic agents; Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs [NSAID]

Definitions

• This invention relates to methods for treating pain associated with Parkinson’s disease (PD).
• PD Parkinson’s disease
• opicapone for treating PD-associated pain, especially fluctuation-related pain.
• NMS non-motor symptoms
• Pain is one of the most frequent and burdensome NMS of PD, being a significant comorbidity in up to 85% of PD patients, and it may precede the motor symptoms of the disease. Pain has been shown to be associated with other NMS of PD such as sleep disruption and cardiovascular disturbances, indicating that pain, sleep disruption and dysautonomia may share a common pathophysiology that possibly involves non-dopaminergic pathways [Ghosh et al, 2020] .
• nociceptive pain accounts for the majority of reported pain in PD [Truini et al, 2013], Dopamine can modulate pain and is known to have an antinociceptive role [Allen et al, 2015], and dopaminergic therapies have been shown to help alleviate pain in PD [Brefel-Courbon et al, 2005, 2013; Antonini et al, 2018; Rukavina et al, 2019.
• pain in PD may have, at least partially, a dopamine- associated aetiology [Antonini et al, 2018; Seppi et al, 2019], Consequently, optimisation of dopaminergic therapy may help alleviate pain associated with PD [Jung et al, 2015; Antonini et al, 2018; Rukavina et al, 2019; Dafsari et al, 2019],
• dopaminergic therapies in PD-associated pain is lacking [Seppi et al 2019], and previous studies in this setting have notable limitations.
• the Phase II PANDA trial was the first randomised controlled trial to specifically assess treatment for PD-associated pain. Eligible patients were randomised to receive either prolonged-release oxycodone-naloxone or placebo. There was no significant difference between treatment arms in the average 24-h pain score at 16 weeks (primary endpoint). However, the measure used to assess pain was a general pain scale (the Likert scale) and levodopa was used more frequently as a rescue treatment in the placebo arm, both of which factors might have affected the results [Trenkwalder et al, 2015],
• the double-blind, exploratory DOLORES trial was the first to investigate the effect of a dopamine agonist (rotigotine; administered as a transdermal patch) on PD-associated pain as primary outcome.
• rotigotine may improve PD- associated chronic pain in patients with advanced-stage PD
• the trial was not powered to detect statistically significant treatment differences, due to the small sample size [Rascol et al, 2016],
• Safmamide an agent with multiple modes of action, including monoamine oxidase-B inhibition
• safmamide was shown to significantly reduce the need for pain medication, and to significantly improve two out of three PDQ-39 pain-related items, in comparison with placebo, when added to existing levodopa-based therapy [Cattaneo et al, 2017].
• VGSC voltage-gated sodium channels
• any effect might be independent of safmamide ’s effect on monoamine oxidase-B.
• Levodopa is still the most effective symptomatic treatment for PD [Poewe et al, 2010]. However, following oral administration, levodopa is extensively metabolised in the periphery by dopa decarboxylase (DDC) and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), with the result that only 1% of an oral dose of levodopa reaches the brain.
• DDC dopa decarboxylase
• COMP catechol-O-methyltransferase
• Inhibitors of DDC (DDCIs) and COMT (COMTIs) are commonly used as an adjunct to levodopa in patients with PD in order to increase levodopa bioavailability and its delivery to the brain, and thereby ameliorate wearing-off symptoms, but potentially exasperating dyskinesia [Muller, 2015; Montioli et al, 2016], According to W001/68083, COMTIs may be used to treat or control pain of any origin, including acute and chronic pain. However, the evidence supporting this claim is limited to the use of nitecapone and entacapone in two animal models of inflammatory pain (i.e. a modified Randall-Sellitto test and the acetic acid induced writhing test).
• a third experiment in an animal model of centrally mediated analgesia indicated that the analgesic effect of nitecapone and entacapone was not mediated through the CNS, but through some (unidentified) peripheral mechanism.
