WO2019108616A1

WO2019108616A1 - Separators comprising elongated nanostructures and associated devices and methods for energy storage and/or use

Info

Publication number: WO2019108616A1
Application number: PCT/US2018/062797
Authority: WO
Inventors: Brian L. Wardle; Luiz ACAUAN; Yue Zhou
Original assignee: Massachusetts Institute Of Technology
Priority date: 2017-11-28
Filing date: 2018-11-28
Publication date: 2019-06-06
Also published as: US20190189988A1; EP3718157A4; US11031657B2; US12087506B2; US20210328307A1; EP3718157A1

Abstract

The use of elongated nanostructures in separators and associated devices and methods, including devices and methods for energy storage and/or use, are generally described. According to certain embodiments, the elongated nanostructures can extend from a first solid substrate to a second solid substrate. In some embodiments, the nanostructures penetrate a surface of the first solid substrate (e.g., a first electrode) and/or a surface of the second solid substrate (e.g., a second electrode). The elongated nanostructures can, according to certain embodiments, provide structural reinforcement between two substrates (e.g., between two electrodes) while maintaining electronic insulation between the two substrates.

Description

SEPARATORS COMPRISING ELONGATED NANOSTRUCTURES AND ASSOCIATED DEVICES AND METHODS FOR ENERGY STORAGE AND/OR USE

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/591,402, filed November 28, 2017, and entitled“Separators

Comprising Elongated Nanostructures and Associated Devices and Methods, Including Devices and Methods for Energy Storage and/or Use,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The use of elongated nanostructures in separators and associated devices and methods, including devices and methods for energy storage and/or use, are generally described.

SUMMARY

The use of elongated nanostructures in separators and associated devices and methods, including devices and methods for energy storage and/or use, are generally described. According to certain embodiments, the elongated nanostructures can extend from a first solid substrate to a second solid substrate. In some embodiments, the nanostructures penetrate a surface of the first solid substrate (e.g., a first electrode) and/or a surface of the second solid substrate (e.g., a second electrode). The elongated nanostructures can, according to certain embodiments, provide structural reinforcement between two substrates (e.g., between two electrodes) while maintaining electronic insulation between the two substrates. In some embodiments, the elongated

nanostructures can be ionically conductive. The ionic conductivity of the nanostructures can be used, according to certain embodiments, to shuttle electrochemically active ions between the substrates (which can be electrodes). The subject matter of the present invention involves, in some cases, interrelated products, alternative solutions to a particular problem, and/or a plurality of different uses of one or more systems and/or articles.

Certain aspects are related to inventive articles. In some embodiments, the article comprises a first electronically conductive solid substrate; a second electronically conductive solid substrate; and a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extending from the first electronically conductive solid substrate to the second electronically conductive solid substrate. In some embodiments, a region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is electronically insulating such that transport of electrons through the region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is inhibited or prevented; the region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is ionically conductive such that ions can be transported through the region, and at least a portion of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures penetrate a surface of the first electronically conductive solid substrate and/or a surface of the second electronically conductive solid substrate.

In some embodiments, the article comprises a first electronically conductive solid substrate; a second electronically conductive solid substrate; and an ionically conductive and electronically insulating region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate, wherein the ionically conductive region comprises a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extending from the first electronically conductive solid substrate to the second electronically conductive solid substrate.

Some aspects are related to inventive methods. In certain embodiments, the method comprises establishing an electric potential between a first electronically conductive solid substrate and a second electronically conductive solid substrate, wherein a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extend from the first electronically conductive solid substrate to the second electronically conductive solid substrate; and at least a portion of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures penetrate a surface of the first electronically conductive solid substrate and/or a surface of the second electronically conductive solid substrate.

In some embodiments, the method comprises establishing an electric potential between a first electronically conductive solid substrate and a second electronically conductive solid substrate, wherein an ionically conductive region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extending from the first electronically conductive solid substrate to the second electronically conductive solid substrate.

In some embodiments, the method comprises arranging a plurality of

electronically insulating elongated nanostructures such that the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extend from a first electronically conductive solid substrate to a second electronically conductive solid substrate, wherein a region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is electronically insulating such that transport of electrons through the region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is inhibited or prevented; the region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is ionically conductive such that ions can be transported through the region, and at least a portion of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures penetrate a surface of the first electronically conductive solid substrate and/or a surface of the second electronically conductive solid substrate.

Certain embodiments comprise arranging a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures such that the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extend from a first electronically conductive solid substrate to a second electronically conductive solid substrate, wherein a region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is electronically insulating and ionically conductive.

Other advantages and novel features of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting embodiments of the invention when considered in conjunction with the accompanying figures. In cases where the present specification and a document incorporated by reference include conflicting and/or inconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Non-limiting embodiments of the present invention will be described by way of example with reference to the accompanying figures, which are schematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the figures, each identical or nearly identical component illustrated is typically represented by a single numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component is labeled in every figure, nor is every component of each embodiment of the invention shown where illustration is not necessary to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention. In the figures:

FIG. 1A is, in accordance with certain embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which elongated nanostructures are arranged between two substrates, according to certain embodiments;

FIG. 1B is, according to some embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate a first electronically conductive solid substrate;

FIG. 1C is, according to certain embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate the first electronically conductive solid substrate across a separator region;

FIG. 2A is, in accordance with certain embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which elongated nanostructures are arranged between two substrates, according to certain embodiments;

FIG. 2B is, according to some embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate a second electronically conductive solid substrate;

FIG. 2C is, according to certain embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate the second electronically conductive solid substrate across a separator region;

FIG. 3A is, in accordance with certain embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which elongated nanostructures are arranged between two substrates, according to certain embodiments;

FIG. 3B is, according to some embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate a first and a second electronically conductive solid substrate;

FIG. 3C is, according to certain embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate the first and second electronically conductive solid substrates across a separator region;

FIG. 4 is a perspective view schematic illustration of a collection of

nanostructures, according to certain embodiments;

FIG. 5A is an exemplary cross-sectional schematic diagram of an article across which an electric potential has been applied, according to certain embodiments; FIG. 5B is an exemplary cross-sectional schematic diagram of an article being used to power an external load, according to some embodiments;

FIG. 6A is a SEM image of alumina nanotubes, according to certain

embodiments;

FIG. 6B is a TEM image of alumina nanotubes, according to certain

embodiments;

FIG. 7A is an optical image of an alumina nanotube composite structure, according to certain embodiments;

FIG. 7B is a SEM image of an alumina nanotube composite structure, according to certain embodiments;

FIG. 8A is an optical image of a composite in which commercial separators have been placed between composite structure layers, according to certain embodiments;

FIG. 8B is a SEM image of a composite in which commercial separators have been placed between composite structure layers, according to certain embodiments;

FIG. 9A is a SEM image of a (P(VDF-HFP))/alumina nanotube composite structure, according to certain embodiments;

FIG. 9B is a SEM image of a (P(VDF-HFP))/alumina nanotube composite structure, according to certain embodiments;

FIG. 10A shows, in accordance with certain embodiments, differential scanning calorimetry plots for a (P(VDF-HFP))/alumina nanotube composite structure and a P(VDF-HFP) structure;

FIG. 10B shows, in accordance with certain embodiments, ionic conductivity plots for a (P(VDF-HFP))/alumina nanotube composite structure and a P(VDF-HFP) structure;

FIG. 11 A is an optical image of an exemplary reference composite structure (cREF);

FIG. 11B is an SEM image of the exemplary reference composite structure shown in FIG. 11 A;

FIG. 12A shows, in accordance with certain embodiments, a plot of standard force as a function of standard travel for a reference composite (Structural), a composite with a commercial separator (Baseline), and a composite with alumina nanotubes (PNC); FIG. 12B shows, in accordance with certain embodiments, the short beam shear strength and flexural modulus for a reference composite (Structural), a composite with a commercial separator (Baseline), and a composite with alumina nanotubes (PNC);

FIG. 13 shows an exemplary Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) mapping of a composite comprising alumina nanotubes, according to certain

embodiments;

FIG. 14A shows, in accordance with certain embodiments, cyclic

voltammograms of a composite with a commercial separator (Baseline) and a composite with alumina nanotubes (PNC) obtained from 0.0 V to 1.2 V under a scan rate of 100 mV/s;

FIG. 14B shows, in accordance with certain embodiments, the specific capacitance of a composite with a commercial separator (Baseline) and a composite with alumina nanotubes (PNC) obtained under different constant currents; and

FIG. 15 shows, in accordance with certain embodiments, X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) data of a composite with a commercial separator (Baseline) and a composite with alumina nanotubes (PNC).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The use of elongated nanostructures in separators and associated devices and methods, including devices and methods for energy storage and/or use, are generally described. According to certain embodiments, electronically insulating elongated nanostructures, which may optionally also be ionically conductive, are arranged between two electronically conductive substrates. The presence of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures can, according to certain embodiments, strengthen the interface between the electronically conductive substrates. When ionically conductive elongated nanostructures are employed, the elongated nanostructures can further enhance the degree to which ions (e.g., electrochemically active ions, such as Li⁺ or other electrochemically active ions) are transported between the two electronically conductive substrates.

In some embodiments, the elongated nanostructures penetrate the first and/or the second electronically conductive substrates. According to certain embodiments, penetration of the elongated nanostructures into one or both of the substrates can further enhance the structural reinforcement provided by the elongated nanostructures. In addition, when ionically conductive elongated nanostructures are employed, penetration of the elongated nanostructures into the substrate can aid with the transport of ions (e.g., electrochemically active ions) into the bulk of one or both substrates. This can be particularly advantageous when the substrates are or are part of electrodes, for example, in electrochemical cells (e.g., batteries, electrolytic capacitors such as supercapacitors, and the like) and/or dielectric capacitors.

Certain embodiments relate to the use of elongated nanostructures in articles that employ one or more carbon fiber reinforced polymeric substrates. The use of carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) as electrodes (e.g., in multifunctional structural supercapacitors) has generally been limited by the relatively low ionic conductivity and/or mechanical properties of the insulator separator. Certain of the embodiments described herein can be used to produce polarized devices (e.g., electrochemical cells, capacitors, etc.) in which elongated nanostructures are used in the separator region to enhance structural reinforcement and/or ionic conductivity. In one embodiment, elongated nanostructures are arranged between two electronically conductive substrates such that the elongated nanostructures penetrate one or both of the substrates. In some such embodiments, the substrates are CFRP substrates, and the penetration of the nanostructures into the CFRP substrates can facilitate the transport of ions to the electronically conductive carbon fibers within the CFRP substrate(s).

As described in more detail below, the elongated nanostructures may be made of a variety of materials. In some embodiments, alumina nanotubes are used as the elongated nanostructures.

As noted above, certain embodiments are related to inventive articles comprising inventive arrangements of elongated nanostructures.

