Classifications

• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K38/00—Medicinal preparations containing peptides
  • A61K38/16—Peptides having more than 20 amino acids; Gastrins; Somatostatins; Melanotropins; Derivatives thereof
  • A61K38/17—Peptides having more than 20 amino acids; Gastrins; Somatostatins; Melanotropins; Derivatives thereof from animals; from humans
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P25/00—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system
  • A61P25/14—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system for treating abnormal movements, e.g. chorea, dyskinesia
  • A61P25/16—Anti-Parkinson drugs
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P25/00—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system
  • A61P25/28—Drugs for disorders of the nervous system for treating neurodegenerative disorders of the central nervous system, e.g. nootropic agents, cognition enhancers, drugs for treating Alzheimer's disease or other forms of dementia

Definitions

• the present invention relates to the use of a homeoprotein or a recombinant vector encoding said protein for treating or preventing conditions associated with DNA damage and/or cellular aging, and more particularly for the prevention and/or treatment of DNA-damage related diseases or disorders and age-related diseases or disorders, especially neurodegenerative disorders.
• the present invention concerns the use of Engrailed in the treatment of Parkinson disease.
• DNA damage is physical abnormality in the DNA structure such as single and double strand breaks. DNA damage can be recognized by specific enzymes, and thus can be correctly repaired through the DNA Damage Response (DDR). The loss of this natural DNA repair capacity results in genetic instability that may lead to cellular dysfunction and cell death. It has been further shown that chromatin remodeling and DDR pathways are interconnected as DNA damage induces chromatin changes, themselves necessary to give access to the DNA repair machinery (Soria et al., 2012, Mol Cell 46, 722-734).
• DDR DNA Damage Response
• Accumulation of DNA damage has been linked to the process of aging and to the onset of age-related diseases including neurodegenerative disorders, such as ataxias, Alzheimer's, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's and Parkinson's diseases (Canugovi et al., 2013, 12, 578-587; Madabhushi et al., 2014, Neuron 83, 266-282). Additionally, in neurodegenerative disorders, such as ischemia and
• Alzheimer's disease neurons manifest aberrant cell cycle activity, expressing cell cycle markers such as Cyclin-A, and undergo a limited extent of DNA remodeling. This behavior is remarkable considering that in humans neurons terminally differentiate during development and remain quiescent for decades prior to the onset of these events. While the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood, multiple lines of evidence suggest that these activities play an early and contributory role in neuronal death (Andorfer et al., 2005, J. Neurosci., 1,25, 5446-54).
• DNA damage and re-entry into the cell cycle may constitute a common pathway in apoptosis in neurological diseases (Kim and Tsai, 2009, Ann N Y ACAD Sci., 1170, 674-9 or Pizarro et al., 2009, Free Radic. Res., 43, 985-994).
• Homeoproteins or homeodomain proteins, are transcription factors that play a major role in cell migration and differentiation processes involved in morphogenesis. They are characterized by the presence of a sequence of 60 amino acids, the homeodomain, which is a DNA binding domain with a helix/turn/helix structure. It has been shown that the isolated domain of Antennapedia protein of Drosophila crosses the membrane of neurons in culture, accumulates in the nucleus and promotes neurite growth (EP0485578).
• Engrailed proteins are homeoproteins with similar biological activity that are designated collectively hereafter with the general term Engrailed (EN for the human or Enl/2 for mice).
• Engrailed is expressed in cerebellar granule cells and in mesencephalic dopaminergic (DA) nuclei, including the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc that degenerates in Parkinson's disease), and the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA).
• DA mesencephalic dopaminergic
• Enl/2 plays important roles in the development of the midbrain and, in the midbrain, of the mesencephalic dopaminergic (mDA) neurons (Joyner, 1996, Trends Genet 12, 15-20). Enl/2 also plays redundant roles in the survival of adult mDA neurons that are located in the SNpc and the VTA in the ventral part of the mesencephalon (Alberi et al., 2004, Development 131, 3229-3236 ), and therefore it was proposed for preventing or treating the loss of DA neurons in Parkinson disease. In WO 2013/128239, it was reported that local administration of Enl/2 by infusion in the midbrain increases DA synthesis by DA neurons and associated motor activity. Prochiantz et al.
• Engrailed is not only a transcription factor but also a translation regulator that enhances the translation of mitochondrial mRNAs transcribed in the nucleus and it was shown that Engrailed transduction up-regulates the translation of Ndufsl and Ndufs3, two proteins of mitochondrial complex I and increases ATP synthesis (see also Alvarez-Fischer et al., 2011, Nature Neuroscience, 14, 1260-1266, Stettler et al. 2012).
• Otx2 (orthodenticle homolog 2) is another homeoprotein containing a bicoid- type homeodomain (Simeone et ai, 1993, EMBO J 12, ⁇ 35- ⁇ 4 ⁇ ). It belongs to the Otx protein family, which plays fundamental roles during brain embryogenesis (Acampora et ai, 1995; Simeone et ai, 2002).
• Otx2 is involved in the formation of retina and in adult retinal ganglion cell survival and physiology (Bernard et ai, 2013; Torero Ibad et ai, 2011). It was thus proposed to use homeoproteins of the bicoid family, in particular of the Otx family, such as Otx2, for improving survival of adult retinal ganglionic neurons (RGCs) in culture in vitro, and also for preventing or treating, in vivo, RGC degeneration (WO 2009/106767).
• the Inventors have now shown that homeoproteins are able to protect cells from DNA damage and chromatin remodeling, to decrease the number of DNA strand breaks, to restore all nuclear and nucleolar heterochromatin marks, to regulate the cell cycle and to protect cell against aging-like excitotoxicity, including apoptosis
• Engrailed when administered into the SNpc region, is able to repair the damages leading to cell death provoked by a strong oxidative stress.
• they activate anti-apoptotic pathways and promote long-term survival by restoring heterochromatin marks, including nucleolus integrity, and by abolishing double-strands breaks in a model of acute oxidative stress.
• DNA damage covers collectively DNA damage, DNA strand breaks (single and double strand), and nuclear and nucleolar heterochromatin disruption.