• the skilled person is aware that different sub-types of pain respond to different treatments and an effect on acute pain in animal models cannot indicate an effect in alternative pain paradigms.
• Opicapone is a third-generation, once-daily COMTI [Kiss et al, 2010; Almeida et al, 2013; Scott, 2016; Fabbri et al 2018], which has been shown to be generally well tolerated and efficacious in reducing OFF-time in two pivotal studies in patients with PD and end-of- dose motor fluctuations (BIPARK-I and BIPARK-II) [Ferreira et al, 2016; Lees et al, 2017], On the basis of these trials, opicapone is approved in the European Union, USA, Japan, Australia and other countries as adjunctive therapy to preparations of levodopa/DDCIs in patients with PD and end-of-dose motor fluctuations [Ongentys® EU Summary of Product Characteristics] or OFF episodes [Ongentys® USA Prescribing Information], Although a positive signal for opicapone was observed on the Movement Disorder Society Non-Motor Symptoms Scale (NMSS) “Miscellane
• a first general embodiment relates to opicapone (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) in combination with levodopa (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) for use in the treatment of pain associated with Parkinson’s disease.
• a second general embodiment relates to the use of opicapone (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) in the manufacture of a medicament for use, in combination with levodopa (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) in the treatment of pain associated with Parkinson’s disease.
• a third general embodiment relates to a method of treating pain associated with Parkinson’s disease comprising administering a therapeutically effect amount of opicapone (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) in combination with a therapeutically effect amount of levodopa (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) to a patient identified as suffering from pain associated with Parkinson’s disease.
• Figure 1 shows the study design of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, interventional trial in PD patients with end-of-dose motor fluctuations and PD-associated pain. It is noted that V2 is divided in V2a and V2b. If ON/OFF diary entries are non-compliant at V2a, the patient will be re-trained on correct use of the diary and visit V2b will be postponed for 3-4 days. If diary completion is satisfactory at V2a, V2b is performed immediately on the same day.
• AE adverse event
• DDCI dopa decarboxylase inhibitor
• L-dopa levodopa
• PD Parkinson’s disease
• PSV post-study visit
• V visit.
• Figure 2 shows the timelines of study assessments.
• CGI-C Clinical Global Impression of Change
• DDCI dopa decarboxylase inhibitor
• EMD early morning dystonia
• KPPS King’s Parkinson’s Disease Pain Scale
• L-dopa levodopa
• MDS-NMS Movement Disorder Society-sponsored Non-Motor rating Scale
• MDS-UPDRS Movement Disorder Society-sponsored Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale
• PDQ-8 8-item Parkinson’s Disease Questionnaire
• PGI-C Patient’s Global Impression of Change
• PSV post-study visit
• V visit.
• the present invention provides opicapone (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) in combination with levodopa (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) for use in the treatment of pain associated with Parkinson’s disease.
• the present invention provides the use of opicapone (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) in the manufacture of a medicament for use, in combination with levodopa (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) in the treatment of pain associated with Parkinson’s disease.
• the present invention provides a method of treating pain associated with Parkinson’s disease comprising administering a therapeutically effect amount of opicapone (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) in combination with a therapeutically effect amount of levodopa (or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof) to a patient identified as suffering from pain associated with Parkinson’s disease.
• the method of the third embodiment involves the initial step of identifying patients who not only suffer from Parkinson’s disease, but also pain associated therewith, and who will therefore benefit from the present invention.
• the primary goal of the present invention is the treatment of pain associated with Parkinson’s disease.
• the severity of pain associated with Parkinson’s disease may be measured using the King’s Parkinson’s Disease Pain Scale (KPPS).
• KPPS evaluates the burden and characterises various phenotypes of pain in PD. It comprises seven domains including a total of 14 items. The domains are:
• Musculoskeletal pain Pain around the joints (including arthritic pain)
• Fluctuation-related pain (dyskinetic pain, “OFF” dystonia or generalised “OFF” period pain);
• Nocturnal pain Pain related to jerking leg movements or an unpleasant burning sensation in the legs which improves with movement, or pain related to difficulty turning in bed
• Orofacial pain Pain when chewing, pain due to teeth grinding at night, or burning mouth syndrome
• Treatment according to the present invention results in a reduction in a patient’s score in one or more of these seven domains.