According to certain embodiments, the article comprises a first electronically conductive solid substrate and a second electronically conductive solid substrate. As used herein, a“solid substrate” is one in which at least a portion of the substrate is formed from a solid material.

FIG. 1A is a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which elongated nanostructures are arranged between two substrates, according to certain embodiments. As noted above, the article can have a first solid substrate and a second solid substrate. For example, in FIG. 1A, article 100 comprises first solid substrate 110 and second solid substrate 120. According to certain embodiments, the first and/or second solid substrate(s) are porous. As used herein, a“pore” of an article (e.g., a substrate) refers to a conduit, void, or passageway, at least a portion of which is surrounded by the medium in which the pore is formed such that a continuous loop may be drawn around the pore while remaining within the medium. Voids within a material that are completely surrounded by the material (and thus, not accessible from outside the material, e.g., closed cells) are not considered pores within the context of this disclosure. The“porosity” of an article is expressed as a percentage, and is calculated as follows:

where V_p is the volume occupied by the pores of the article and V _article is the geometric volume of the article. The geometric volume of an article is calculated by measuring the volume of the article as defined by its geometric surfaces, which are the surfaces of the article that define its outer boundaries (for example, the area that may be measured by a macroscopic measuring tool (e.g., a ruler)).

Those of ordinary skill in the art would be capable of determining the porosity of a particular article using, for example, mercury intrusion porosimetry.

Referring to FIG. 1A, first solid substrate 110 can be porous, according to certain embodiments. In some embodiments, second solid substrate 120 can be porous. In certain cases, it can be advantageous to use a porous substrate as the first and/or second substrates, as doing so can allow one to incorporate other materials (e.g., non-solid materials such as liquid electrolytes, solid materials such as particulate electrode active materials, etc.) into the substrate. In some embodiments, the first solid substrate is non- porous and the second solid substrate is porous. In certain embodiments, the first solid substrate is porous and the second solid substrate is non-porous. In some embodiments, the first solid substrate and the second solid substrate are both porous.

The solid substrates can, according to certain embodiments, have any of a variety of suitable porosities. In some embodiments, the first substrate has a porosity of at least 1 vol%, at least 2 vol%, at least 5 vol%, at least 10 vol%, or at least 25 vol% (and/or up to 50 vol%, up to 75 vol%, up to 90 vol%, up to 95 vol%, or more). Combinations of these ranges are also possible. In some embodiments, the second substrate has a porosity of at least 1 vol%, at least 2 vol%, at least 5 vol%, at least 10 vol%, or at least 25 vol% (and/or up to 50 vol%, up to 75 vol%, up to 90 vol%, up to 95 vol%, or more).

Combinations of these ranges are also possible.

As noted above, according to certain embodiments, the first solid substrate and/or the second solid substrate are electronically conductive substrates. Referring to FIG. 1A, first solid substrate 110 can be an electronically conductive solid substrate. Also, second solid substrate 120 can be an electronically conductive solid substrate.

Those of ordinary skill in the art are familiar with electronic conductivity, which refers to the ability of a material to conduct electrons to a substantial degree. Examples of electronically conductive materials include, but are not limited to, conductive carbon materials (e.g., carbon fibers, carbon black, graphite), metals (e.g., copper), conductive polymers, and the like.

In some embodiments, the electronically conductive material has a resistivity (during use and/or at 20 °C) of less than or equal to 0.01 Dm, less than or equal to 0.001 Dm, less than or equal to 0.0001 Dm, less than or equal to 0.00001 Dm, less than or equal to 0.000001 Dm, or less than or equal to 0.0000001 Dm. Accordingly, according to certain embodiments, the first and/or second solid substrates have a resistivity (during use and/or at 20 °C) of less than or equal to 0.01 Dm, less than or equal to 0.001 Dm, less than or equal to 0.0001 Dm, less than or equal to 0.00001 Dm, less than or equal to 0.000001 Dm, or less than or equal to 0.0000001 Dm. In some embodiments, the first and/or second substrates exhibit these electronic conductivities through their thicknesses.

Those of ordinary skill in the art would be capable of determining whether a material is electronically conductive, and quantifying the degree of its electronic conductivity, by making resistance measurements. The resistivity of an article (e.g., a substrate) along a given direction can be determined by measuring the resistance across the article in that direction. Using this resistance measurement, the resistivity can then be back calculated using the geometry across which the resistance was measured.

Generally, the resistivity (p ) of the article is calculated as:

A - R

^{P ~} ~T

where A is the cross-sectional area of the article orthogonal to the length along which the resistance measurement was made, R is the measured resistance value, and l is the length along which the resistance measurement was made. The first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically substrate can, according to certain embodiments, be made of any of a variety of suitable materials, including electronically conductive materials and composites of electronically conductive materials with electronically insulating materials.

In some embodiments, the solid substrate(s) comprise an electronically conductive material disposed within an electronically insulating support material. Those of ordinary skill in the art are familiar with electronically insulating materials, which are materials that have the ability to restrict the flow of electrons such that electrons are not transported through the material to a substantial degree. Examples of electronically insulating materials include, but are not limited to, insulating polymers, insulating ceramics, insulating glasses, and the like. In some embodiments, the electronically insulating material has a resistivity (during use and/or at 20 °C) of at least 100 Dm; at least 1000 Dm; at least 10,000 Dm; at least 100,000 Dm; at least 1,000,000 Dm; at least 10,000,000 Dm; at least lxlO⁸ Dm; at least lxlO¹⁰ Dm; at least lxlO¹² Dm; at least lxlO¹⁴ Dm; at least lxlO¹⁶ Dm; at least lxlO¹⁸ Dm; at least lxlO²⁰ Dm; at least lxlO²² Dm; or more. Those of ordinary skill in the art would be capable of determining whether a material is electronically insulating, and quantifying the degree of its electronic insulation, by making resistance measurements, as described elsewhere.

In some embodiments, the first and/or second electronically conductive solid substrate is mostly made of an electronically conductive material (e.g., at least 50 vol%, at least 75 vol%, at least 90 vol%, or at least 95 vol% being electronically conductive).

In other cases, the first and/or second electronically conductive solid substrate can be a substantial amount of electronically insulating material (e.g., an insulating polymer), with electronically conductive material (e.g., carbon fibers, carbon black, etc.) dispersed within the electronically insulating material to impart electronic conductivity to the substrate. Any combination of electronically conductive materials and electronically insulating materials may be used for the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate disposed within electronically insulating support materials.

In accordance with certain embodiments, the first solid substrate and/or the second solid substrate can have any of a variety of suitable forms. For example, according to certain embodiments, the first electronically conductive solid substrate and/or the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprise polymeric material, silicon, carbon, a ceramic, and/or a metal. Referring to FIG. 1A, for example, first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and/or second electronically conductive solid substrate 120 can comprise polymeric material, silicon, carbon, a ceramic, and/or a metal.

In certain embodiments, the first solid substrate and/or the second solid substrate comprise one or more fibers embedded in a polymer material. In some embodiments, the first solid substrate and/or the second solid substrate comprise a prepreg. The prepreg can be, according to certain embodiments, electronically conductive. As used herein, the term“prepreg” refers to one or more layers of thermoset or thermoplastic resin containing embedded fibers. The embedded fibers in the prepreg can be, for example, fibers of carbon, metal, glass, and/or silicon carbide. In certain embodiments, the fibers of the prepreg are electronically conductive.

Referring to FIG. 1A, in some embodiments, first solid substrate 110 and/or second solid substrate 120 comprise a prepreg.

According to certain embodiments, the first solid substrate and/or the second solid substrate are or are part of an electrode. For example, in FIG. 1A, first

electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120 are electrodes. In certain embodiments, the first solid substrate is or is part of an anode and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is or is part of a cathode. In some cases, first electronically conductive solid substrate is or is part of a cathode and second electronically conductive solid substrate is or is part of an anode. As used herein, the term“cathode” (also sometimes referred to as the positive electrode) refers to the electrode from which a conventional current (i.e., the direction in which positive charges move) leaves a polarized electrical device during discharge, and is typically indicated with a“+” sign. As used herein, the“anode” (also sometimes referred to as the negative electrode) is the electrode to which a conventional current flows in a polarized electrical device during discharge, and is typically indicated with a sign. In certain embodiments, the first substrate and the second substrate are electrodes within a polarized device. Non-limiting examples of such polarized devices include, but are not limited to, capacitors and electrochemical cells (e.g., rechargeable and/or non-rechargeable batteries).

According to certain embodiments, the article comprises a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures. As used herein, the term “nano structure” refers to an object having at least one cross-sectional dimension of less than 1 micrometer. As used herein, the term“elongated nanostructure” refers to a nanostructure that has an aspect ratio greater than or equal to 10. As shown in FIG. 1A, article 100 comprises a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures 130.

The plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures can, according to certain embodiments, comprise any of a variety of suitable electronically insulating materials (which, in some embodiments, can also be ionically conductive).

In some embodiments, the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are primarily made of inorganic materials (e.g., having at least 50 wt%, at least 75 wt%, at least 90 wt%, or at least 95 wt% of their masses made up of inorganic materials). In certain embodiments, the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are primarily made of non-polymeric materials (e.g., having at least 50 wt%, at least 75 wt%, at least 90 wt%, or at least 95 wt% of their masses made up of materials that are not polymers).

In some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise crystalline nanostructures. For example, in some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise crystalline (e.g., monocrystalline and/or polycrystalline) boron nitride nanotubes, crystalline titania nanotubes, and the like. Non-crystalline (e.g., amorphous) elongated nanostructures could also be used.

In certain embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise one or more metal oxides. For example, in certain

embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise alumina, titania, Si0₂, Zr0₂, and/or ZnO. In some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise boron nitride. According to some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise carbon-based nanostructures. For example, according to some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise electronically insulating carbon nanotubes.

The plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures can, according to certain embodiments, comprise any of a variety of suitable nanostructure forms. In certain embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise nanotubes, nanofibers, and/or nanowires. FIG. 4 is a perspective view schematic illustration of a collection of nanostructures. According to some embodiments and as shown in FIG. 4, the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are nanotubes. Other suitable nanostructure forms are also possible.

According to some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise alumina-based nanostructures with any of a variety of suitable nanostructure forms. For example, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise alumina nanotubes, alumina nanofibers, and/or alumina nanowires.

In some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are arranged such that the electronically insulating elongated

nanostructures extend from the first solid substrate to the second solid substrate. FIG.

1B is a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate a first electronically conductive solid substrate. As shown in FIG. 1B, plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures 130 are arranged such that plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures 130 extend from surface 115 of first solid substrate 110 to surface 125 of second solid substrate 120. According to some embodiments, the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures have long axes that are substantially perpendicular to (e.g., within 10°, within 5°, or within 2° of perpendicular to) the first solid substrate and/or the second solid substrate. In certain embodiments, the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extending from the first solid substrate to the second solid substrate connect the first solid substrate to the second solid substrate.

