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  • A61K31/5375—1,4-Oxazines, e.g. morpholine
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  • A61K31/7036—Compounds having saccharide radicals attached to non-saccharide compounds by glycosidic linkages attached to a carbocyclic compound, e.g. phloridzin having at least one amino group directly attached to the carbocyclic ring, e.g. streptomycin, gentamycin, amikacin, validamycin, fortimicins
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  • A61K31/7048—Compounds having saccharide radicals and heterocyclic rings having oxygen as a ring hetero atom, e.g. leucoglucosan, hesperidin, erythromycin, nystatin, digitoxin or digoxin
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• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
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  • A61K39/0005—Vertebrate antigens
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• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
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  • A61K9/48—Preparations in capsules, e.g. of gelatin, of chocolate
  • A61K9/50—Microcapsules having a gas, liquid or semi-solid filling; Solid microparticles or pellets surrounded by a distinct coating layer, e.g. coated microspheres, coated drug crystals
  • A61K9/51—Nanocapsules; Nanoparticles
  • A61K9/5107—Excipients; Inactive ingredients
  • A61K9/513—Organic macromolecular compounds; Dendrimers
  • A61K9/5169—Proteins, e.g. albumin, gelatin
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
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  • A61K9/48—Preparations in capsules, e.g. of gelatin, of chocolate
  • A61K9/50—Microcapsules having a gas, liquid or semi-solid filling; Solid microparticles or pellets surrounded by a distinct coating layer, e.g. coated microspheres, coated drug crystals
  • A61K9/51—Nanocapsules; Nanoparticles
  • A61K9/5192—Processes
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
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  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P31/00—Antiinfectives, i.e. antibiotics, antiseptics, chemotherapeutics
  • A61P31/12—Antivirals
  • A61P31/14—Antivirals for RNA viruses
  • A61P31/16—Antivirals for RNA viruses for influenza or rhinoviruses
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  • A61P37/00—Drugs for immunological or allergic disorders
  • A61P37/02—Immunomodulators
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  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P43/00—Drugs for specific purposes, not provided for in groups A61P1/00-A61P41/00
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  • C12N15/00—Mutation or genetic engineering; DNA or RNA concerning genetic engineering, vectors, e.g. plasmids, or their isolation, preparation or purification; Use of hosts therefor
  • C12N15/09—Recombinant DNA-technology
  • C12N15/87—Introduction of foreign genetic material using processes not otherwise provided for, e.g. co-transformation
  • C12N15/88—Introduction of foreign genetic material using processes not otherwise provided for, e.g. co-transformation using microencapsulation, e.g. using amphiphile liposome vesicle
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  • A61K2039/54—Medicinal preparations containing antigens or antibodies characterised by the route of administration
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  • A61K2039/542—Mucosal route oral/gastrointestinal
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  • A61K48/00—Medicinal preparations containing genetic material which is inserted into cells of the living body to treat genetic diseases; Gene therapy

Definitions

• the present disclosure relates to encapsulated drug delivery systems.
• the present disclosure further relates to methods for preparing encapsulated drugs using non-antigenic, biodegradable materials to encapsulate bioactive compositions and produce particle in the nanometer size range retaining substantial bioactivity after cellular uptake.
• nanosphere-sized particles mean those having a general average size in the range of about 50 to about 999 nanometers. Nanospheres are also capable of releasing the drug in a controlled manner, thereby minimizing the need for frequent drug administration. These nanospheres can be effectively used to transfect cells due to the nanosize of the encapsulated drug.
• nanospheres due to their small size are capable of targeting and delivering the vaccine material to the Payers Patches in the intestine, without any degradation in the harsh acidic environment of the stomach due to an effective enteric coating. Also, because of their small size they are capable of penetrating into the tumor rather easily.
• bioactive materials include, but are not limited to, proteins, peptides, antibodies, enzymes, chemical entities, drugs.
• Other drugs such as immunosuppressants such as FK-506 and anti-inflammatory drugs such as steroids such as dexamethasone and prednisolone might prove useful in altering the viability of the transplanted organ in a transplant donor situation.
• Albumin nanospheres prepared by spray drying can be a potential drug delivery method for the delivery of oligonucleotides.