• the present Invention relates to the use of at least one homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, for the treatment or prevention of DNA damage and/or cellular aging.
• the Invention further concerns the use of at least one homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, for the treatment or prevention of conditions associated with DNA damage and/or cellular aging, and more particularly for the prevention and/or treatment of DNA-damage related diseases or disorders and age-related diseases or disorders.
• the present invention relates to the use of a recombinant vector encoding said proteins or peptides for the treatment or prevention of DNA damage and/or cellular aging and for the treatment or prevention of conditions associated with DNA damage and/or cellular aging, and more particularly for the prevention and/or treatment of DNA-damage related diseases or disorders and age- related diseases or disorders.
• homeoprotein and " homeodomain proteins" are synonymous and refer to gene products, proteins and polypeptides commonly known under these designations in the art. The terms encompass such gene products, proteins and polypeptides of any organism where found, and particularly of animals, preferably vertebrates, more preferably mammals, including non-human mammals, and even more preferably of humans. More particularly, "homeoprotein” relates to a protein comprising a homeodomain. Homeoproteins include natural homeoproteins and recombinant homeoproteins or synthetic homeoproteins.
• the present invention encompasses native homeoprotein, including allelic as well as non-naturally occurring variants, synthetic homeoprotein, fragments thereof, as well as fusion proteins involving all or part of homeoprotein, fragment or variant thereof.
• the homeoprotein of the present invention comprises the full- length homeodomain.
• the homeoprotein according to the Invention comprises an isolated homeodomain fused to a transcriptional repressor domain (fusion protein) or, in some cases to an activator domain.
• the repressor or activator domain may be from the same protein as the homeodomain, another protein of the homeoprotein family or a protein that is not from the homeoprotein family.
• the fusion protein is different from a full-length homeoprotein.
• allelic variants of homeoprotein entities that may exist in the population
• changes i.e. one or more deletions, additions and/or substitutions of one or more amino acid
• a suitable variant in use in the present invention preferably has an amino acid sequence having a high degree of homology with the amino acid sequence of the corresponding native homeoprotein.
• the amino acid sequence of the variant homeoprotein in use in the invention is at least 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, preferably at least about 95%, more preferably at least about 97% and even more preferably at least about 99% identical to the corresponding native sequence.
• Percent identities between amino acid (or nucleic acid) sequences can be determined using standard methods known to those skilled in the art. For instance for determining the percentage of homology between two amino acid sequences, the sequences are aligned for optimal comparison purposes. The amino acid residues at corresponding amino acid positions are then compared. Gaps can be introduced in one or both amino acid sequence(s) for optimal alignment and non-homologous sequences can be disregarded for comparison purposes.
• sequences are identical at that position.
• the percent identity between the two sequences is a function of the number of identical positions shared by the sequences, taking into account the number of gaps that are introduced for optimal alignment and the length of each gap.
• the comparison of sequences and the percent identity and similarity between two sequences can be determined using a mathematical algorithm.
• Suitable variants of homeoprotein for use in the present invention are biologically active and retain at least one of the activities described herein in connection with the corresponding native homeoprotein.
• the effect on DNA damage and/or chromatin alteration is preserved, although a given function of the native homeoprotein may be positively or negatively affected to some degree, e.g. with variants exhibiting reduced biological activity.
• Amino acids that are essential for a given function can be identified by methods known in the art, such as by site- directed mutagenesis. For example, in one class of functional variants, one or more amino acid residues are conservatively substituted.
• a "conservative amino acid substitution" is one in which the amino acid residue in the native polypeptide is replaced with an amino acid residue having a similar side chain.
• Families of amino acid residues having similar side chains have been defined in the art. Typically, substitutions are regarded as conservative when the replacement, one for another, is among the aliphatic amino acids Ala, Val, Leu, and lie; the hydroxyl residues Ser and Thr; the acidic residues Asp and Glu; the amide residues Asn and Gin; the basic residues Lys and Arg; or the aromatic residues Phe and Tyr.
• the protein for use according to the invention can be prepared by the conventional techniques known to those skilled in the art, in particular by expression of a recombinant DNA in a suitable cell system (eukaryotic or prokaryotic) or by solid- phase or liquid-phase synthesis. More specifically, the protein and its derivatives are usually produced from a DNA polynucleotide comprising a sequence coding for the protein, obtained by any means known to those skilled in the art, including amplification of a nucleic sequence by PCR or RT-PCR, screening genomic DNA libraries by hybridization with a homologous probe, or else total or partial chemical synthesis.
• the recombinant vectors are constructed and introduced into host cells by conventional recombinant DNA and genetic engineering techniques, which are known in the art.
• the DNA polynucleotide is cloned into a eukaryotic or prokaryotic expression vector and the protein produced in the cells modified with the recombinant vector is purified by any suitable means, in particular by affinity chromatography.
• the peptide and its derivatives are usually solid-phase synthesized, according to the Fmoc technique, originally described by Merrifield et al. (J. Am. Chem. Soc, 1964, 85: 2149-2154) and purified by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography.
• the terms designate proteins and polypeptides comprising the following amino acid sequence (homeodomain) RRRKRTA-YTRYQLLE-LEKEFLF-NRYLTRRRRI ELAHSL-NLTERHI KIWFQN-RRM K-WKKEN [typical insertion sites are noted with dashes] (SEQ ID NO:l) (see http://homeobox.biosci.ki.se/).
• Non-limitative examples of homeoproteins which can be used in the present invention include all homeoproteins expressed in different subsets of adult neurons such as: Engrailed proteins (Engrailed-1 or Engrailed-2), homeoproteins from the bico ' id family, in particular the Otx sub-family like Otx2, proteins from the paired family (Pax), the Lhx family, for example Lhx9, and Gbx2.