According to certain embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are arranged such that the plurality extends a relatively large distance laterally. This can be achieved, for example, by arranging a large number of the elongated nanostructures in a side-by-side configuration. In some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extends a distance at least 10 times (or at least 100 times, or at least 500 times, or at 1,000 times, or at least 5,000, or at least 10,000 times) greater than the average distance between adjacent

nanostructures in at least one coordinate direction perpendicular to the long axes of the nanostructures. In some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extends a distance at least 10 times (or at least 100 times, or at least 500 times, or at 1,000 times, or at least 5,000, or at least 10,000 times) greater than the average distance between adjacent nanostructures in each of two orthogonal coordinate directions each perpendicular to the long axes. FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration illustrating how one could calculate the degree of lateral extension for a collection of elongated nanostructures. In FIG. 4, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures 14 are in a side-by-side configuration such that the collection of nanostructures extends distance 18 laterally along a first coordinate direction that is orthogonal to the long axes of the nanostructures. In addition, In FIG. 4, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures 14 are in a side-by-side configuration such that the collection of nanostructures extends distance 28 laterally along a second coordinate direction that is also orthogonal to the long axes of the nanostructures. In FIG. 4, the collection of nanostructures extends a distance that is four (4) times the average spacing 10 between the elongated nanostructures in each of these two coordinate directions (18 and 28). To achieve longer lateral extents, one would add a larger number of nanostructures to the collection.

In some embodiments, the plurality of nanostructures arranged between the first and second substrates comprises at least 10; at least 100; at least 1,000; at least 10,000; at least 100,000; or at least 1,000,000 elongated nanostructures arranged in a side-by-side configuration.

According to certain embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures penetrate a surface of the first electronically conductive solid substrate and/or a surface of the second electronically conductive solid substrate.

Generally, nanostructures are said to penetrate a substrate when the nanostructures extend into the geometric volume of the substrate. For example, for a porous substrate, nanostructures that extend into the pores of the substrate are said to penetrate the substrate. For a non-porous substrate, nanostructures that extend into the solid bulk of the substrate are said to penetrate the substrate. In some embodiments, the penetration of the nanostructures into the first and/or second substrate involves the nanostructures penetrating into a solid volume of the substrate a distance of at least 500 nm, at least 1 micrometer, at least 5 micrometers, at least 10 micrometers, at least 50 micrometers, at least 100 micrometers, at least 500 micrometers, or more. For example, in some embodiments, the first and/or second substrate comprises a prepreg comprising electronically conductive carbon fibers arranged in an electrically insulating polymer, and the nanostructures penetrate into the prepreg (e.g., into polymer of the prepreg) a distance of at least 500 nm, at least 1 micrometer, at least 5 micrometers, at least 10 micrometers, at least 50 micrometers, at least 100 micrometers, at least

500 micrometers, or more.

One example of nanostructure penetration into a substrate is shown in FIG. 1B.

In FIG. 1B, elongated nanostructures 130 penetrate surface 115 of first solid substrate 110. FIG. 2B is a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate a second electronically conductive solid substrate. Another example of nanostructure penetration into a substrate is shown in FIG. 2B, in which elongated nanostructures 130 penetrate surface 125 of second solid substrate 120. FIG. 3B is a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate a first and a second electronically conductive solid substrate. Yet another example of nanostructure penetration into substrates is shown in FIG. 3B, in which elongated nanostructures 130 penetrate both first solid substrate 110 and second solid substrate 120.

In certain embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures penetrates at least a first surface of the solid substrate upon application of force to the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures and/or softening of the solid substrate. In some cases, the force may be applied over at least a portion of the time during which the solid substrate is softened. In some embodiments, the plurality of elongated nanostructures may be located adjacent the solid substrate and, upon application of one or more forces, the plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrates at least a first surface of the solid substrate.

According to certain embodiments, the elongated nanostructures are ionically conductive (e.g., with respect to an electrochemically active ion, such as Li⁺). Those of ordinary skill in the art are familiar with ionic conductivity, which refers to the ability of a material to conduct ions to a substantial degree. Those of ordinary skill in the art would be capable of determining whether a material is ionically conductive, and quantifying the degree of its ionic conductivity, by calculating it using impedance data. Using ionically conductive elongated nanostructures can be beneficial, according to certain embodiments, as it may enhance the transport of ions (e.g., electrochemically active ions, such as Li⁺) through the region between the substrates, which can be useful in enhancing the performance of certain devices (e.g., certain electrochemical cells, capacitors, etc.). According to certain embodiments, the ionic conductivity of an ionically conductive material can be (during use and/or at 20 °C) greater than or equal to 10 ⁷ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ⁶ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ⁵ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10⁴ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ³ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ² S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ¹ S/cm, greater than or equal to 1 S/cm, or greater than or equal to 10 S/cm (and/or, up to 100 S/cm, up to 10 S/cm, up to 1 S/cm, up to 10 ¹ S/cm, up to lO ² S/cm, up to 10 ³ S/cm, up to 10⁴ S/cm, up to 10 ⁵ S/cm, up to 10 ⁶ S/cm, or more) across at least one dimension of the material (e.g., its longest dimension).

According to certain embodiments, the ionic conductivity of the elongated nanostructures (during use and/or at 20 °C) is greater than or equal to 10 ⁷ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ⁶ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ⁵ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10⁴ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ³ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ² S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ¹ S/cm, greater than or equal to 1 S/cm, or greater than or equal to 10 S/cm (and/or, up to 100 S/cm, up to 10 S/cm, up to 1 S/cm, up to 10 ¹ S/cm, up to 10 ² S/cm, up to 10 ³ S/cm, up to 10⁴ S/cm, up to 10 ⁵ S/cm, up to 10 ⁶ S/cm, or more) when measured across their lengths. In some embodiments, the ionic conductivity of the elongated nanostructures (during use and/or at 20 °C) is greater than or equal to 10 ⁷ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ⁶ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ⁵ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10⁴ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ³ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ² S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ¹ S/cm, greater than or equal to 1 S/cm, or greater than or equal to 10 S/cm (and/or, up to 100 S/cm, up to 10 S/cm, up to 1 S/cm, up to 10 ¹ S/cm, up to lO ² S/cm, up to 10 ³ S/cm, up to 10⁴ S/cm, up to 10 ⁵ S/cm, up to 10 ⁶ S/cm, or more) when measured from a first end of the nanostructure in or in contact with the first solid substrate to a second end of the nanostructure in or in contact with the second solid substrate.

In certain embodiments, the electronically insulating nanostructure can have diameters (which, for each elongated nanostructure, corresponds to the largest diameter of that nanostructure along its length) falling within certain ranges. According to certain embodiments, the number average of the diameters of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures is 1 micrometer or less, 500 nm or less, 100 nm or less, 75 nm or less, 50 nm or less, 25 nm or less, or 10 nm or less.

The electronically insulating elongated nanostructures can have any of a variety of average distances between the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures. For a plurality of elongated nanostructures, the average distance between those nanostructures is calculated as follows. First, for each nanostructure, the distance between that nanostructure and the closest other nanostructure in the plurality of nanostructures is determined. This distance is referred to as a“nearest neighbor distance.” Referring to FIG. 4, for example, nanostructure l4a has nearest neighbor nanostructure l4b, and distance lOa corresponds to the nearest neighbor distance for nanostructure l4a. Once a nearest neighbor distance has been assigned to each nanostructure, the average distance is calculated by taking a number average of the nearest neighbor distances. In FIG. 4, nanostructures 14 are relatively evenly spaced, so the average distance between nanostructures 14 is about the same as distances lOa and lOb. In some embodiments, the average distance between the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures is less than 500 nm, less than 250 nm, less than 100 nm, less than 80 nm, less than 60 nm, less than 40 nm, less than 30 nm, less than 20 nm, less than 10 nm, or less than 5 nm.

According to certain embodiments, the elongated nanostructures can be relatively closely spaced, such that the elongated nanostructures occupy a relatively high volume fraction within the geometric volume of the collection of elongated nanostructures. The “volume fraction” of a collection of elongated nanostructures refers to the percentage of the geometric volume defined by the collection that is occupied by the nanostructures.

As nanostructures are spaced closer together within a collection, the volume fraction of the nanostructures will increase. In certain embodiments, the volume fraction of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures within a geometric volume defined by the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures is at least 1%, at least 2%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 75%, at least 85%, or at least 90%.

According to certain embodiments, the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures within the plurality are substantially aligned. Elongated nanostructures within a plurality of elongated nanostructures are said to be substantially aligned with each other when at least 50% of the elongated nanostructures are aligned with their nearest neighbors within the plurality of elongated nanostructures. In some

embodiments, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90% of the elongated nanostructures are aligned with their nearest neighbors within the plurality. First and second elongated nanostructures are said to be aligned with each other when, when one traces a first straight line from one end of the first nanostructure to the other end of the first nanostructure, and one traces a second straight line from one end of the second nanostructure to the other end of the second nanostructure, the lines are within 15° (or, in some cases, within 10°, within 5°, or within 2°) of parallel. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 4, elongated nanostructure l4a of the plurality of elongated nanostructures 14 has a nearest neighbor elongated nanostructure l4b. Nanostructure l4a and nanostructure l4b are within 15° of parallel (and are also within 10°, within 5°, and within 2° of parallel), and are therefore aligned with each other. The rest of the nanostructures in FIG. 4 are also aligned with their nearest neighbors. Accordingly, the set of nanostructures illustrated in FIG. 4 are said to be substantially aligned.

In certain embodiments, the article comprises a region between the first solid substrate and the second solid substrate. The region between the first solid substrate and the second solid substrate can provide a pathway for the transport of ions (e.g., electrochemically active ions) to be shuttled from one substrate to another, according to certain embodiments. FIG. 1C is a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate the first electronically conductive solid substrate across a separator region. Referring to FIG. 1C, for example, article 100 includes region 140 between first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120. Region 140 can provide a pathway for the transport of ions between first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120. FIG. 2C is a cross- sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate the second electronically conductive solid substrate across a separator region. Similarly, in FIG. 2C, article 200 includes region 140 between first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120, which can provide a pathway for the transport of ions between first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120. FIG. 3C is a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating an article in which a plurality of elongated nanostructures penetrate the first and second electronically conductive solid substrates across a separator region. In FIG. 3C, article 300 includes region 140 between first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120, which can provide a pathway for the transport of ions between first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120. According to some embodiments, the region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is electronically insulating (e.g., polymer, alumina, ceramic, and the like), such that transport of electrons through the region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is inhibited or prevented. For example, as shown in FIG. 1C, region 140 between first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120 can be made of an electronically insulating material. In certain embodiments, transport of electrons through region 140 between first between first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120 is prevented. The use of electronically insulating materials between the first and second solid substrates can inhibit or prevent short circuiting between the first and second solid substrates when they are used in polarized devices (e.g., capacitors and/or

electrochemical cells).