• a particular population who will benefit from the present invention are patients having a total score greater than or equal to 40 in the KPPS.
• treatment according to the present invention reduces the patient’s total score in the KPPS, preferably to a score less than or equal to 8, more preferably to a score less than or equal to 10, most preferably to a score less than or equal to 12.
• End-of-dose motor fluctuations also known as the “wearing off’ phenomenon
• End-of-dose motor fluctuations are a well-known consequence of extended levodopa therapy. They relate to the predictable re-emergence or worsening of symptoms before administration of the next dose of levodopa. Typically, such re-emergence or worsening of symptoms starts 3 to 4 hours after the last dose of levodopa, as the therapeutic effect of the medication wears off. Symptoms then typically improve 15 to 45 minutes after the next levodopa dose is taken.
• the pain associated with Parkinson’s disease is preferably pain associated with end-of-dose motor fluctuations, such as dyskinetic pain, “OFF” dystonia or generalised “OFF” period pain.
• the severity of this type of pain may be measured as fluctuation-related pain according to domain 3 of the KPPS.
• a particular population who will benefit from the present invention are patients having a score greater than or equal to 12 in domain 3 of the KPPS.
• treatment according to the present invention reduces the patient’s score in domain 3 of the KPPS, preferably to a score less than or equal to 2, more preferably to a score less than or equal to 3, most preferably to a score less than or equal to 4.
• the reduction may involve a reduction in one or more of the sub-domains - dyskinetic pain, “OFF” dystonia or generalised “OFF” period pain.
• the pain associated with Parkinson’s disease is nocturnal pain.
• the severity of this type of pain may be measured as nocturnal pain according to domain 4 of the KPPS.
• a particular population who will benefit from the present invention are patients having a score greater than or equal to 8 in domain 4 of the KPPS.
• treatment according to the present invention reduces the patient’s score in domain 4 of the KPPS, preferably to a score less than or equal to 0.5, more preferably to a score less than or equal to 1, most preferably to a score less than or equal to 2.
• the patient is suffering from pain associated with Parkinson’s disease, preferably the patient to be treated also experiences end-of-dose motor fluctuations.
• Such patients to be treated according to the invention may have been experiencing a mean daily OFF time of up to 8 hours prior to treatment according to the invention, preferably 0.5 to 8 hours, 1 to 8 hours, 2 to 8 hours, 4 to 8 hours, 5 to 8 hours per day.
• Patients experiencing end-of-dose motor fluctuations tend to have been treated for longer periods, for example, more than 1 year, preferably more than 2 years, more preferably more than 3 years, even more preferably more than 4 years, most preferably more than 5 years.
• the patients to be treated according to the invention may have been experiencing motor symptoms and/or motor complications such as motor fluctuations with or without dyskinesias prior to treatment according to the invention, for example more than 1 month, preferably more than 3 months, more preferably more than 6 months, even more preferably more than 1 year, most preferably more than 2 years.
• the patient to be treated may also experience one or more further non-motor symptoms and, preferably, the treatment reduces one or more of these symptoms too.
• the severity of non-motor symptoms may be assessed using the Movement Disorder Society Non-Motor Scale (MDS-NMS).
• MDS-NMS comprises 13 domains covering a range of key PD- and treatment-related non- motor symptoms, and a subscale for non-motor fluctuations that assesses changes in non- motor symptoms in relation to timing of anti-PD medications across eight domains [Martinez-Martin et al, 2019; Chaudhuri et al, 2020],
• treatment according to the present invention reduces the patient’s total score in the MDS-NMS.
• a particular non-motor symptom which may be experienced in addition to pain associated with Parkinson’s disease is anxiety and, preferably, the treatment reduces this symptom too.