• Enl/2 protein or polypeptide includes without limitation mouse Enl/2 protein or polypeptide having primary amino acid sequence (SEQ. ID NO: 2) : musEnl: NP_034263 (401aa) MEEQQPEPKSQRDSGLGAVAAAAPSGLSLSLSPGASGSSGSDGDSVPVSPQPAPPSPPAAPCLP PLAHHPHLPPHPPPPPPPPPPQHLAAPAHQPQPAAQLHRTTN FFIDN ILRPDFGCKKEQPLP QLLVASAAAGGGAAAGGGSRVERDRGQTGAGRDPVHSLGTRASGAASLLCAPDANCGPPDGS QPATAVGAGASKAGNPAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAVAAAAAAASKPSDSGGGSGGNAGSPGAQGA KFPEHNPAI LLMGSANGGPVVKTDSQQPLVWPAWVYCTRYSDRPSSGPRTRKLKKKKNEKEDK RPRTAFTAEQLQRLKAEFQANRYITEQRRQTLAQELSLNESQI KIWF
• Exemplary Gbx2 protein or polypeptide includes without limitation mouse Gbx2 protein or polypeptide having primary amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 3) : musGbx2: NP_034392 (longest variant, 348aa)
• Lhx9 protein or polypeptide includes without limitation mouse Lhx9 protein or polypeptide having primary amino acid sequence (SEQ.
• NP_001036042 Longest variant, 397aa) MEIVGCRAENNSCPFRPPAMLFHGISGGHIQGIMEEMERRSKTEARLTKGTQLNGRDAGMPPL SPEKPALCAGCGGKISDRYYLLAVDKQWHLRCLKCCECKLALESELTCFAKDGSIYCKEDYYRRFS VQRCARCHLGISASEMVMRARDSVYHLSCFTCSTCNKTLTTGDHFGMKDSLVYCRAHFETLLQ GEYPPQLSYTELAAKSGGLALPYFNGTGTVQKGRPRKRKSPALGVDIVNYNSGCNENEADHLDR DQQPYPPSQKTKRMRTSFKHHQLRTMKSYFAINHNPDAKDLK
• Enl protein or polypeptide includes without limitation human EN1 protein or polypeptide having primary amino acid sequence as annotated under
• Exemplary En2 protein or polypeptide includes without limitation human EN2 protein or polypeptide having primary amino acid sequence as annotated under Genbank accession number AAA 53504.2 or NCBI NP_001418.2.
• Exemplary Gbx2 protein or polypeptide includes without limitation human Gbx2 protein or polypeptide having primary amino acid sequence as annotated under Genbank accession number EAW71084.1.
• Exemplary Lhx9 protein or polypeptide includes without limitation human Lhx9 protein or polypeptide having primary amino acid sequence as annotated under Genbank accession number NP_001014434.1 or_ NP_064589.2.
• said homeoprotein is Engrailed protein (Engrailed-1 or Engrailed-2) or a fusion protein including a homeodomain thereof fused to a repressor or activator domain.
• the fused domain may be from Engrailed protein or another protein, for example a homeoprotein as defined above.
• the Engrailed repressor domain may be the domain situated from positions 1 to 298 of Engrailed-1 amino acid sequence or a subdomain thereof such as the ehl domain (positions 46 to 67 of Engrailed-2 amino acid sequence).
• said homeoprotein is different from Engrailed protein (Engrailed-1 or Engrailed-2) and a homeoprotein of the bico ' id family.
• said homeoprotein is a fusion protein comprising a homeodomain fused to a repressor domain, as defined above.
• said homeoprotein is a homeoprotein of a vertebrate.
• the homeoprotein, or related encoding nucleic acid sequence, for use according to the invention is capable of protecting cells in vivo from DNA damage, in particular DNA strand breaks, in particular DNA double strand breaks (DSBs), formation and chromatin remodeling, in particular chromatin relaxation, especially those that are induced by stress factors or ageing.
• Stress factors refer in particular to oxidative or excototoxic stress.
• the effect of the homeoprotein toward DNA damage is not restricted to neurons or a particular type of neuron (e.g. mesencephalic DA neurons or RGCs) and can thus apply to other type of cells, such as for example motoneurons, fibroblasts, epithelial cells.
• DNA-damage-related disorders includes neurodegenerative disorders and diseases, such as cancer, aging and other disorders caused by damage to DNA due to exposure to oxidative stress, carcinogens, toxins, free radicals such as oxygen radicals, or DNA damaging radiation such as ionizing radiation and UV radiation.
• administration of homeoprotein according to the present Invention prevents DNA damage, inhibits the effects of DNA damage, reduces the number of DNA strand breaks and/or stimulates a cellular repair response to DNA damage.
• DNA damage may take the form of chromosomal dysfunction such as DNA strand breaks, or chemical modification of DNA (e.g. alkylation).
• DNA damage means DNA strand breaks, including single and double-strand breaks, preferably double-strand breaks.
• DNA-damage-related disorders relates to neurodegenerative conditions including ataxias together with Alzheimer's, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's and Parkinson's diseases.
• the important pathological feature is DNA damage.
• suppressing or limiting DNA damage and/or decreasing the amount of DNA strand breaks provides a method for decreasing neuronal cell death and/or treating /preventing neurological disorders associated to DNA damages.
• the present Invention relates to the use of at least one homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, or a recombinant vector encoding said protein/peptide, for the production of a medicament for the suppression of DNA damage in neuronal cells and the treatment of neurological disorders associated to DNA damages. It further relates to said method of treatment of neurological disorders associated with DNA damage.
• said degenerative disease is a neurodegenerative disease, in particular Parkinson disease, Alzheimer disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington disease, and degenerative diseases affecting the eyes or ears (i.e., the vision or audition) such as glaucoma, for example.
• said neurodegenerative disorder is Parkinson disease.
• said degenerative disease is not associated or does not result from a loss of any specific type of neuron or even of neurons.
• said degenerative disease may be selected from the group consisting of muscular dystrophies or progeria.
• the term "age-related diseases or disorders" include, for example, renal dysfunction, kyphosis, herniated intervertebral disc, frailty, hair loss, hearing loss, vision loss (blindness or impaired vision), muscle fatigue, skin conditions, skin nevi, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and sarcopenia.
• Vision loss refers to the absence of vision when a subject previously had vision.
• Various scales have been developed to describe the extent of vision and vision loss based on visual acuity.