According to certain embodiments, the region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is ionically conductive. The region between the first solid substrate and the second solid substrate can be configured, according to certain embodiments, such that ions can be transported through the region. For example, referring to FIG. 1C, region 140 between first between first solid substrate 110 and second solid substrate 120 can be ionically conductive such that ions can be transported between first solid substrate 110 and second solid substrate 120.

According to certain embodiments, the ionic conductivity of the region between the first solid substrate and the second solid substrate can be (during use and/or at 20 °C) greater than or equal to 10 ⁷ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ⁶ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ⁵ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10⁴ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ³ S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ² S/cm, greater than or equal to 10 ¹ S/cm, greater than or equal to 1 S/cm, or greater than or equal to 10 S/cm (and/or, up to 100 S/cm, up to 10 S/cm, up to 1 S/cm, up to 10 ¹ S/cm, up to 10 ² S/cm, up to 10 ³ S/cm, up to 10⁴ S/cm, up to 10 ⁵ S/cm, up to 10⁶ S/cm, or more) when measured across the thickness of the region (i.e., from the first substrate to the second substrate).

The region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive substrate may comprise ionically conductive materials. In some embodiments, the region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises an electrolyte (e.g., a liquid electrolyte in combination with an electronically insulating separator, a gel electrolyte, and/or a solid electrolyte). For example, referring to FIG.

1C, in some embodiments, region 140 between first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120 can comprise a liquid electrolyte (e.g., NaCl solution) in some embodiments.

According to certain embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are supported by a support material. Examples of support in which the nanostructures can be distributed include, but are not limited to, monomers, polymers, ceramics, alumina, and the like. Additional details on support materials are described below.

Referring to FIG. 1C, for example, region 140 of article 100 comprises elongated nanostructures 130 disposed in support material 150.

According to certain embodiments, the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are arranged within an ionically conductive support material.

In some embodiments, the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are not ionically conductive, and the support material within which the nanostructures are disposed is ionically conductive, imparting ionic conductivity to the region between the first and second solid substrates.

In some embodiments, both the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures and the support material within which the nanostructures are disposed are ionically conductive. In some such embodiments, the presence of the ionically conductive elongated nanostructures enhances the ionic conductivity (e.g., by at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 75%, at least 100%, or more) of the region between the first and second solid substrates, relative to the ionic conductivity that would be exhibited in the absence of the ionically conductive elongated nanostructures but under otherwise identical conditions. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that this enhancement in ionic conductivity may be due to the disruption of the atomic order (e.g., crystallinity or semi-crystallinity) of the ionically conductive support material by the ionically conductive elongated nanostructures.

Certain aspects are related to methods comprising establishing an electric potential between a first electronically conductive solid substrate and a second electronically conductive solid substrate. Establishing an electrical potential between the first and second solid substrates may be performed, for example, as part of a process of charging a polarized device in which the first and second substrates are disposed (e.g., as electrodes). FIG. 5A is an exemplary cross-sectional schematic diagram of an article across which an electric potential has been applied. Referring to FIG. 5A, for example, in some embodiments, EMF source 160 is used to establish an electric potential between first electronically conductive solid substrate 110 and second electronically conductive solid substrate 120. Because region 140 is electronically insulating, electric charge can accumulate on one of the solid substrates without passing through region 140 to the other substrate.

According to some embodiments, establishing an electric potential between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises applying a voltage such that an electrochemical reaction occurs. In some embodiments, the voltage application is part of a charging step. For example, referring to FIG. 5A, in some embodiments, article 500 comprises an electrochemical cell. In some such embodiments, when EMF source 160 is applied to article 500, an electrochemical reaction occurs such that the electrochemical cell is recharged.

Certain embodiments are related to discharging the electric potential through a load external to the device. FIG. 5B is an exemplary cross-sectional schematic diagram of an article being used to power an external load. For example, referring to FIG. 5B, external electrical load 170 can be electronically coupled to device 500 such that an electric potential is discharged, passing electric current through external electrical load 170.

Certain of the articles described herein can be part of polarized devices. In some embodiments, the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate are part of a capacitor. In some such

embodiments, the capacitor is a supercapacitor. In some embodiments, the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate are part of an electrochemical cell. According to some such embodiments, the electrochemical cell is a rechargeable battery or a non-rechargeable battery.

In certain embodiments, the articles described herein have relatively high short beam shear strengths. The articles described herein may have, according to certain embodiments, a short beam shear strength of at least 80 MPa, at least 85 MPa, at least 90 MPa, at least 100 MPa, at least 110 MPa, or at least 120 MPa (and/or up to 150 MPa, up to 175 MPa, up to 200 MPa, or more). Combinations of these ranges are also possible. The short beam shear strength may be determined by using a short beam shear apparatus according to ASTM Test Method D2344M-16.

In some embodiments, the articles described herein have a relatively high flexural modulus. For example, in some embodiments, the articles described herein may have a flexural modulus of at least 1 GPa, at least 5 GPa, at least 10 GPa, at least 15 GPa, at least 20 GPa, or at least 25 GPa (and/or up to 30 GPA, up to 40 GPa, up to 50 GPa, or more). Combinations of these ranges are also possible. The flexural modulus may be determined by using a short beam shear apparatus according to ASTM Test Method D2344M-16.

According to certain embodiments, the articles described herein have a relatively high specific capacitance. The articles described herein may have, according to some embodiments, a specific capacitance of at least 1 mF cm ², at least 2 mF cm ², at least 3 mF cm ², at least 4 mF cm ², at least 5 mF cm ², or at least 6 mF cm ² (and/or up to 7 mF cm ², up to 8 mF cm ², up to 9 mF cm ², up to 10 mF cm ², or more). Combinations of these ranges are also possible. The specific capacitance may be determined from cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements obtained using an electrochemical work station (e.g., a potentiostat).

According to some embodiments, the substrate (e.g., on which the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are supported) is a polymeric substrate. Generally, polymers are materials comprising three or more repeating mer units in their chemical structure. Polymers may comprise additional repeating units and may have any molecular weight. In some embodiments, the substrate may comprise polymers that are in the form of fibers, or may comprise polymeric fibers.

In some embodiments, the polymer of the substrate has a number average molecular weight of greater than or equal to 1,000 Da, greater than or equal to 5,000 Da, greater than or equal to 10,000 Da, greater than or equal to 25,000 Da, greater than or equal to 50,000 Da, greater than or equal to 100,000 Da, or greater than or equal to 500,000 Da. The polymer in the substrate may have a number average molecular weight less than or equal to 1,000,000 Da, less than or equal to 500,000 Da, less than or equal to 100,000 Da, less than or equal to 50,000 Da, less than or equal to 25,000 Da, less than or equal to 10,000 Da, or less than or equal to 5,000 Da. Combinations of the above- referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 10,000 Da and less than or equal to 50,000 Da). Other ranges are also possible.

In certain embodiments, the polymer of the substrate has a weight average molecular weight of greater than or equal to 1,000 Da, greater than or equal to 5,000 Da, greater than or equal to 10,000 Da, greater than or equal to 25,000 Da, greater than or equal to 50,000 Da, greater than or equal to 100,000 Da, or greater than or equal to 500,000 Da. The polymer in the substrate may have a weight average molecular weight less than or equal to 1,000,000 Da, less than or equal to 500,000 Da, less than or equal to 100,000 Da, less than or equal to 50,000 Da, less than or equal to 25,000 Da, less than or equal to 10,000 Da, or less than or equal to 5,000 Da. Combinations of the above- referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 10,000 Da and less than or equal to 50,000 Da). Other ranges are also possible.

The polymer in the substrate may have any chain structure in accordance with certain embodiments. In some embodiments, polymers may be linear, branched, and/or crosslinked molecules. Or they may be in the form of a crosslinked network. Polymers may have branches or crosslinks of any molecular weight, functionality, and/or spacing. In accordance with some embodiments, the polymers may be highly monodisperse. In accordance with other embodiments, the polymers may be polydisperse. One of ordinary skill in the art would be aware of methods for dispersity. For example, dispersity can be assessed by size-exclusion chromatography.

Polymeric substrates may have any desired mechanical property. In certain embodiments, polymeric substrates are rubbery, glassy, and/or semicrystalline.

In some embodiments, the polymers can be homopolymers, blends of polymers, and/or copolymers. Copolymers may be random copolymers, tapered copolymers, and block copolymers. In certain embodiments, block copolymers with more than three blocks may comprise two or more blocks formed from the same monomer. Blends of polymers can be phase separated or single phase, according to some embodiments.

In some embodiments, polymers may be organic polymers, inorganic polymers, or organometallic polymers. It may be advantageous, according to certain but not necessarily all embodiments, for the substrate to comprise an organic polymer material.

In such embodiments, at least 50%, at least 75%, at least 90%, at least 95%, or at least 99%, or 100% of the polymeric substrate is made up of organic polymer material. In certain embodiments, polymers are of synthetic origin. Polymers of synthetic origin may be formed by either step growth or chain growth processes, and may be further functionalized after polymerization. Non-limiting examples of suitable polymers include polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyacrylonitrile, polybutadiene, polyisoprene, poly(dimethyl siloxane), poly(vinyl chloride),

poly(tetrafluoroethylene), polychloroprene, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(ethylene oxide), polycarbonate, polyester, polyamide, polyimide, polyurethane, poly(ethylene

terephthalate), polymerized phenol-formaldehyde resin, polymerized epoxy resin, para- amid fibers, silk, collagen, keratin, and gelatin. Additional examples of suitable polymers that can be used in the growth substrate include, but are not limited to, relatively high temperature fluoropolymers (e.g., Teflon®), polyetherether ketone (PEEK), and polyether ketone (PEK). In some embodiments, the polymer is not a poly electrolyte.

In some embodiments, polymeric substrates my further comprise additives.

Polymeric substrates may be in the form of a gel and comprise solvent, according to certain embodiments. In some embodiments, polymeric substrates may comprise one or more of fillers, additives, plasticizers, small molecules, and particles comprising ceramic and/or metal. In certain embodiments, greater than or equal to 50%, greater than or equal to 80%, greater than or equal to 90%, greater than or equal to 95%, or greater than or equal to 99% of the mass of the polymeric substrate may comprise polymers. Other ranges are also possible.

In accordance with certain embodiments, the substrate (e.g., on which the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are supported) comprises a fiber. For example, in some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are supported on a carbon fiber-based substrate. The carbon fibers may be arranged, for example, in a woven or non-woven (e.g., non-woven bundle) configuration. In accordance with some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are supported on fibers comprising one or more of the following materials: carbon; carbon glass; glass; alumina; basalt; metals (e.g., steel, aluminum, titanium); aramid (e.g., Kevlar®, meta-aramids such as Nomex®, p- aramids); liquid crystalline polyester; poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole) (PBO); polyethylene (e.g., Spectra®); poly{2,6-diimidazo[4,5-b:4’,5’-e]pyridinylene-l,4-(2,5- dihydroxy)phenylene}; and combinations of these. In some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are supported on fibers comprising at least one of polyetherether ketone (PEEK) and poly ether ketone (PEK).