• drug is considered to include any of the bioactive materials described herein.
• the present disclosure describes several exemplary embodiments of the present invention.
• One aspect of the present disclosure provides a method for forming microspheres containing bioactive material, comprising dissolving a polymer matrix, such as albumin or beta-cyclodextrin, in an aqueous medium in a first vessel; contacting the dissolved polymer matrix with a crosslinking agent, such as glutaraldehyde, to crosslink the polymer matrix and the crosslinking agent; neutralizing with sodium bisulfate any excess crosslinking agent after crosslinking is substantially complete; solubilizing in a second vessel a bioactive material in an aqueous solution, such as, but not limited to water, saline and phosphate buffered saline; mixing the solubilized bioactive material together with the neutralized crosslinked polymer matrix in solution to form a mixture; and, spray drying the mixture to produce nanospheres, whereby substantial bioactivity of the biomaterial is retained upon cellular uptake.
• a polymer matrix such as albumin or beta
• Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a method for forming microspheres containing bioactive material, comprising: dissolving a polymer matrix in an aqueous medium in a first vessel; solubilizing a bioactive material in a buffered aqueous solution in a second vessel; solubilizing an enteric coating material in an aqueous medium; mixing the solubilized bioactive material and the solubilized enteric coating material to form a solution; and, spray drying the mixture to produce nanospheres, whereby substantial bioactivity of the biomaterial is retained upon cellular uptake.
• Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a method of enhancing intracellular concentrations of a bioactive material in phagocytic cells such as macrophages, comprising providing nanospheres produced according to a method disclosed herein, and, introducing the nanospheres into phagocytic cells such that after introduction the bioactive material is released from the nanospheres and substantial bioactivity of the bioactive material in the nanospheres is retained and intracellular concentration of the biomaterial is increased.
• Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a method of delivering a bioactive material to cells, comprising providing nanospheres of the bioactive material produced according to a method described herein, mixing the nanospheres with a carrier, and introducing the mixture into a patient such that cells phagocytose the nanospheres and the bioactive material is released from the microspheres in the cells such that substantial bioactivity of the biomaterial is retained.
• Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a method of delivering an adjuvant- free vaccine formulation to induce immunity after administration, comprising providing nanospheres of a vaccine formulation produced according to a method described herein, and introducing the nanospheres into a patient such that cells phagocytose the nanospheres and the bioactive material is released from the microspheres in the cells such that substantial bioactivity of the vaccine formulation is retained.
• Another aspect of the present disclosure provides novel nanospheres containing a bioactive material or materials produced by a method described herein, whereby the bioactive material or materials retain substantial bioactivity after cellular uptake.
• the present disclosure provides a method of preparing encapsulated drugs, which because of their nanometer-scale size, have a larger scale of applications for parenteral administration and is capable of more effective targeting to different disease states and organs such as tumors, etc.
• the present disclosure also relates to encapsulated drug delivery systems. More particularly, the present disclosure relates to methods for preparing encapsulated drugs in a process using non-antigenic, biodegradable materials to encapsulated compositions that can: a) release the drug in a controlled manner as to prolong the drug levels in the body at therapeutic levels for long periods of time; b) be used as an effective method of delivering vaccines without the use of adjuvants; c) be used to target phagocytic cells such as macrophages, endothelial cells, Kupffer cells, dendritic cells and the like; d) be used to deliver bioactive drugs such as proteins such as insulin and heparin; and, e) be used to target diseased organs (such as the liver, kidneys, lungs, heart, spleen) or a diseased site (such as tumors, arthritic joints) which digest the biodegradable coating, releasing the intact drug or active component either intracellularly or at the disease site.
• the method for producing the nanospheres according to the present disclosure is a continuous process.
• the method provides substantially complete sterility which can be maintained during the manufacturing process.
• Organic solvents are not involved which tend to denature biomolecules. Burst release is very low and the nanospheres have good suspension stability based on the zeta potential values.
• the method does not alter the structure of the bioactive drug.
• the method lends itself to easy scale up and manufacture from lab scale to large scale industrial manufacture.
• One aspect of the present disclosure provides a method for encapsulating water- soluble compounds contained in albumin and beta cyclodextrin nanospheres using a method with the use of a spray dryer.