• Age-related diseases and conditions also include dermatological conditions, for example without limitation, treating one or more of the following conditions: wrinkles, including superficial fine wrinkles; hyperpigmentation; scars; keloid; dermatitis; psoriasis; eczema (including seborrheic eczema); rosacea; vitiligo; ichthyosis vulgaris; dermatomyositis; and actinic keratosis.
• the present Invention relates to the use of at least one homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, for the production of medicine for decreasing the amount of DNA strand breaks in cells, more particularly in neuronal cells.
• the present Invention relates to the use of a homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment and/or prevention of DNA-damage related and age- related disease or disorder wherein said homeoprotein is Engrailed protein and said DNA-damage related disease or disorder is Parkinson disease.
• the present Invention relates to the use of a homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment and/or prevention of DNA-damage related and age- related disease or disorder wherein said homeoprotein is Engrailed protein and said DNA-damage related disease or disorder is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis disease.
• the present Invention relates to the use of a homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment and/or prevention of DNA-damage related and age- related disease or disorder wherein said homeoprotein is Gbx2 protein and said DNA-damage related disease or disorder is Huntington disease.
• the present Invention relates to the use of a homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment and/or prevention of DNA-damage related and age- related disease or disorder wherein said homeoprotein is Gbx2 protein and said DNA-damage related disease or disorder is Parkinson disease.
• the present Invention relates to the use of a homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment and/or prevention of DNA-damage related and age- related disease or disorder wherein said homeoprotein is Lhx9 protein and said DNA- damage related disease or disorder is Huntington disease.
• the present Invention relates to the use of a homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment and/or prevention of DNA-damage related and age- related disease or disorder wherein said homeoprotein is Lhx9 protein and said DNA- damage related disease or disorder is Parkinson disease.
• the present Invention relates to the use of a recombinant vector encoding the said homeoprotein instead of the protein or peptide itself.
• vector refers to a vehicle, preferably a nucleic acid molecule or a viral particle that contains elements necessary to allow delivery, propagation and/or expression of one or more nucleic acid molecule(s) within a host cell or organism.
• This term encompasses vectors for maintenance (cloning vectors) or vectors for expression in various host cells or organisms (expression vectors), extrachromosomal vectors (e.g. multicopy plasmids) or integration vectors (e.g.
• the vectors may be of naturally occurring genetic sources, synthetic or artificial, or some combination of natural and artificial genetic elements.
• the term "vector” has/is to be understood broadly as including plasmid and viral vectors.
• a "plasmid vector” as used herein refers to a replicable DNA construct.
• plasmid vectors contain selectable marker genes that allow host cells carrying the plasmid vector to be selected for or against in the presence of a corresponding selective drug.
• selectable marker genes A variety of positive and negative selectable marker genes are known in the art.
• an antibiotic resistance gene can be used as a positive selectable marker gene that allows a host cell to be selected in the presence of the corresponding antibiotic.
• viral vector refers to a nucleic acid vector that includes at least one element of a virus genome and may be packaged into a viral particle or to a viral particle.
• virus refers to viral particles that are formed when the nucleic acid vector is transduced into an appropriate cell or cell line according to suitable conditions allowing the generation of infectious viral particles.
• viral vector has/is to be understood broadly as including nucleic acid vector (e.g. DNA viral vector) as well as viral particles generated thereof.
• infectious refers to the ability of a viral vector to enter into and infect a host cell or organism.
• Viral vectors can be replication- competent or -selective (e.g.
• Vectors which are appropriate in the context of the present invention, include, without limitation, bacteriophage, plasmid or cosmid vectors for expression in prokaryotic host cells such as bacteria (e.g. E. coli, Bacillus subtilis or Listeria); vectors for expression in yeast (e.g. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces pombe, Pichia pastoris); baculovirus vectors for expression in insect cell systems (e.g. Sf 9 cells); viral and plasmid vectors for expression in plant cell systems (e.g.
• bacteria e.g. E. coli, Bacillus subtilis or Listeria
• yeast e.g. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces pombe, Pichia pastoris
• baculovirus vectors for expression in insect cell systems e.g. Sf 9 cells
• viral and plasmid vectors for expression in plant cell systems e.g.
• Ti plasmid cauliflower mosaic virus CaMV; tobacco mosaic virus TMV; as well as viral and plasmid vectors for expression in higher eukaryotic cells or organisms.
• viral and plasmid vectors for expression in higher eukaryotic cells or organisms.
• vectors are commercially available (e.g. in Invitrogen, Stratagene, Amersham Biosciences, Promega, etc.) or available from depositary institutions such as the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Rockville, Md.) or have been the subject of numerous publications describing their sequence, organization and methods of producing, allowing the artisan to apply them.
• plasmid vectors include, without limitation, pREP4, pCEP4 (Invitrogen), pCI (Promega), pVAX (Invitrogen) and pgWiz (Gene Therapy System Inc).
• suitable viral vectors are generated from a variety of different viruses (e.g. retrovirus, adenovirus, adenovirus-associated virus (AAV), poxvirus, herpes virus, measle virus, foamy virus, alphavirus, vesicular stomatis virus, etc).
• viruses e.g. retrovirus, adenovirus, adenovirus-associated virus (AAV), poxvirus, herpes virus, measle virus, foamy virus, alphavirus, vesicular stomatis virus, etc.
• the term "viral vector” encompasses vector DNA, genomic DNA as well as viral particles generated thereof.
• the present invention also encompasses (e.g.
• the nucleic acid molecule(s) comprised in the vector of the invention is in a form suitable for expression in a host cell or organism, which means that the nucleic acid molecule is placed under the control of appropriate regulatory sequences.
• regulatory elements refers to any element that allows, contributes or modulates the expression of a nucleic acid molecule in a given host cell or organism, including replication, duplication, transcription, splicing, translation, stability and/or transport of the nucleic acid or its derivative (i.e. mRNA).
• Promoters suitable for constitutive expression in mammalian cells include but are not limited to the cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate early promoter, the RSV promoter, the adenovirus major late promoter, the phosphoglycero kinase (PGK) promoter, the thymidine kinase (TK) promoter of herpes simplex virus (HSV)-l and the T7 polymerase promoter.