• the treatment reduces the patient’s score in domain B of the MDS- NMS.
• Another non-motor symptom which may be experienced in addition to pain associated with Parkinson’s disease is depression and, preferably, the treatment reduces this symptom too.
• the treatment reduces the patient’s score in domain A of the MDS- NMS.
• Another non-motor symptom which may be experienced in addition to pain associated with Parkinson’s disease is sleep disorders and, preferably, the treatment reduces this symptom too.
• the treatment reduces the patient’s score in domain K of the MDS-NMS.
• the phrase “pharmaceutically acceptable derivative” of an active ingredient means a compound which is non-toxic and is converted to the active ingredient itself upon administration to the patient. It includes pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates and prodrugs (e.g. esters).
• the phrase “in combination with” does not mean the two active ingredients must be administered in the same dosage unit. Indeed, they need not even be given at the same point in time. Thus, the phrase “in combination with” simply means that the two active ingredients must exert their pharmacological effects on the patient at the same time. Thus, the two active ingredients may be administered concomitantly, separately or sequentially, in the same or different dosage unit(s), and with the same or different dosing frequency.
• the particular dose amount and frequency for opicapone may be determined by the skilled physician. Preferably, it is administered once daily. Preferably each dose is equivalent to 10 to 100 mg of opicapone, more preferably equivalent to 25 to 50 mg of opicapone and most preferably equivalent to 50 mg of opicapone. The most preferred dose amount and frequency is 50 mg, once daily.
• Opicapone can interact with food and with levodopa. Therefore, it is preferably administered at least 1 hour before or after a meal, and at least 1 hour before or after levodopa. A particularly suitable dosing point is at or near to bedtime, e.g. up to 1 hour before sleep.
• the particular dose amount and frequency for levodopa may be determined by the skilled physician. Preferably, it is administered three to ten times daily. Preferably, each dose is equivalent to 50 to 200 mg of levodopa, more preferably equivalent to 75 to 125 mg of levodopa and most preferably equivalent to 100 mg of levodopa. Preferably, the total daily dose is equivalent to 300 to 2000 mg of levodopa, more preferably equivalent to 500 to 1000 mg of levodopa.
• Levodopa therapy often benefits from the use of a DOPA decarboxylase inhibitor (DDCI).
• DDCI DOPA decarboxylase inhibitor
• treatment according to the present invention preferably involves administration of a DDCI, preferably selected from carbidopa or benserazide.
• a DDCI preferably selected from carbidopa or benserazide.
• the particular dose amount and frequency for the DDCI may be determined by the skilled physician.
• it is administered three to ten times daily.
• the total daily dose is equivalent to 25 to 500 mg of the DDCI, more preferably equivalent to 75 to 250 mg of the DDCI.
• a phase IV randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, interventional trial in PD patients with end-of-dose motor fluctuations and PD-associated pain (experienced for >4 weeks prior to the start of the study, with a score of >12 on Domain 3 of the KPPS at screening and baseline). It consists of a 1-week screening period, 24-week double-blind treatment period and 2-week follow-up period ( Figure 1). Following screening, at visit (V)2, eligible patients will be randomised 1 : 1 to opicapone 50 mg or placebo (PLC) once daily while continuing current treatment with levodopa/DDCI.
• the anti-PD treatment regimen should be stable for at least 4 weeks prior to VI (Table 1) and kept stable throughout the study (except for levodopa/DDCI during the adjustment period). No new anti-PD drugs should be started during the study.
• Chronic pain treatment should be stable for at least 4 weeks prior to VI (Table 1), and no new pain medication should be started during the study, except the allowed rescue medication (paracetamol or tramadol).
• the baseline dose of pain medication may be reduced throughout the study, if required due to pain medication-related adverse events (AEs), and increased again up to the baseline dose level if the investigator finds that the dose reduction was too much.
• Further visits will be performed on Day 85 ⁇ 4 days (V5) and Day 169 ⁇ 4 days (V6).