• nanospheres formed according to the present disclosure can serve as controlled drug delivery systems.
• the nanospheres delivery system of the present disclosure can serve as an effective method of transfecting cells with single stranded DNA such as anti-sense oligonucleotides to NF-kB.
• the nanospheres delivery system of the present disclosure can serve as an effective method of delivering an intestine-targeted vaccine by the oral route of administration without denaturation of the vaccine in the harsh acidic environment of the stomach.
• the nanospheres delivery systems of the present disclosure can serve as an effective method of targeting drug to tumors such as melanoma.
• nanospheres delivery systems of the present disclosure can serve as an effective diagnostic tool for the identification of tumors.
• the nanospheres delivery systems of the present disclosure can target phagocytic cells such as macrophages/monocytes, which produce the majority of the pro-inflammatory cytokines. This technique has been demonstrated to improve the efficacy of cytokine inhibiting compounds such as anti-sense oligomers to NF-kB, dexamethasone, catalase, superoxide dismutase, CNI- 1493.
• cytokine inhibiting compounds such as anti-sense oligomers to NF-kB, dexamethasone, catalase, superoxide dismutase, CNI- 1493.
• the nanospheres delivery systems of the present disclosure can deliver antibiotic such as gentamicin and vancomicin in the encapsulated forms to infected organs and cells.
• the nanosphere delivery system of the present disclosure can deliver anti-HIV viral drugs intracellularly in disease states such as AIDS.
• the nanospheres delivery systems of the present disclosure can delivery drugs such as catalase and superoxide dismutase in the encapsulated form in disease states such as septic shock.
• the nanospheres delivery systems of the present disclosure can be part of a formulation and evaluation of stealth nanospheres containing the anti-fungal drug amphotericin B.
• the nanospheres delivery systems of the present disclosure can deliver nanospheres of a glyco-protein drug, oral administration of heparin.
• nanospheres delivery systems of the present disclosure can deliver insulin after oral administration in diabetic states.
• bioactive material is intended to include one or several bioactive materials.
• Fig. 1 is a graph of the effect of encapsulated versus soluble anti -sense NK-kappa B oligomers on the rat hind paw swelling on day 15, in the arthritic rat model.
• Fig. 2 is a set of four microphotographs showing renal uptake of the albumin nanospheres.
• Fig. 3 is a graph of TNF- ⁇ levels among study groups in an ex-vivo kidney transplant model.
• Fig. 4 is a graph of IL- l ⁇ levels among the study groups in an ex-vivo kidney transplant model.
• Fig. 5 is a graph of nitric oxide (NO) levels among the study groups in an ex-vivo kidney transplant model.
• Fig. 6 is a graph of the effect of catalase formulations on IL-l ⁇ release in an in-vivo (rat) septic shock model.
• Fig. 7 is a graph of bioactivity of the encapsulated Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) whole cell lysate as compared to that of un-encapsulated Mtb whole cell lysate and blank BSA nanospheres.
• Mtb Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Fig. 8 is a graph of optical densities of Mtb antigen specific serum IgG in test and control rats.
• Fig. 9 is a graph of serum IgA levels after oral vaccination with whole cell antigens in test and control rats.
• Fig. 10 is a graph of optical densities of Mtb antigen specific serum IgA in test and control rats in different body fluids.
• Fig. 11 is a graph of serum IgG response in blank nanoparticles, oral vaccine nanoparticles and oral vaccine solution groups.
• Fig. 12 is a graph of intracellular concentrations of anti-sense NF-kappa B oligonucleotides in macrophages after nanosphere and solution administration.
• Fig. 13 is a graph of uptake of NF-kappa B antisense oligonucleotides in human microvascular endothelial cells in the nanosphere and solution formulation.
• Fig. 14 is a graph of the bacterial count after prophylactic vancomicin treatment of S. Aureus infected rats
• Fig.15 is a graph of the bacterial count after simultaneous vancomicin treatment of S. Aureus infected rats
• Fig.16 is a graph of the bacterial count after delayed vancomicin treatment of S. Aureus infected rats
• Fig. 17 is a graph of comparative uptake of formulation F-I (no Polyethylene glycol) and F-2 (with polyethylene glycol) into human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC).