• CMV cytomegalovirus
• RSV the adenovirus major late promoter
• PGK phosphoglycero kinase
• TK thymidine kinase
• HSV herpes simplex virus
• the regulatory elements controlling the expression of the nucleic acid molecule of the invention may further comprise additional elements for proper initiation, regulation and/or termination of transcription (e.g. polyA transcription termination sequences), mRNA transport (e.g. nuclear localization signal sequences), processing (e.g. splicing signals), and stability (e.g. introns and non-coding 5' and 3' sequences), translation (e.g. an initiator Met, tripartite leader sequences, IRES ribosome binding sites, Shine- Dalgarno sequences, etc.) into the host cell or organism and purification steps (e.g. a tag).
• transcription e.g. polyA transcription termination sequences
• mRNA transport e.g. nuclear localization signal sequences
• processing e.g. splicing signals
• stability e.g. introns and non-coding 5' and 3' sequences
• translation e.g. an initiator Met, tripartite leader sequences, IRES ribosome binding sites, Shine
• the invention provides a method for treating DNA-damage- related disorder in a subject, the method comprising administering to a subject in need a composition comprising at least one homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof, or a recombinant vector encoding said protein, and pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle.
• a "pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle” is intended to include any and all carriers, solvents, diluents, excipients, adjuvants, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, and absorption delaying agents, and similar, compatible with pharmaceutical administration.
• the composition of the invention is suitably buffered in order to be appropriate for human use at a physiological or slightly basic pH (e.g. from approximately pH 7 to approximately pH 9). Suitable buffers include without limitation phosphate buffer (e.g. PBS), bicarbonate buffer, HEPES and PIPES buffers and/or Tris buffer.
• the composition of the invention can further comprise a diluent appropriate for human or animal use.
• composition of the invention is preferably isotonic, hypotonic or weakly hypertonic and has a relatively low ionic strength.
• Representative examples include sterile water, physiological saline (e.g. sodium chloride), Ringer's solution, glucose, trehalose or saccharose solutions, Hank's solution, and other aqueous physiologically balanced salt solutions (see for example the most current edition of Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, A. Gennaro, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins).
• Pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles included in the composition of the invention must also allow the preservation of its stability under the conditions of manufacture and long-term storage (i.e. at least one month with a preference for at least one year) at freezing (e.g. -70 deg. C, -20 deg.
• Additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients may be used for providing desirable properties, including for example modifying or maintaining the pH, osmolarity, viscosity, clarity, colour, sterility, stability, rate of dissolution of the formulation, modifying or maintaining release or absorption into an the human or animal organism, promoting transport across the blood barrier or penetration in a particular organ (e.g. brain).
• compositions comprising any one of the homeoproteins described herein may be formulated for sustained or slow release (also called timed release or controlled release).
• sustained or slow release also called timed release or controlled release
• Such compositions may generally be prepared using well-known technology and administered by, for example, oral, rectal, intradermal, intranasal, or subcutaneous implantation, or by implantation at the desired target site.
• Sustained- release formulations may contain the compound dispersed in a carrier matrix and/or contained within a reservoir surrounded by a rate controlling membrane.
• composition may advantageously comprise at least another pharmaceutical drug, such as for example: growth factor, complex sugar (glycosaminoglycans, polysialic acid), sirtuin or sirtuin activators, anticholinesterase, or reverse transcriptase inhibitors, in particular nucleosidic transcriptase inhibitors
• growth factor complex sugar (glycosaminoglycans, polysialic acid), sirtuin or sirtuin activators, anticholinesterase, or reverse transcriptase inhibitors, in particular nucleosidic transcriptase inhibitors
• the present Invention concerns a method for treating or preventing DNA-damage related disorder in a subject treated for cancer.
• the present Invention further concerns a method for treating or preventing
• the present Invention further concerns a method for treating or preventing DNA-damage in response to exposure to sunlight or exposure to DNA damaging chemicals. Said method according to the Invention may reduce skin aging, prevent skin cancer and improve cosmetic appearance.
• the present Invention further concerns a method for preventing or reducing the effects of cellular aging in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of at least one homeoprotein, or peptide derivatives thereof or a recombinant vector encoding said protein.
• Homeoprotein according to the present Invention may also be useful for treating or preventing (i.e. reducing the likelihood of occurrence) of "age-related diseases and disorders" or "aging” that occurs as part of the natural aging process or that occurs when the subject is exposed to inducing agents or factors (e.g., irradiation, chemotherapy, smoking tobacco, high-fat/high sugar diet, other environmental factors).
• the terms, “treat” and “treatment,” refer to medical management of a disease, disorder, or condition of a subject (i.e., patient).
• an appropriate dose and treatment regimen provide the homeoprotein in an amount sufficient to provide therapeutic and/or prophylactic benefit.
• Therapeutic benefit for subjects to whom the homeoprotein described herein are administered includes, for example, an improved clinical outcome, wherein the object is to prevent or slow or retard an undesired physiological change associated with the disease, or to prevent or slow or retard the expansion or severity of such disease.
• effectiveness of the one or more homeoprotein(s) may include beneficial or desired clinical results that comprise, but are not limited to, abatement, lessening, or alleviation of symptoms that result from or are associated with the disease to be treated; decreased occurrence of symptoms; improved quality of life; longer disease-free status (i.e., decreasing the likelihood or the propensity that a subject will present symptoms on the basis of which a diagnosis of a disease is made); reduction of disease extent; stabilized (i.e., not worsening) state of disease; delay or slowing of disease progression; amelioration or palliation of the disease state; and remission (whether partial or total), whether detectable or undetectable; and/or overall survival.
• beneficial or desired clinical results comprise, but are not limited to, abatement, lessening, or alleviation of symptoms that result from or are associated with the disease to be treated; decreased occurrence of symptoms; improved quality of life; longer disease-free status (i.e., decreasing the likelihood or the propensity that a subject will present symptoms on the
• the effectiveness of the homeoprotein described herein may also mean prolonging cell survival, more particularly of neurons, when compared to expected cell survival if a subject were not receiving the homeoprotein according to the Invention.