In some embodiments, the substrate may comprise carbon (e.g., amorphous carbon, carbon aerogel, carbon fiber, graphite, glassy carbon, carbon-carbon composite, graphene, and the like).

As noted above, in some embodiments, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are supported on a carbon fiber (e.g., a sized carbon fiber or an unsized carbon fiber). Any suitable type of carbon fiber can be employed including, for example, aerospace-grade carbon fibers, auto/sport grade carbon fibers, and/or microstructure carbon fibers. In certain embodiments, intermediate modulus (IM) or high modulus (HM) carbon fibers can be employed. In some embodiments,

poly(acrylonitrile)-derived carbon fibers can be employed. Certain embodiments are advantageous for use with carbon fibers that carry a large degree of their tensile strengths in their outer skins (e.g., fibers in which at least 50%, at least 75%, or at least 90% of the tensile strength is imparted by the portion of the fiber located a distance away from the outer skin of the fiber of less than 0.1 times or less than 0.05 times the cross-sectional diameter of the fiber), such as aerospace grade intermediate modulus carbon fibers.

In certain embodiments, the substrate can be a carbon-based substrate. In some embodiments, the carbon-based growth substrate contains carbon in an amount of at least 75 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 95 wt%, or at least 99 wt%. That is to say, in some embodiments, at least 75 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 95 wt%, or at least 99 wt% of the carbon-based growth substrate is made of carbon.

According to certain embodiments, the substrate can be a prepreg. A prepreg may include one or more layers of thermoset or thermoplastic resin containing embedded fibers. In some embodiments, the thermoset material includes epoxy, rubber

strengthened epoxy, BMI, PMK-15, polyesters, and/or vinylesters. In certain

embodiments, the thermoplastic material includes polyamides, polyimides, polyarylene sulfide, polyetherimide, polyesterimides, polyarylenes, polysulfones, polyethersulfones, polyphenylene sulfide, polyetherimide, polypropylene, polyolefins, polyketones, polyetherketones, polyetherketoneketone, polyetheretherketones, and/or polyester.

According to certain embodiments, the prepreg includes fibers that are aligned and/or interlaced (woven or braided). In some embodiments, the prepregs are arranged such the fibers of many layers are not aligned with fibers of other layers, the arrangement being dictated by directional stiffness requirements of the article to be formed. In certain embodiments, the fibers cannot be stretched appreciably longitudinally, and thus, each layer cannot be stretched appreciably in the direction along which its fibers are arranged. Exemplary prepregs include thin-ply prepregs, non-crimp fabric prepregs, TORLON thermoplastic laminate, PEEK (polyether etherketone, Imperial Chemical Industries, PLC, England), PEKK (polyetherketone ketone, DuPont) thermoplastic, T800H/3900 2 thermoset from Toray (Japan), and AS4/3501 6 thermoset from Hercules (Magna, Utah), IMA from Hexcel (Magna, Utah), IM7/M21 from Hexcel (Magna, Utah), IM7/977-3 from Hexcel (Magna, Utah), Cycom 5320-1 from Cytec (Woodland Park. New Jersey), and AS4/3501 6 thermoset from Hexcel (Magna, Utah).

As described herein, certain embodiments comprise use of one or more support materials. The support materials may provide mechanical, chemical, or otherwise stabilizing support for the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures. In some cases, the support material may be processed to support the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures. For example, a mixture of monomeric species may be added to the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures, and subsequent polymerization of the monomeric species may produce a polymer matrix comprising the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures disposed therein. As another example, a solgel can be applied to a collection of a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures and processed to form a ceramic material between the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures. In some embodiments, gas phase infiltration can be used to form carbonaceous material or silicon carbide between the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures. Gas-phase infiltration may be executed by various processes such as chemical vapor deposition including decomposition of hydrocarbons. Examples of suitable support materials are described in detail below.

The support material may be a monomer material, a polymer material (e.g., an organic polymer material), a ceramic material, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, the support material may be at least partially amorphous. According to some embodiments, for example, the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures contained in the article may at least partially inhibit molecular relaxation of the support material during a phase transition. In some such embodiments, an article comprising the support material may have a lower crystallinity, melting temperature, and/or enthalpy as compared to either the support material alone (e.g., an organic polymer material) or a theoretical article that does not include the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures but is otherwise equivalent. The crystallinity of the support material may be measured, in some embodiments, by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD). In certain embodiments, XRD data to determine crystallinity may be supplemented by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) in order to measure the enthalpy.

Polymer materials for use as binding materials and/or support materials, as described herein, may be any material compatible with a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures. For example, the polymer material may be selected to uniformly“wet” the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures and/or to bind one or more substrates. In some cases, the polymer material may be selected to have a particular viscosity, such as 50,000 cPs or lower; 10,000 cPs or lower; 5,000 cPs or lower; 1,000 cPs or lower; 500 cPs or lower; 250 cPs or lower; or 100 cPs or lower. In some embodiments, the polymer material may be selected to have a viscosity between 150-250 cPs.

In some cases, the support material may comprise a thermoset or thermoplastic. Non-limiting examples of thermosets include Microchem SU-8 (UV curing epoxy, grades from 2000.1 to 2100, and viscosities ranging from 3 cPs to 10,000 cPs), Buehler Epothin (low viscosity, about 150 cPs, room temperature curing epoxy), West Systems 206 + 109 Hardener (low viscosity, -200 cPs, room temperature curing epoxy), Loctite Hysol 1C (20-min curing conductive epoxy, viscosity 200,000 - 500,000cPs), Hexcel RTM6 (resin transfer molding epoxy, viscosity during process -10 cPs), Hexcel

HexFlow VRM 34 (structural VARTM or vacuum assisted resin transfer molding epoxy, viscosity during process -500 cPs). Non-limiting examples of thermoplastics include polystyrene, or Microchem PMMA (UV curing thermoplastic, grades ranging from 10 cPs to -1,000 cPs). In one embodiment, the polymer support material may be PMMA, EpoThin, WestSystems EPON, M21 resin, Cycom 5320, 8552 resin, RTM6, VRM34, 977-3, SU8, or HysollC.

The support material (or a precursor thereof) may be transported between plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures via any method known to those of ordinary skill in the art. In some embodiments, the support material may be transported between the elongated nanostructures via capillary forces. In other embodiments, the support material or precursor thereof may be transported between the elongated nanostructures by pressure driven flow, molding, or any other known technique.

The support material may be hardened using any suitable method. In some embodiments in which epoxy is used as a support material, the epoxy may be cured, for example, by allowing the precursor material to set, or optionally by applying heat. In some embodiments, hardening may comprise the polymerization of the support material precursor. In some embodiments, hardening the support material may comprise cooling the support material such that it changes phase from a liquid to a solid (i.e.,“freezes”) or becomes less compliant.

According to certain embodiments, the nanostructures described herein have at least one cross-sectional dimension of less than 500 nm, less than 250 nm, less than 100 nm, less than 75 nm, less than 50 nm, less than 25 nm, less than 10 nm, or, in some cases, less than 1 nm.

In some embodiments, the elongated nanostructure can have an aspect ratio greater than or equal to 100, greater than or equal to 1000, greater than or equal to 10,000, or greater. Those skilled in the art would understand that the aspect ratio of a given structure is measured along the long axis of the elongated nanostructure, and is expressed as the ratio of the length of the long axis of the nanostructure to the maximum cross-sectional diameter of the nanostructure. The“long axis” of an article corresponds to the imaginary line that connects the geometric centers of the cross-sections of the article as a pathway is traced, along the longest length of the article, from one end to another.

The elongated nanostructures can have a cylindrical or pseudo-cylindrical shape, in some embodiments. In some embodiments, the elongated nanostructure can be a nanotube, such as a carbon nanotube. Other examples of elongated nanostructures include, but are not limited to, nanofibers and nanowires.

Elongated nanostructures can be single molecules (e.g., in the case of some nanotubes) or can include multiple molecules bound to each other (e.g., in the case of some nanofibers).

As used herein, the term“nanotube” refers to a substantially cylindrical, hollow elongated nanostructure. The nanotube can comprise a fused network of primarily six- membered rings (e.g., six-membered aromatic rings). Nanotubes may include, in some embodiments, a fused network of at least 10, at least 100, at least 1000, at least 10⁵, at least 10⁶, at least 10⁷, or at least 10⁸ fused rings (e.g., six-membered rings such as six- membered aromatic rings), or more. In some cases, nanotubes may resemble a sheet of graphite formed into a seamless cylindrical structure. It should be understood that the nanotube may also comprise rings or lattice structures other than six-membered rings. According to certain embodiments, at least one end of the nanotube may be capped, i.e., with a curved or nonplanar aromatic group.

Elongated nanostructures may be formed of a variety of materials, in some embodiments. Non-limiting examples of materials from which elongated nanostructures may be formed include silicon, indium-gallium-arsenide materials, silicon nitride (e.g., Si₃N₄), silicon carbide, dichalcogenides (WS₂), oxides (e.g., molybdenum trioxide), and boron-carbon-nitrogen compounds (e.g., BC2N2, BC₄N). In some embodiments, the elongated nanostructure may be formed of one or more inorganic materials. Non limiting examples include semiconductor nanowires such as silicon (Si) nanowires, indium-gallium-arsenide (InGaAs) nanowires, and nanotubes comprising, silicon nitride (S13N4), silicon carbide (SiC), dichalcogenides such as (WS2), oxides such as

molybdenum trioxide (M0O3), and boron-carbon-nitrogen compositions such as BC2N2 and BC₄N. In some embodiments, S1O2, AI2O3, T1O2, MgO, Mg2Si0₄ M0S2, and/or ZnS nanotubes could be used.

In some embodiments, the elongated nanostructures described herein may comprise carbon nanotubes. As used herein, the term“carbon nanotube” is given its ordinary meaning in the art and refers to a substantially cylindrical molecule or nanostructure comprising a fused network of primarily six-membered rings (e.g., six- membered aromatic rings) comprising primarily carbon atoms. In some cases, carbon nanotubes may resemble a sheet of graphite formed into a seamless cylindrical structure. In some cases, carbon nanotubes may include a wall that comprises fine-grained sp² sheets. In certain embodiments, carbon nanotubes may have turbostratic walls. It should be understood that the carbon nanotube may also comprise rings or lattice structures other than six-membered rings. Typically, at least one end of the carbon nanotube may be capped, i.e., with a curved or nonplanar aromatic structure. Carbon nanotubes may have a diameter of the order of nanometers and a length on the order of millimeters, or, on the order of tenths of microns, resulting in an aspect ratio greater than 100, 1000, 10,000, 100,000, 10⁶, 10⁷, 10⁸, 10⁹, or greater. In some embodiments, the carbon nanotubes are single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs). According to certain although not necessarily all embodiments, it can be advantageous to use insulating and/or semiconducting carbon nanotubes.