• Fig. 18 is a graph of comparative uptake of formulation F-I (no polyethylene glycol) and F-2 (with polyethylene glycol) by the macrophage cell line (RAW cells).
• Fig. 19 is a graph of plasma antifactor Xa activity levels of LMWH after single oral administration nanosphere formulation over 24 hrs.
• Fig. 20 is a graph of pharmacokinetic profiles of LMWH solution after intravenous (IV), subcutaneous (SC) and oral (MS.3) route in rats.
• Fig. 21 is a graph of effect of oral dosing with insulin in the nanosphere formulation on blood glucose levels.
• Fig. 22 is a graph of a comparison of the effect of standard Atropine 1% solution and a lower strength of atropine sulfate-encapsulated nanospheres (0.66%) on the pupil to corneal length ratio in rabbit eyes.
• Fig. 23 is a photomicrograph (SEM) of blank nanoparticles.
• Fig. 24 are graphs of the results of oral vaccination with inactivated viral vaccine induces protective immunity.
• Fig. 25 are graphs showing the uptake of NS into Caco2 and M-cells in the presence of targeting lectins.
• Fig. 26 is a photomicrograph of nanospheres (green dots) distribution in the Payer's microvillus in the intestines.
• Fig. 27 are graphs are graphs showing the efficacy of melanoma oral vaccines.
• the present disclosure provides:
• nanospheres can be prepared using a process using a mini-spray dryer without appreciable denaturation of the bioactive material.
• a polymer matrix is pre-cross-linked with glutaraldehyde, followed by neutralization of the excess glutaraldehyde with sodium bi-sulfite and then adding the bioactive material to the pre-cross-linked and neutralized matrix. After this the crosslinked polymer matrix containing the bioactive matrix is spray dried.
• Various parameters for the spray dryer such as, but not limited to, inlet temperature, pump flow, aspiration rate and air pressure were optimized for obtaining nanospheres.
• Albumin may be used as a matrix.
• Glutaraldehyde was used as a cross-linking agent. Effect of glutaraldehyde concentrations on the mean particle size was investigated by varying the concentration of glutaraldehyde. Time of pre-cross-linking of the albumin matrix, neutralization of the excess glutaraldehyde with sodium bisulfite, cross-linking times and other factors affecting the bioactivity and the mean particle size were all investigated.
• the present disclosure provides a method of producing nanospheres by encapsulating a bioactive material in a pre-cross -linked and neutralized polymer matrix.
• nanospheres were prepared using beta- cyclodextrin (instead of albumin) as the polymer matrix to encapsulate drugs.
• One advantage of the methods described herein is that they can be expanded to large scale aseptic manufacturing processes on an industrial scale on a cost effective basis.
• the drug is directly converted from the solution formulation into the final nanosphere form, thus eliminating the need for a separate step to remove the solvent from the particles after they are formed.
• particles are directly converted to a dry powder form. Since the drug is converted to the dry powder form, it is very stable and thus would be expected to have a longer shelf life when compared to a solution formulation of a drug. With the present processes there is no additional freeze-drying step needed to remove the aqueous phase, leading to a superior product.
• Another advantage is the fact that by controlling the extent of cross-linking of the albumin polymer matrix, the release of the drug can be very effectively controlled and designed. Greater cross-linking of the albumin polymer matrix, results in slower release of the drug from the polymer matrix.
• the small particle size of the nanometer-sized encapsulated materials of the present invention allows for more effective uptake into cells and thus more effective overall targeting to specific organs in the body and to disease sites.
• Example 1 Evaluation of a nucleotide compound, namely anti-sense nucleotides to NF-kB nanospheres in arthritis
• One exemplary method for the formulation of nanospheres containing an antisense oligonucleotide to NF-kB comprises the following steps:
• PBS phosphate buffered saline
• the spray dryer settings were as follows, pump 2%, aspirator 50%, inlet temperature 110 0 C, air flow 600 psi.
• the product was collected and stored in a sealed container.
• the mean particle size and zeta potential (shown in Table 1) was determined using Malvern Zetasizer.