• Subjects in need of treatment include those who already have the disease or disorder as well as subjects prone to have or be at risk of developing the disease or disorder, and those in which the disease, condition, or disorder is to be treated prophylactically.
• a subject may have predisposition for developing a disease or disorder that would benefit from the method of the Invention or may be of a certain age wherein receiving the method of the Invention would provide clinical benefit delaying development or reducing severity of a disease, including DNA damage- related disease or disorder and/or an age-related disease or disorder.
• the dose of homeoprotein according to the Invention for treating DNA damage-related disease or disorder and/or an age-related disease or disorder may depend upon the subject's condition, that is, stage of the disease, severity of symptoms caused by the disease, general health status, as well as age, gender, and weight, and other factors apparent to a person skilled in the medical art.
• Pharmaceutical compositions may be administered in a manner appropriate to the disease to be treated as determined by persons skilled in the medical arts.
• suitable duration and frequency of administration of the homeoprotein may also be determined or adjusted by such factors as the condition of the patient, the type and severity of the patient's disease, the particular form of the active ingredient, and the method of administration.
• Optimal doses of the homeoprotein may generally be determined using experimental models and/or clinical trials. The optimal dose may depend upon the body mass, weight, or blood volume of the subject. The use of the minimum dose that is sufficient to provide effective therapy is usually preferred.
• the optimal dose of each homeoprotein may be different, such as less, than when either agent is administered alone as a single agent therapy.
• said homeoprotein may be used at concentrations ranging from 0.001 to 100 ⁇ , or more preferable from 0.005 to 100 ⁇ , advantageously from 0.005 to 10 ⁇ , and particularly advantageously from 0.001 to 0.10 ⁇ .
• An amount of homeoprotein that may be administered per day may be, for example, between about 0.01 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg (e.g., between about 0.1 to 1 mg/kg, between about 1 to 10 mg/kg, between about 10-50 mg/kg, between about 50-100 mg/kg body weight). In other embodiments, the amount of an homeoprotein that may be administered per day is between about 0.01 mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg, between about 100- 500 mg/kg, or between about 500-1000 mg/kg body weight.
• the homeoprotein can be administered at at a dose comprised between 10 pmol and 100 pmol, for example at 25 pmol especially for Engrailed, as described in Rekaik et al., (2015, Cell Reports).
• the homeoprotein can be administered by intraocular injection, especially for Otx2.
• the optimal dose (per day or per course of treatment) may be different for the DNA damage-related disease or disorder and/or an age-related disease or disorder to be treated and may also vary with the route of administration and/or therapeutic regimen.
• the pharmaceutical composition is formulated for administration by a number of routes, including but not limited to oral, parenteral and local.
• the pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are those conventionally used.
• a pharmaceutical composition may be delivered to a subject in need thereof by any one of several routes known to a person skilled in the art.
• the composition may be delivered orally, intravenously, intraperitoneally, by infusion ⁇ e.g., a bolus infusion), subcutaneously, enteral, rectal, intranasal, by inhalation, buccal, sublingual, intramuscular, transdermal, intradermal, topically, intraocular, vaginal, rectal, or by intracranial injection, or any combination thereof.
• a delivery method includes drug- coated or -permeated stents for which the drug is the homeoprotein or nucleic acid encoding it.
• the homeoprotein may be administered locally, in particular by injection or infusion into the targeted cerebral area. It can also be administered using a controlled-release device, for example an osmotic minipump connected to a canula implanted in the brain.
• the homeoprotein is directly administered into the SNpc region, especially for treatment of Parkinson disease.
• the homeoprotein administered through this procedure is Engrailed.
• a single injection of Engrailed is administered to an individual in need thereof.
• the invention concerns the use of Engrailed as a medicament for the treatment of Parkinson disease wherein Engrailed is administered once in the SNpc region of a subject in need thereof.
• the administration of the homeoprotein may be combined with a non-pharmacological therapy. For example, it can be combined with subthalamic nucleus stimulation, for treating Parkinson Disease.
• Figure 1 Altered expression of DNA damage and heterochromatin marks in Enl+/- mice
• A The differentially expressed genes in Enl+/- SNpc TH+ neurons belonging to DNA damage, chromatin remodeling and apoptosis groups are ranked by p-values.
• FIG. 3 Engrailed rescues TH+ cells from 6-OHDA-induced cell death (A) Mice injected with 6-OHDA in the SNpc were re-injected 30 min later with either sham or En2 and analyzed at 24h. Compared to sham, En2 injection prevents the 6- OHDA-induced TH cell loss in the ipsilateral SNpc. Scale bar, 500 ⁇ .
• the number of neurons counted ranged between 1670 and 2275 per condition.
• Otx2 protects TH+ neurons against 6-OHDA-induced cell death.
• Figure SI (related to Figure 1). Altered genes expression in mDA neurons of Enl+/- mice
• RNA-seq data analysis (Pathway Studio) reveals a significant enrichment (p ⁇ 0.005) in Ontology gene subgroups involved in DNA damage and chromatin remodeling between wt and Enl+/- littermates. Analysis using Cell Process Pathways also showed differential expression of apoptosis-related genes.
• FIGS2 (related to Figure 2).
• Engrailed promotes TH+ neurons survival in the 6-OHDA model.
• Figure S4 (related to Figure 4). Detection of cell cycle markers in TH+ neurons upon acute oxidative stress in vivo and Engrailed-mediated protection against H 2 0 2 - induced DSBs in vitro (A) Detection of PCNA and pH3 cell cycle markers in TH+ neurons in the 6-OHDA- injected side. Scale bar, 20 ⁇ .
• mice were treated as per the guidelines for the care and use of laboratory animals (US National Institute of Health) and the European Directive 86/609 (EEC Council for Animal Protection in Experimental Research and Other Scientific Utilization).
• Swiss OF1 wt (Janvier) and Enl+/- mice were maintained in conventional animal facility.
• Experimental groups consisted of 6 to 9 week-old mice.