• the primary analysis will be performed on data collected at V6.
• a follow-up visit will be performed on Day 183 ⁇ 4 days (V7), approximately 2 weeks after the last intake of study medication (opicapone 50 mg or PLC).
• Patients who discontinue early will be requested to attend an early discontinuation visit.
• the investigator will arrange the patient’s subsequent treatment (i.e. either prescribe further opicapone or switch to another treatment).
• the primary efficacy endpoint is change from baseline in Domain 3 (fluctuation- related pain) of the KPPS.
• the KPPS evaluates the burden and characterises various phenotypes of pain in PD. It comprises seven domains including a total of 14 items. Each item is scored by severity (0-3) multiplied by frequency (0-4), resulting in subscores of 0- 12.
• the total KPPS score (0-168) represents the symptomatic burden by pain [Chaudhuri et al, 2015],
• the key secondary efficacy endpoint is change from baseline in Domain B (anxiety) of the Movement Disorder Society-sponsored Non-Motor rating Scale (MDS-NMS).
• MDS-NMS comprises 13 domains covering a range of key PD- and treatment-related nonmotor symptoms, and a subscale for non-motor fluctuations that assesses changes in nonmotor symptoms in relation to timing of anti-PD medications across eight domains [Martinez-Martin et al, 2019; Chaudhuri et al, 2020],
• Additional secondary efficacy endpoints comprise other domains and total scores of KPPS and MDS-NMS, change from baseline in Movement Disorder Society-sponsored Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS) Parts III and IV, change from baseline in Parkinson’s Disease Questionnaire (PDQ-8), Clinical Global Impression of Change (CGIC), Patient’s Global Impression of Change (PGIC), change from baseline in functional status via Hauser’s PD diary, changes from baseline in morning dystonia, and use of rescue medication (see Table 2 below).
• MDS-UPDRS Movement Disorder Society-sponsored Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale
• PDQ-8 Change from baseline in Parkinson’s Disease Questionnaire
• CGIC Clinical Global Impression of Change
• PGIC Patient’s Global Impression of Change
• Change from baseline in functional status via Hauser’s PD diary changes from baseline in morning dystonia, and use of rescue medication (see Table 2 below).
• the MDS-UPDRS is a revision of the UPDRS originally developed in the 1980s, and evaluates various aspects of PD; it consists of four parts: Parts IA and IB, non-motor aspects of experiences of daily living; Part II, motor aspects of experiences of daily living; Part III, motor examination; and Part IV, motor complications.
• the PDQ-8 (a short form of the PDQ- 39) is a patient-reported outcome that assesses eight aspects of functioning and well-being that are usually adversely affected by PD: mobility, activities of daily living, emotional wellbeing, stigma, social support, cognition, communication, and bodily discomfort. It rates overall health status by providing a single score ranging from 0 (good health) to 100 (poor health).
• the CGIC and PGIC are, respectively, investigator and patient assessments of how much a patient’s overall status has improved or worsened since the start of the study, comprising a 7-point scale: (1, ‘very much improved’; 2, ‘much improved’; 3, ‘minimally improved’; 4, ‘no change’; 5, ‘minimally worse’; 6, ‘much worse’; 7, ‘very much worse’).
• the Hauser’s PD diary is a patient record of their mobility during each 30-min period, categorised as: asleep; OFF time; ON time without dyskinesia; ON time with non- troublesome dyskinesia; or ON time with troublesome dyskinesia.
• the investigator When assessing changes from baseline in morning dystonia, the investigator will ask the patient if they experienced any morning dystonia within the last week (based on item 35 of the former UPDRS version). The amount and frequency of intake of rescue medication (paracetamol or tramadol) will be recorded by patients in a diary.
• rescue medication paracetamol or tramadol
• Safety assessments include the incidence of treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs), and changes from baseline in vital signs, physical and neurological examinations and routine laboratory parameters (see Table 2; and Figure 2).