According to certain embodiments, the plurality of elongated nanostructures arranged between the first and second substrates are arranged in a forest. As used herein, a“forest” of elongated nanostructures corresponds to a plurality of substantially aligned electronically insulating elongated nanostructures arranged in side-by-side fashion with one another. In some embodiments, the forest is a“self-supporting forest,” which is a forest of elongated nanostructures that moves together as a whole when handled. In some embodiments, the forest of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprises at least 5, at least 10, at least 50, at least 100, at least 500, at least 1000, or at least 10,000 elongated nanostructures. In some such embodiments, the forest of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures may comprise at least 10⁶, at least 10⁷, at least 10⁸, at least 10⁹, at least 10¹⁰, at least 10¹¹, at least 10¹², or at least 10¹³ electronically insulating elongated nanostructures. Those of ordinary skill in the art are familiar with suitable methods for forming forests of elongated nanostructures. For example, in some embodiments, the forest of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures can be catalytically grown (e.g., using a growth catalyst deposited via chemical vapor deposition process). In some embodiments, the as-grown forest can be used as is, while in other cases, the as-grown forest may be mechanically manipulated after growth and prior to subsequent processing steps described elsewhere herein (e.g., folding, shearing, compressing, buckling, etc.).

In some embodiments in which the nanostructures are on a substrate, the set of substantially aligned electronically insulating elongated nanostructures may be oriented such that the long axes of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are substantially non-parallel to the surface of the substrate. In some cases, the long axes of the nanostructures are oriented in a substantially perpendicular direction with respect to the surface of the substrate. As described more fully below, an advantageous feature of some embodiments of the invention may be that the alignment of nanostructures in the nanostructure forest may be substantially maintained, even upon subsequent processing (e.g., application of a force to the forest and/or combining the forests with secondary materials such as polymers, metals, ceramics, piezoelectric materials, piezomagnetic materials, carbon, and/or fluids, among other materials). Systems and methods for growing elongated nanostructures (including forests of elongated nanostructures) are described, for example, in International Patent Application Serial No. PCT/US2007/011914, filed May 18, 2007, entitled“Continuous Process for the Production of Nanostructures Including Nanotubes,” published as WO 2007/136755 on November 29, 2007; U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 12/227,516, filed November 19, 2008, entitled“Continuous Process for the Production of Nanostructures Including Nanotubes,” published as US 2009/0311166 on December 17, 2009; International Patent Application Serial No. PCT/US07/11913, filed May 18, 2007, entitled“Nanostructure- reinforced Composite Articles and Methods,” published as WO 2008/054541 on May 8, 2008; International Patent Application Serial No. PCT/US2008/009996, filed August 22, 2008, entitled“Nanostructure-reinforced Composite Articles and Methods,” published as WO 2009/029218 on March 5, 2009; U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 11/895,621, filed August 24, 2007, entitled“Nanostructure-Reinforced Composite Articles and Methods,” published as US 2008/0075954 on March 27, 2008, and U.S. Patent

Publication No. 2010/0196695, published on August 5, 2010, and filed as Application No. 12/618,203 on November 13, 2009; each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

As noted above, for a given elongated nanostructure in a forest of elongated nanostructures, each elongated nanostructure has a nearest neighbor (and an associated nearest neighbor distance). In certain embodiments, the forest of elongated

nanostructures has a number average of nearest neighbor distances that is less than 2.5%, less than 1%, less than 0.5%, less than 0.25%, less than 0.1%, or less than 0.05% of the average length of the elongated nanostructures within the forest.

In some embodiments, the nearest neighbor distance within the forest is roughly equal for each nanostructure. For example, in some embodiments, the standard deviation of the nearest neighbor distances of the nanostructures within the plurality of

nanostructures is less than 100%, less than 50%, less than 25%, or less than 10% of the average distance between the elongated nanostructures within the plurality.

In some cases, the nanostructures are dispersed substantially uniformly within the hardened support material. For example, the nanostructures may be dispersed substantially uniformly within at least 10% of the hardened support material, or, in some cases, at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 100% of the hardened support material. As used herein,“dispersed uniformly within at least X% of the hardened support material” refers to the substantially uniform arrangement of nanostructures within at least X% of the volume of the hardened support material. The ability to arrange nanostructures essentially uniformly throughout structures comprising plurality of fibers allows for the enhanced mechanical strength of the overall structure.

Certain embodiments comprise growing elongated nanostructures. For example, in some embodiments, the elongated nanostructures can be grown on a growth substrate and subsequently transferred to a separate substrate that serves as the first and/or second electronically conductive substrate. In other embodiments, the elongated nanostructures can be grown directly on the first and/or second electronically conductive substrate.

According to some embodiments, the nanostructures can be grown by providing an active growth material (e.g., a catalyst) or an active growth material precursor (e.g., a catalyst precursor) and exposing a precursor of the nanostructures to the active growth material or active growth material precursor. In some embodiments, elongated nanostructures can be grown by exposing the active growth material and the precursor of the carbon-based nanostructures to a set of conditions that causes growth of

nanostructures on the active growth material. Growth of the nanostructures may comprise, for example, heating the precursor of the nanostructures, the active growth material, or both. Other examples of suitable conditions under which the nanostructures may be grown are described in more detail below. In some embodiments, growing nanostructures comprises performing chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of

nanostructures on the active growth material. In some embodiments, the chemical vapor deposition process may comprise a plasma chemical vapor deposition process. Chemical vapor deposition is a process known to those of ordinary skill in the art, and is explained, for example, in Dresselhaus M S, Dresselhaus G., and Avouris, P. eds.“Carbon

Nanotubes: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications” (2001) Springer, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Examples of suitable nanostructure fabrication techniques are discussed in more detail in International Patent Application Serial No. PCT/US2007/011914, filed May 18, 2007, entitled“Continuous Process for the Production of Nanostructures Including Nanotubes,” published as WO 2007/136755 on November 29, 2007, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

As noted above, according to certain embodiments, nanostructures can be grown by exposing the nanostructure precursor to an active growth material. As used herein, the term“active growth material” refers to a material that, when exposed to a set of conditions selected to cause growth of nanostructures, either enables growth of nanostructures that would otherwise not occur in the absence of the active growth material under essentially identical conditions, or increases the rate of growth of nanostructures relative to the rate that would be observed under essentially identical conditions but without the active growth material. “Essentially identical conditions,” in this context, means conditions that are similar or identical (e.g., pressure, temperature, composition and concentration of species in the environment, etc.), other than the presence of the active growth material. In some embodiments, the active growth material can be part of a larger material (e.g., when the active growth material corresponds to a doped portion of a structure doped with an active material such as an alkali or alkaline earth metal the like). In other cases, the active growth material can be a single, standalone structure (e.g., when the active growth material is a particle comprising at least two components that are capable of forming a eutectic composition with each other, when the active growth material is a particle comprising at least a first type of cation, at least a second type of cation different from the first type of cation, and an anion, etc.). In certain embodiments, the active growth material is active throughout its exposed surface. In some embodiments, the active growth material is active throughout at least some or all of its volume.

In accordance with certain embodiments, the active growth material is not incorporated into the carbon-based nanostructures during growth. For example, the active growth material, according to certain embodiments, is not covalently bonded to the nanostructure grown from the precursor. In some embodiments, the active growth material is incorporated into the nanostructure during growth. For example, growth may result in the formation of a material that comprises a nanostructure surrounding the active growth material.

In some embodiments, the active growth material lowers the activation energy of the chemical reaction used to grow the nanostructures from the precursor. According to certain embodiments, the active growth material catalyzes the chemical reaction(s) by which the nanostructures are grown from the precursor.

In certain embodiments, the active growth material is formed from an active growth material precursor which undergoes a phase change or chemical change prior to carbon-based nanostructure growth. As noted above, it should be understood that, where active growth materials and their associated properties are described elsewhere herein, either or both of the active growth material itself and the active growth material precursor may have the properties described as being associated with the active growth material. In some embodiments, an active growth material precursor may be provided (e.g., applied to an optional substrate) in one form and then undergo a physical or chemical transition (e.g., during a heating step, during exposure to a nanostructure precursor) prior to forming the active growth material. For example, in some embodiments, the active growth material precursor may melt, become oxidized or reduced, become activated, or undergo any physical or chemical change prior to forming the active growth material.

In some cases, the nanostructures may be removed from the growth material after the nanostructures are formed. For example, the act of removing may comprise transferring the nanostructures directly from the surface of the growth material to a surface of a receiving substrate. The receiving substrate may be, for example, a polymer material or a carbon fiber material. In some cases, the receiving substrate comprises a polymer material, metal, or a fiber comprising AI2O3, S1O2, carbon, or a polymer material. In some cases, the receiving substrate comprises a fiber comprising AI2O3, S1O2, carbon, or a polymer material. In some embodiments, the receiving substrate is a fiber weave.

Removal of the nanostructures may comprise application of a mechanical tool, mechanical or ultrasonic vibration, a chemical reagent, heat, or other sources of external energy, to the nanostructures and/or the surface of the growth substrate. In some cases, the nanostructures may be removed by application of compressed gas, for example. In some cases, the nanostructures may be removed (e.g., detached) and collected in bulk, without attaching the nanostructures to a receiving substrate, and the nanostructures may remain in their original or“as-grown” orientation and conformation (e.g., in an aligned “forest”) following removal from the growth material. Systems and methods for removing nanostructures from a substrate, or for transferring nanostructures from a first substrate to a second substrate, are described in International Patent Application Serial No. PCT/US2007/011914, filed May 18, 2007, entitled“Continuous Process for the Production of Nanostructures Including Nanotubes,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In some embodiments, nanostructures may be grown on active growth materials which are subsequently removed from the nanostructures. For example, the nanostructures may be grown on the active growth material at a first temperature and then may be heated to a second, higher, temperature at which the active growth material is removed (e.g., by thermal evaporation).

According to certain embodiments, nanostructures (e.g., alumina nanotubes) can be synthesized by using another nanostructure as a template. For example, in certain embodiments, a first elongated nanostructure type is grown, after which a second material is formed over the first elongated nanostructure. The second material may be formed over the first elongated nanostructure material as a conformal coating, for example. In some embodiments, after the second material has been formed over the first nanostructure material, the first nanostructure material can be removed (e.g., via dissolution, oxidation, etching, or any of a number of other methods). As one specific example, in some embodiments, carbon nanotubes are first grown (e.g., using CVD). After the carbon nanotubes have been grown, a metal oxide (e.g., alumina) can be deposited over the carbon nanotubes, for example, by depositing a metal and

subsequently oxidizing the metal, or by depositing the metal oxide itself. After the metal oxide has been formed, the carbon nanotubes can be removed, for example, via heat treatment and/or oxidation. In some embodiments, the metal oxide can be crystallized during the heat treatment step, resulting in metal oxide-based nanostructures (e.g., metal oxide nanotubes such as alumina nanotubes). Other techniques for the synthesis of metal oxide-based (e.g., alumina-based) nanostructures (e.g., nanotubes) comprise hydrolysis of metal containing reactants (e.g., Al-containing reactants), polymerization of metal- containing reactants (e.g., Al-containing reactants), hydrothermal methods, and the like.