• mice were placed in a stereotaxic instrument and a burr hole drilled into the skull 3.3 mm caudal and 1 mm lateral to the bregma. The needle was lowered 4 mm from the surface of the skull and 6-OHDA (2 ⁇ ; 0.8 ⁇ g/ ⁇ l Sigma) or sham (NaCI 0.9%) injections were performed over 4 min. This procedure targets the homeoprotein to the SNpc tissue.
• mice were infused for 7 days with an osmotic mini pump (Alzet 1002, Charles River Laboratories) connected to a 4 mm-long cannula placed at the same stereotaxic coordinates as above.
• the pump was filled with 100 ⁇ containing En-VP64 (400 nM, 0.9% NaCI or the equivalent volume of an empty-plasmid- containing bacterial extract) and colominic acid (1.5 ⁇ g/ ⁇ l).
• Image quantification Images were analyzed with ImageJ. For immunofluorescence, all quantifications were performed using 60X magnification and 0.7 ⁇ -thick successive focal planes. For H3K27me3 nucleolar pattern analysis, a graph of the intensities of pixels along a line positioned through the nucleolus was created. Perinuclear/nuclear ratio of H3K27me3 fluorescence intensity was determined by measuring pixel density at the periphery of the nucleus and in the nucleoplasm. DAPI-dense regions in sham and 6- OHDA injected mice were quantified by measuring individual DAPI-surface areas in each TH+ cell and plotting them as relative frequency distribution histograms.
• RNA-seq analysis mDA neurons in the SNpc of wt and Enl+/- mice labeled using the quick TH-staining protocol (Chung et al., 2005, Hum Mol Genet 14, 1709-1725) were isolated by Laser Capture Microdissection (LMD7000, Leica). Samples from 4 animals per group were pooled and total RNA was extracted using the AllPrep DNA/RNA Micro Kit (OJagen) followed by DNase I using the RNeasy MinElute Cleanup protocol for on-column DNAse I treatment.
• RNA-seq System V2 RNA-seq System V2
• lllumina RNA-seq RNA-seq
• p-values of differentially expressed genes between wt and Enl+/- samples were computed using DESeq package (Anders et al., 2010, Genome Biol 11, R106).
• Normalized read counts were injected into the Gene Set Enrichment Analysis algorithm (Pathway Studio, Elsevier) to test for statistical enrichment. Pathway Studio Ontology and Cell Process Pathways collections were selected as Gene Set Categories for the analysis.
• RNA-seq analysis was also performed using RNA extracted from Laser Capture microdissected mDA neurons after Engrailed infusion (Alvarez-Fischer et al., 2011, Nat Neurosci 14, 1260-1266) in the SNpc of wt mice and from SNpc tissue punches collected 6h after 6-OHDA/sham and 6-OHDA/En2 injection. qRT-PCR
• RNA from SNpc tissues was extracted using the RNeasy Lipid Tissue kit (Qiagen) followed by DNase I (Thermo) digestion.
• RNA 200 ng was transcribed using the QuantiTect Reverse Transcription kit (Qiagen).
• qRT-PCR was performed using SYBR- Green (Roche Applied Science) and values normalized to Gapdh and/or Hprt. Data were analyzed using the ddCt method.
• RNA was isolated specifically from SNpc nuclei (Subcellular Protein Fractionation Kit, Thermo).
• mice were perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS, brains were postfixed for lh and cryoprotected in 15% sucrose. Tissues embedded in Tissue-Tek O.C.T. (Sakura Finetek) were frozen isopentane prior to storage at -80°C. Brains were cut at the level of the SNpc into 18 ⁇ -thick sections. For immunofluorescence, sections were permeabilized in 1% Triton X-100 in PBS for 20 min and incubated at 100°C for 20 min in citrate buffer (10 mM citric acid, 0.05% Tween 20, pH 6.0).
• tissues were incubated overnight at 4°C with primary antibodies diluted in the blocking solution (mouse anti- Y-H2AX, 1:200, Millipore; chicken anti-TH, 1:500, Abeam; rabbit anti-activated- caspase3, 1:200, Abeam; rabbit anti-nucleolin, 1:200, Sigma; rabbit anti-fibrillarin, 1:200, Cell Signaling; rabbit anti-H3k27me3, 1:200, Millipore; rabbit anti-H3k9me3, 1:200, Abeam; a generous gift from Edith Heard; rabbit anti-Lamin B2, 1:100, Santa Cruz; rabbit anti-Mecp2, 1:300, Abeam; rabbit anti-PCNA, 1:200, Cell Signaling; rabbit anti-cyclin A, 1:200, Santa Cruz; mouse anti-pH3, 1:100, Cell Signaling; mouse anti-p- JNK, 1
• Sections were incubated with appropriate secondary antibodies (488 anti-chicken, 647 anti-chicken, 488 anti-mouse, 546 anti-mouse and 546 anti-rabbit Alexa Fluor, Life Technologies) for lh at room temperature. Labeled sections were imaged by confocal microscopy (SP5, Leica). For TH immunohistochemistry, sections were permeabilized in 1% Triton X-100 and incubated overnight at 4°C with 10% normal goat serum in PBS containing a rabbit polyclonal antibody against TH (1:1000; Pel-Freez Biologicals).
• Example 1 mDA neuron gene expression in the SNpc of Enl+/- mice
• RNA-seq analysis on microdissected SNpc was performed in wt and Enl+/- mice. Comparable reads were obtained in wt and Enl+/- mice with 989 differentially expressed genes (p ⁇ 0.05) ( Figure SIA). Analysis was performed on 6 week-old animals when all neurons are still present in the in Enl+/- mice.
• Example 2 DNA strand breaks and modified chromatin marks in Enl+/- mDA neurons mDA neurons in the SNpc of Enl+/- mice (between 6-8 weeks of age) were examined for signs of DNA damage by following the DNA strand breaks (DSBs) marker ⁇ - ⁇ 2 ⁇ (Lobrich et al., 2010 Cell Cycle 9, 662-669). This revealed the presence of multiple ⁇ - H2AX foci in about 16% of TH+ neurons in the SN pc ( Figures 1B,C).