• TEAEs treatment-emergent adverse events
• Efficacy assessments will be analysed for the Full Analysis Set, defined as all patients who are randomised and who have at least one measurement of the primary efficacy assessment. For sensitivity purposes, efficacy assessments will additionally be analysed for the Per-Protocol Set, defined as all patients included in the Full Analysis Set who have no major protocol deviations that could influence the primary efficacy assessment.
• the primary efficacy endpoint will be analysed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), with treatment as a fixed factor and baseline KPPS as a covariate, to demonstrate superiority of opicapone 50 mg against PLC.
• Secondary efficacy endpoints will be analysed in an exploratory manner by treatment arm using appropriate parametric and non-parametric statistical methods. Descriptive statistics, including 95% confidence intervals, will be presented per treatment arm.
• Safety assessments will be analysed for the Safety Set, defined as all patients who take at least one dose of investigational product.
• TEAEs will be summarised in terms of the number and percentages of patients with TEAEs.
• Vital signs and laboratory parameters will be summarised using summary statistics of absolute values and changes from baseline. Summary statistics and shift tables will be presented for physical and neurological examinations. Demographic and baseline characteristics will be presented using descriptive statistics.
• the robust design of the above study addresses the current lack of reliable evidence for levodopa-based therapy in the treatment of PD-associated pain.
• the study features recent validated PD pain- and non-motor-specific scales (such as KPPS and MDS-NMS), which help to record dimensions of PD-associated pain that were not previously possible to assess. For instance, this may allow the detection of potential associations between pain and other non-motor symptoms, such as depression, anxiety and insomnia, and dysautonomic symptoms.
• the concomitant use of ON/OFF diaries with these scales may also allow a deeper understanding of pain during both the OFF and ON states.
• Placebo is known to activate dopamine receptors and to induce dopamine-like effects in PD [de la Fuente- Fernandez et al, 2002; Benedetti, 2014; Colloca, 2019; Lou, 2020], which are often still apparent in studies at 3 months [Trenkwalder et al, 2015, Ferreira et al, 2016; Lees et al, 2017], tending to wane by the 6-month mark [Borgohain et al, 2014; Hattori et al, 2020], The 6 months course of the study and its double-blind design may therefore help to disentangle the placebo effect from the true effect, especially when evaluating pain.
• Parkinson-plus syndrome includes medication (e.g. paracetamol, opioids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, corticosteroids) and non-medication therapies (e.g. transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, bioelectrical therapy).
• medication e.g. paracetamol, opioids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, corticosteroids
• non-medication therapies e.g. transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, bioelectrical therapy.
• e May include a slow-release formulation.
• Entacapone tolcapone, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (except selegiline up to 10 mg/day [oral] or 1.25 mg/day [buccal], rasagiline up to 1 mg/day, safmamide up to 100 mg/day) or antiemetics with anti -dopaminergic action (except domperidone).
• g Female patients requesting to continue with oral contraceptives must be willing to additionally use non-hormonal methods of contraception during the course of the study, including lactose intolerance, galactose intolerance, Lapp lactase deficiency or glucosegalactose malabsorption.
• DDCI dopa decarboxylase inhibitor
• KPPS King’s Parkinson’s Disease, Pain Scale
• PD Parkinson’s disease
• V visit. Table 2. Overview of study assessments
• CGIC Clinical Global Impression of Change
• KPPS King’s Parkinson’s Disease Pain Scale
• MDS-NMS Movement Disorder Society-sponsored Non-Motor rating Scale
• MDS-UPDRS Movement Disorder Society-sponsored Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale
• PD Parkinson’s disease
• PDQ-8 8-item Parkinson’s Disease Questionnaire
• PGIC Patient’s Global Impression of Change
• TEAE treatment-emergent adverse event.
• Dafsari et al Subthalamic stimulation, apomorphine, and levodopa infusion in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2019 Mar;34(3):353-365. de la Fuente-Fernandez et al. The placebo effect in neurological disorders. Lancet Neurol.

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