U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/591,402, filed November 28, 2017, and entitled“Separators Comprising Elongated Nanostructures and Associated Devices and Methods, Including Devices and Methods for Energy Storage and/or Use,” is

incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

The following examples are intended to illustrate certain embodiments of the present invention, but do not exemplify the full scope of the invention.

EXAMPLES

Exemplary composites were fabricated using aligned alumina nanotubes (ANTs), using standard commercial separators, and without ANTs and without separators. The composites made using aligned alumina nanotubes are referred to below as cANT composites; the composites made using standard commercial separators are referred to below as cSEP composites; and the composites made without ANTs and without separators are referred to below as cREF composites.

cANT composites showed mechanical properties that were similar to the cREF composites. On the other hand, cSEP composites exhibited severe delamination starting at very low loads. ANTs embedded on polymer electrolyte revealed two times higher ionic conductivity than the pure polymer electrolyte by disrupting its semi-crystallinity. This new structural separator architecture promises not only to allow standard CFRP to act as multifunctional capacitors or supercapacitors maintaining its mechanical properties but also to enhance energy storage capabilities.

EXAMPLE 1

This example describes fabrication and mechanical testing of ANT reinforced composites (cANT composites).

Alumina nanotube (ANTs) were synthesized by using carbon nanotubes as templates. Vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (VACNT) forests were grown in a quartz tube furnace at atmospheric pressure via a thermal catalytic chemical vapor deposition process. Silicon wafer pieces coated with catalyst (1/10 nm of Fe/Al₂0₃) by electron- beam physical vapor deposition were placed in the quartz tube reactor and pretreated at 680 °C for 15 minutes in a reducing atmosphere (H₂/He) to condition the catalyst. The silicon wafer pieces coated with catalyst were subjected to a reactant mixture

(H₂/He/C₂H₄) for 60 seconds. In order to facilitate the transfer of the carbon nanotubes, a delamination step was applied in which a mild carbon etching atmosphere (H₂/He/H₂0) removes carbon co-products, reducing the attachment between the carbon nanotubes and the Si substrate. The resultant VACNT forests had an areal density of 1.6 vol%, with each carbon nanotube having an outer diameter of about 8 nm, giving an inter-carbon nanotube spacing of about 60 nm. The VACNT forests were nominally 30 micrometers in length with non-trivial variability (± 10 micrometers). In order to facilitate the transfer to the prepreg, an additional etching step was added after VACNT growth to partially remove carbon side-products that promote adhesion of the VACNTs, and subsequently ANTs, to the substrate. While a short etching step makes the transfer difficult, an excessively long etching step promotes self-delamination of ANTs before transfer. AI2O3 was deposited onto the carbon nanotubes CNTs by atomic layer deposition (ALD). Trimethylaluminum (TMA) and ozone (O3) were used as the metallorganic and oxidizing precursors, respectively. Using nitrogen as the carrier gas at a flow rate of 40 standard cubic centimeter per minute (seem), TMA and O3 were sequentially pulsed into the deposition chamber (2-3 torr, 175 °C) for 22 and 100 milliseconds, respectively. Following each precursor pulse, the chamber was purged with 90 seem of nitrogen for 28 seconds. The AhCU-covered carbon nanotubes were heat-treated at a rate of 1 °C/minute in air in two steps: first at 550 °C for 1 hour and then at 1050 °C for another hour. The first step allowed all carbon to be removed without collapsing the AI2O3 shell, while the second step crystallized the AI2O3, resulting in polycrystalline alumina nanotubes (ANTs). Scanning electron (SEM) and electron diffraction spectroscopy (EDS) mapping was performed on gold metalized samples using a JEOL 6010 operating at 15 kV.

Aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was performed on a Libra Zeiss with an acceleration voltage of 80 kV. An SEM image and a TEM image of the ANTs are shown in FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B, respectively.

The ANT forests were introduced to an interlaminar region between two composite prepreg plies by manually transferring the ANT forests to the surface of one of the composite prepreg plies. Unidirectional aerospace-grade carbon fiber and epoxy prepreg plies (Hexcel AS4/8552) were used. The silicon wafers were positioned with the ANT side in contact with the prepreg surface on top of a hot plate under heat (-60 °C) while moderate pressure was applied on the wafer side for each individual prepreg ply. Once the ANTs had attached to the tacky prepreg surface, the silicon wafers were removed, and the lay-up of the next ply continued until the lay-up was completed. A 16- ply unidirectional lay-up with 5 ANT-reinforced interfaces at the center of the laminate was created. The laminates were assembled with the appropriate cure materials, vacuum bagged, and cured in an autoclave following the industry process specifications (6 bar of total pressure at 1-3 °C/minute to 110 °C, hold for 1 hour, heat again at 1-3 °C/min to 180 °C, hold for 2 hours, cool down at 3-5 °C/min to 60 °C and vent pressure, let cool to room temperature). Baseline and ANT specimens were cured in the same laminate. Optical and SEM images of the cANT composite structure are shown in FIG. 7A and FIG. 7B, respectively. For comparison, another composite was produced with the same layout using a standard commercial capacitor separator (Celgard® 3500) at the same 5 central interfaces of the laminate. An optical image of the commercial capacitor separator composite is shown in FIG. 8 A, and an SEM image is shown in FIG. 8B.

Reference composites (referred to as cREF composites), which did not include either ANTs or separators, were also fabricated. An optical image of an exemplary cREF composite is shown in FIG. 11A, and an SEM image is shown in FIG. 11B.

Once the laminates were cured, the edges were trimmed, and specimens were cut and polished to size following ASTM D2344/D2344M-16 testing standards. The laminates had a thickness of 2.05 ±0.02 mm.

Following the ASTM D2344/D2344M-16 testing standard, the specimens were cut with a diamond saw and then further polished to remove the defects from bandsaw cutting and to meet the dimension specification (2 mm thick, 4 mm wide, and 12 mm long). The polished specimens were subjected to a 3-point bending load (6 mm diameter for loading nose and 3 mm diameter for supports) with an 8 mm span. The test was performed on Zwick/Roell Z010 with a 10 kN load cell in displacement control. The specimen was loaded at 1 mm/min until either of the following occurred: (a) a load drop off of 30%; (b) two-piece specimen failure; or (c) the head travel exceeded the specimen nominal thickness. Load and displacement were recorded every 250 ms, and the static short beam shear strength was calculated by Eq. 1.

a_SBS = 0.75 X º wºt [ ^L1] ^J where a_SBS is the short-beam shear and F_max is the maximum load. This value is a closed form approximation of the maximum shear based on classical beam theory. The effective flexural modulus E can also be obtained from the same test and was calculated by Eq. 2.

where F is the load, and d is the displacement.

FIG. 12A shows a plot of standard force as a function of standard travel for a cREF composite, a cSEP composite, and a cANT composite. As shown in FIG. 12B, the cREF composite exhibited a short beam shear strength of 125.8 MPa and a flexural modulus of 15.6 GPa; the cANT composite exhibited a short beam shear strength of 118.3 MPa and a flexural modulus of 15.0 GPa; and the cSEP composite exhibited a short beam shear strength of 78.6 MPa and a flexural modulus of 6.3 GPa.

Electron Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) mapping was performed on gold metalized samples by a JEOL 6010 scanning electron microscope operating at 15 kV. High resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM) was performed on samples by a JEOL 6700 cold field-emission gun operating at 10 kV. FIG. 13 shows an exemplary EDS mapping of a cANT composite comprising alumina nanotubes, according to certain embodiments. As shown in the lower two panels of FIG. 13, O and Al (in the form of alumina) were present in the intermediate layer of the composite. The top and bottom layers of the composite were primarily made of carbon, from the carbon fibers of the prepregs).

EXAMPLE 2

This example describes the evaluation of the electrochemical performance of the synthesized ANTs.

ANT forests were synthesized over a silicon substrate using the processes described in Example 1.

The out-of-plane electrical resistivity for the composite was acquired by first polishing the composite until the fibers were exposed. Small metal plates were then pressed on each side of the composite during the measurements to ensure good contact. The electrical resistance was recorded by an Agilent 34461 A digital multimeter.

Poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (P(VDF-HFP)) pellets (5 wt.%) were dispersed in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) by stirring at room temperature for at least 6 hours until a stable solution was formed. The synthesized P(VDF- HFP)/NMP solution was infiltrated into the ANT forests over the silicon substrate by pouring 2 mL solution on top of the sample (2 x 3 cm) and keeping it under vacuum overnight until dry. In a similar approach, pure P(VDF-HFP) membranes were synthesized on bare silicon wafers based on a solution casting method. The P(VDF- HFP) and P(VDF-HFP)/ANT composites were then annealed at 100 °C for 2 hours and then peeled off from the substrate. SEM images of the (P(VDF-HFP))/ANT composite are shown in FIG. 9 A and FIG. 9B.

Supercapacitor cells were prepared by assembling two carbon fibers films as electrodes, separated by a P(VDF-HFP) film or P(VDF-HFP)/ANT composite. The electrochemical performances of the assembled energy storage devices were

characterized by an electrochemical work station (VersaSTAT 4, Princeton Applied Research). The specific capacitance of cells was obtained from cyclic voltammetry (CV) tests with scan rates from 5 mV/s to 100 mV/s. FIG. 14A shows, in accordance with certain embodiments, cyclic voltammograms of a composite with a commercial separator and a composite with alumina nanotubes obtained from 0.0 V to 1.2 V under a scan rate of 100 mV/s. FIG. 14B shows, in accordance with certain embodiments, the specific capacitance of a composite with a commercial separator and a composite with alumina nanotubes (PNC) obtained under different constant currents The ionic conductivity of composites and pure P(VDF-HFP) films were measured based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (VersaSTAT 4) with the frequency range from 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz and an AC amplitude of 5 mV, as shown in FIG. 10B.

High resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM) was performed on P(VDF-HFP) and P(VDF-HFP)/ANT by a JEOL 6700 cold field-emission gun operating at 10 kV. Aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was performed on a Libra Zeiss with an acceleration voltage of 80 kV. The thermal properties of P(VDF-HFP) and P(VDF-HFP)/ANT films were investigated by DSC using a RCS1- 3277 (TA Instruments), as shown in FIG. 10A. The measurement was performed with a constant heating rate of 10 °C/min in a nitrogen atmosphere from -90 °C to 250 °C. As shown in FIG. 15, XRD data shows that PVDF peak intensities of the composite with alumina nanotubes decrease as compared to a composite with a commercial separator, indicating a higher amorphous to crystalline volume ratio.

While several embodiments of the present invention have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing the functions and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the teachings of the present invention is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. The present invention is directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, and/or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the scope of the present invention.