• Enl+/- mice also have signs of chromatin alteration. As shown in Figure 1D-F, the pattern of perinucleolar and perinuclear H3K27me3 (K27 trimethylated histone H3) staining is changed in a significant fraction of Enl+/- TH+ neurons. The size distribution of the DAPI-dense regions of heterochromatin (Guenatri et al., 2004 J Cell Biol 166, 493-505) also shows a reduction in the percentage of large spots in the Enl+/- mouse ( Figure 1G).
• Example 3 Enhanced sensitivity of Enl+/- mDA neurons to acute oxidative stress
• Heterochromatin marks are also modified 6h after 6-OHDA injection in wt mice.
• the dense perinucleolar and perinuclear H3K27me3 staining in TH+ neurons of sham- injected mice is changed into diffuse nucleoplasms staining in 6-OHDA-injected mice ( Figure 2C).
• This change was quantified in the nucleolus by measuring perinucleolar fluorescence intensity along one diameter ( Figure 2D, left).
• the ratio of H3K27me3 fluorescence intensities between the peripheral nuclear lamina and the nuclear stroma dropped from 1.4 to 1.0 ( Figure 2D, right).
• N ucleolar stress suggested by perinucleolar ⁇ - ⁇ 2 ⁇ loss upon 6-OHDA ( Figure 2A) is verified by the drop from 70% (sham) to 30% (6-OHDA) of mDA cells with dense nucleolin staining ( Figure 2E,F). This change was accompanied by a strong up- regulation of ribosomal pre-45S RNA (Figure 2G) signing nucleolar damage. I n comparison, nucleolin staining, normal in Enl+/- TH+ neurons at 6 weeks, shows signs of disruption at one year (Figure 2H).
• RNA-seq genes involved in nucleolus organization
• qRT-PCR analysis of pre-45S rRNA suggest a change in nucleolar physiology in 6-8 week-old Enl+/- mice ( Figure S3D,E).
• Example 5 Engrailed decreases the number of DSBs induced by H 2 0 2
• wt mice were unilaterally injected with 6-OHDA, and re-injected 30 min later with vehicle (sham) or En2. Analyses were done at 6h, 24h or 7 days post-injections. The dramatic loss at 24h of TH+ cells in the SNpc of 6-OHDA/sham injected is highly reduced in 6-OHDA/En2 injected mice (Figure 3A). Protection is still visible at 7 days with 40% and 20% of surviving neurons in En2-injected and sham mice, respectively (Figure 3B). En2 injection 24h (instead of 30 min) after 6-OHDA and analyzed 6h later showed no recovery, showing that TH staining corresponds to true survival and not to TH re-expression ( Figure S3F).
• Example 7 Engrailed as well as two other homeoproteins, Gbx2 and Lhx9, decrease the number of DSBs induced by H 2 0 2
• E14.5 midbrain cells were dissociated by trypsin and cultured for 6 days in Neurobasal medium supplemented with glutamine, aspartate, glutamate and antibiotic/antimycotic mix on poly-D-lysine/laminin glass coverslips. Cells were then treated with the homeoprotein at the indicated concentration for 24h and then challenged for lh with 100 uM H202 and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde. DNA breaks were visualized with ⁇ 2 ⁇ immunofluroescence. Each data point in the graphs represents the number of medium to large foci in the nucleus of a cell. 5-10 cells per coverslip and there were 4 coverslips per condition. Cells without foci were not included.
• Pretreatment with Enl reduced the number of foci in a dose- dependent.
• 5 ng/ml (1.25 nM) and 20 ng/ml (0.5 nM) reduced the number of foci even further (p ⁇ 0.01) but were still greater than vehicle treated control condition (p ⁇ 0.01).
• 100 ng/ml (2.5 nM) was indistinguishable from control treated cells and thus completely prevented DNA breaks caused by H202.
• Engrailed homeoproteins are expressed in adult dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. In Engrailedl heterozygous mice, these neurons start dying at 6 weeks, are more sensitive to oxidative stress, and progressively develop traits similar to those observed following an acute and strong oxidative stress inflected to wild- type neurons. These changes include DNA strand breaks and the modification (intensity and distribution) of several nuclear and nucleolar heterochromatin marks. Engrailedl and Engrailed2 are biochemically equivalent transducing proteins previously used to antagonize dopaminergic neuron death in Engrailedl heterozygous mice and in mouse models of Parkinson disease.
• Engrailed2 injection restores all nuclear and nucleolar heterochromatin marks, decreases the number of DNA strand breaks, and protects dopaminergic neurons against apoptosis.
• Chromatin remodeling and DDR pathways are interconnected as DNA damage induces chromatin changes, themselves necessary to give access to the DNA repair machinery. This study places Engrailed genes as key regulators of DNA damage and chromatin changes that accompany chronic and acute forms of oxidative stress in mDA neurons.
• the En+/- chronic model of oxidative stress in which mDA neurons show progressive but faster death rate than in WT mice demonstrates that, similar to Otx2 dosage in the adult retina, Engrailed dosage is important in the adult SNpc. Indeed, given that Enl and En2 are biochemically equivalent, the loss of only one allele out of four is enough to accelerate cell death. In the context of aging and neurological diseases, this suggests that mDA neurons in the Enl+/- mouse age faster and are more sensitive to 6-OHDA, a toxin used in animal models of PD.
• Engrailed protects mDA neurons in three mouse models of PD (Alvarez-Fischer et al., 2011). The study was very different in the sense that 6-OHDA was injected in the striatum and not injected directly into the SNpc, an acute and harsh procedure preventing long-term secondary effects. More importantly, in the previous study, Engrailed was infused in the SNpc 3 weeks before the striatal insult and not injected 30 min after 6-OHDA injection. Finally, the present study, contrary to the previous ones, establishes a role of Engrailed as a transcriptional and epigenetic regulator and not only at the level of protein translation, even if the two modes of action may concur to save the cells.
• Short-term effects include the translation of mRNAs encoding mitochondrial proteins (Alvarez-Fischer et al., 2011: Stettler et al., 2012) and, in particular but not only, the transcription of anti-apoptotic genes (this study) and the repression of apoptosis as already proposed (Alberi et al., 2004; Beltran et al., 2014), with a predominance, seemingly, of GADD45b/g, NF-kB, and JNK pathways.

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