The indefinite articles“a” and“an,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, should be understood to mean“at least one.”

The phrase“and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean“either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified unless clearly indicated to the contrary. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B,” when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as“comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A without B (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B without A (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims,“or” should be understood to have the same meaning as“and/or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list,“or” or“and/or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as“only one of’ or“exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims,“consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term“or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e.“one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,”“one of,”“only one of,” or“exactly one of.”“Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase“at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase“at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example,“at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently,“at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently“at least one of A and/or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,”“including,”“carrying,”“having,”“containing,”“involving,”“holding,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases“consisting of’ and“consisting essentially of’ shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

Claims

1. An article, comprising:

a first electronically conductive solid substrate;

a second electronically conductive solid substrate; and

a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extending from the first electronically conductive solid substrate to the second electronically conductive solid substrate; wherein:

a region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is electronically insulating such that transport of electrons through the region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is inhibited or prevented;

the region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is ionically conductive such that ions can be transported through the region, and

at least a portion of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures penetrate a surface of the first electronically conductive solid substrate and/or a surface of the second electronically conductive solid substrate.

2. An article, comprising:

a first electronically conductive solid substrate;

a second electronically conductive solid substrate; and

an ionically conductive and electronically insulating region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate, wherein the ionically conductive region comprises a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extending from the first electronically conductive solid substrate to the second electronically conductive solid substrate.

3. The article of any one of claims 1-2, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate comprises an electronically conductive material disposed within a electronically insulating support material.

4. The article of any one of claims 1-3, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate comprises a prepreg.

5. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate is or is part of an electrode.

6. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate comprises polymeric material, silicon, carbon, a ceramic, and/or a metal.

7. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises an electronically conductive material disposed within an electronically insulating support material.

8. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrates comprises a prepreg.

9. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrate is or is part of an electrode.

10. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the second solid electronically conductive substrate comprises polymeric material, silicon, carbon, a ceramic, and/or a metal

11. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are supported by a support material.

12. The article of claim 11, wherein the support material comprises a monomer, a polymer, and/or a ceramic.

13. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise nanotubes, nanofibers, and/or nanowires.

14. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise alumina, titania, Si0₂, Zr0₂, ZnO, and/or boron nitride.

15. The article of claim 14, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise alumina nanotubes, alumina nanofibers, and/or alumina nanowires.

16. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise carbon-based nanostructures.

17. The article of claim 16, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise carbon nanotubes.

18. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extends a distance at least 100 times greater than the average distance between adjacent electronically insulating elongated nanostructures in each of two orthogonal directions each perpendicular to the long axes of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures.

19. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the plurality of elongated electronically insulating nanostructures extends a distance at least 1000 times greater than the average distance between adjacent electronically insulating elongated nanostructures in each of two orthogonal directions each perpendicular to the long axes of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures.

20. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures have an average diameter of 1 micron or less,

500 nm or less, 100 nm or less, 75 nm or less, 50 nm or less, 25 nm or less, or 10 nm or less.

21. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are substantially aligned.

22. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are arranged within an ionically conductive support material.

23. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are ionically conductive.

24. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the volume fraction of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures within a geometric volume defined by the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures is at least 1%, at least 2%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 75%, at least 85%, or at least 90%.

25. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the average distance between the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures is less than 80 nm, less than 60 nm, less than 40 nm, less than 30 nm, less than 20 nm, less than 10 nm, or less than 5 nm.

26. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the article is a capacitor.

27. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the article is an electrochemical cell.

28. The article of claim 27, wherein the electrochemical cell is a rechargeable battery.

29. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the article has a short beam shear strength of between 80 MPa and 200 MPa.

30. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the article has a flexural modulus of between 1 GPa and 50 GPa.

31. The article of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the article has a specific capacitance of between 1 mF cm ² and 10 mF cm ².

32. A method, comprising:

establishing an electric potential between a first electronically conductive solid substrate and a second electronically conductive solid substrate, wherein:

a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extend from the first electronically conductive solid substrate to the second

electronically conductive solid substrate; and

33. A method, comprising:

establishing an electric potential between a first electronically conductive solid substrate and a second electronically conductive solid substrate, wherein an ionically conductive region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extending from the first electronically conductive solid substrate to the second electronically conductive solid substrate.

34. The method of any one of claims 32-33, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate comprises an electronically conductive material disposed within an electronically insulating support material.

35. The method of any one claims 32-34, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate comprises a prepreg.

36. The method of any one claims 32-35, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate is or is part of an electrode.

37. The method of any one of claims 32-36, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate comprises polymeric material, silicon, carbon, a ceramic, and/or a metal.

38. The method of any one of claims 32-37, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises an electronically conductive material disposed within an electronically insulating support material.

39. The method of any one of claims 32-38, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises a prepreg.

40. The method of any one of claims 32-39, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrate is or is part of an electrode.

41. The method of any one of claims 32-40, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises polymeric material, silicon, carbon, a ceramic, and/or a metal.

42. The method of any one of claims 32-41, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are supported by a support material.

43. The method of claim 42, wherein the support material comprises a monomer, a polymer, and/or a ceramic.

44. The method of any one of claims 42-43, wherein the support material is ionically conductive.

45. The method of any one of claims 32-44, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise nanotubes, nanofibers, and/or nanowires.

46. The method of any one of claims 32-45, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise alumina.

47. The method of any one of claims 32-46, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise alumina nanotubes, alumina nanofibers, and/or alumina nanowires.

48. The method of any one of claims 32-47, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise carbon-based nanostructures.

49. The method of claim 48, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise carbon nanotubes.

50. The method of any one of claims 32-49, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extends a distance at least 100 times greater than the average distance between adjacent electronically insulating elongated nanostructures in each of two orthogonal directions each perpendicular to the long axes of the

electronically insulating elongated nanostructures.

51. The method of any of claims 32-50, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extends a distance at least 1000 times greater than the average distance between adjacent electronically insulating elongated nanostructures in each of two orthogonal directions each perpendicular to the long axes of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures.

52. The method of any one of claims 32-51, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures have an average diameter of 1 micron or less, 500 nm or less, 100 nm or less, 75 nm or less, 50 nm or less, 25 nm or less, or 10 nm or less.

53. The method of any of claims 32-52, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are substantially aligned.

54. The method of any one of claims 32-53, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are arranged within an ionically conductive support material.

55. The method of any one of claims 32-54, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are ionically conductive.

56. The method of any one of claims 32-55, wherein the volume fraction of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures within a geometric volume defined by the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures is at least 1%, at least 2%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 75%, at least 85%, or at least 90%.

57. The method of any one of claims 32-56, wherein the average distance between the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures is less than 80 nm, less than 60 nm, less than 40 nm, less than 30 nm, less than 20 nm, less than 10 nm, or less than 5 nm.

58. The method of any one of claims 32-57, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate are part of a capacitor.

59. The method of claim 58, further comprising discharging the electric potential through an electrical load external to the capacitor.

60. The method of any one of claims 32-59, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate are part of an electrochemical cell.

61. The method of claim 60, wherein the electrochemical cell is a rechargeable battery.

62. The method of any one of claims 60-61, further comprising discharging the electric potential through an electrical load external to the electrochemical cell.

63. The method of any one of claims 32-62, wherein establishing an electric potential between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises applying a voltage such that an electrochemical reaction occurs.

64. The method of claim 63, wherein the voltage application is part of a charging step.

65. A method, comprising:

arranging a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures such that the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extend from a first electronically conductive solid substrate to a second electronically conductive solid substrate, wherein:

66. A method, comprising:

arranging a plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures such that the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extend from a first electronically conductive solid substrate to a second electronically conductive solid substrate, wherein a region between the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate is electronically insulating and ionically conductive.

67. The method of any one of claims 65-66, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate comprises an electronically conductive material disposed within a electronically insulating support material.

68. The method of any one of claims 65-67, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate comprises a prepreg.

69. The method of any one of claims 65-68, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate is or is part of an electrode.

70. The method of any one of claims 65-69, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate comprises polymeric material, silicon, carbon, a ceramic, and/or a metal.

71. The method of any one of claims 65-70, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises an electronically conductive material disposed within an electronically insulating support material.

72. The method of any one of claims 65-71, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrates comprises a prepreg.

73. The method of any one of claims 65-72, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises an electrode.

74. The method of any one of claims 65-73, wherein the second electronically conductive solid substrate comprises polymeric material, alumina, silicon, carbon, a ceramic, and/or a metal.

75. The method of any one of claims 65-74, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are supported by a support material.

76. The method of claim 75, wherein the support material comprises a monomer, a polymer, and/or a ceramic.

77. The method of any one of claims 65-76, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise nanotubes, nanofibers, and/or nanowires.

78. The method of any one of claims 65-77, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise alumina.

79. The method of claim 78, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise alumina nanotubes, alumina nanofibers, and/or alumina nanowires.

80. The method of any one of claims 65-79, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise carbon-based nanostructures.

81. The method of claim 80, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures comprise carbon nanotubes.

82. The method of any one claims 65-81, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extends a distance at least 100 times greater than the average distance between adjacent electronically insulating nanostructures in each of two orthogonal directions each perpendicular to the long axes of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures.

83. The method of any one of claims 65-82, wherein the plurality of electronically insulating elongated nanostructures extends a distance at least 1000 times greater than the average distance between adjacent electronically insulating nanostructures in each of two orthogonal directions each perpendicular to the long axes of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures.

84. The method of any one of claims 65-83, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures have an average diameter of 1 micron or less, 500 nm or less, 100 nm or less, 75 nm or less, 50 nm or less, 25 nm or less, or 10 nm or less.

85. The method of any one of claims 65-84, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are substantially aligned.

86. The method of any one of claims 65-85, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are arranged within an ionically conductive support material.

87. The method of any one of claims 65-86, wherein the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures are ionically conductive.

88. The method of any one of claims 65-87, wherein the volume fraction of the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures within a geometric volume defined by the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures is at least 1%, at least 2%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 25%, at least 50%, at least 75%, at least 85%, or at least 90%.

89. The method of any one of claims 65-88, wherein the average distance between the electronically insulating elongated nanostructures is less than 80 nm, less than 60 nm, less than 40 nm, less than 30 nm, less than 20 nm, less than 10 nm, or less than 5 nm.

90. The method of any one of claims 65-89, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate are part of a capacitor.

91. The method of claim 90, further comprising discharging an electric potential through an electrical load external to the capacitor.

92. The method of any one of claims 65-91, wherein the first electronically conductive solid substrate and the second electronically conductive solid substrate are part of an electrochemical cell.

93. The method of claim 92, wherein the electrochemical cell is a rechargeable battery.

94. The method of claim 92, further comprising discharging an electric potential through an electrical load external to the electrochemical cell.