• Nanospheres of desired size ranges of less than 1 micrometer were prepared by optimizing the conditions of spray drying.
• doses (10 mg/kg) were administered intraperitonially on days 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 post adjuvant injections.
• Fig. 1 shows the paw volume measurements obtained on day 15 for both the injected and non-injected hind paw. As can be seen, there was a significant difference in right (injected) paw volume compared to the positive control for the 15 and 30 mg/kg dose when compared to the equivalent doses in the conventional solution formulation (p ⁇ 0.05). There was also a significant difference in the left (non injected) paw volume for both the nanosphere dosing groups when compared to the equivalent solution groups (p ⁇ 0.05). This clearly demonstrates the effectiveness of the encapsulated formulation to provide better efficacy when tested in this arthritic rat model.
• Example 2 Evaluation of a nucleotide compound, namely anti-sense oligonucleotide to NF-kB nanospheres on kidney survival in a kidney transplant model
• NF-kB Nuclear factor kappa beta
• NF-kB activation Similarly increased oxidative stress during ischemia/rep erfusion injury may also lead to increased NF-kB activation.
• the initial events of warm or cold ischemia injury associated with renal transplantation may influence both early graft function and late changes. Accordingly, we hypothesize that the inhibition of NF-kB activation by using antisense oligonucleotides to NF-kB into the donor kidney would prevent acute rejection and prolong graft survival and thus provide effective therapy for acute renal rejection.
• Nanospheres containing an antisense oligonucleotide to NF-kB were prepared by the method described in Example 1 hereinabove.
• Rats were first euthanized and the renal artery and vein were cannulated.
• the kidney was perfused with heparinized saline and University of Wisconsin (UW) organ preserving solution.
• Albumin nanospheres suspended in saline (3mg/ml) were injected into the renal artery.
• the kidney was kept at 37 0 C for 2 hours and then stored at 4 0 C till 24 hours. Histology sections of the kidney were taken and images acquired using a fluorescence microscope.
• Table 2 shows the study design for ex- vivo evaluation of inhibition of NF -KB activity in a kidney transplant model.
• Tumor necrosis factor- ⁇ (TNF- ⁇ ), Interleukin-l ⁇ (IL- l ⁇ ) and Nitric oxide (NO) were used as markers of NF- ⁇ B activity.
• Kidneys were cannulated as per methods reported in the literature. For study groups involving lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation, kidneys were first injected with 1 ml LPS (1 ⁇ g/ml) after cannulation. Antisense oligonucleotide to NF-kB loaded albumin nanospheres were injected into the kidneys.
• LPS lipopolysaccharide
• TNF- ⁇ and IL- l ⁇ from the perfusate were determined by ELISA while nitric oxide was measured by a spectrophotometric assay based on Griess reaction.
• Fig. 2 shows renal uptake of the albumin nanospheres.
• Fig. 3 shows TNF- ⁇ levels among study groups in an ex -vivo kidney transplant model.
• Rats were injected IP with sodium heparin (200 LVKg). 30 minutes after the injection, the rats were euthanized and the renal artery and vein was immediately cannulated.
• Saline 0.5 ml
• antisense NF- ⁇ B 15 mg/Kg
• blank nanosphere were injected into the cannulated kidney.
• the kidneys were kept at 37 0 C for 2 hours and then stored at 4 0 C until 24 hours.
• the isolated kidney was perfused with UW organ preserving solution at 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours and the perfusate collected.
• FIG. 4 shows IL- l ⁇ levels among the study groups in an ex -vivo kidney transplant model.
• Rats were injected IP with sodium heparin (200 LVKg). 30 minutes after the injection, the rats were euthanized and the renal artery and vein was immediately cannulated.
• Saline (0.5 ml), antisense NF- ⁇ B (15 mg/Kg) in solution form and nanosphere form, and blank nanosphere were injected into the cannulated kidney.
• the kidneys were kept at 37 0 C for 2 hours and then stored at 4 0 C until 24 hours.
• the isolated kidney was perfused with UW organ preserving solution at 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours and the perfusate collected.
• Fig. 5 shows nitric oxide (NO) levels among the study groups in an ex- vivo kidney transplant model.
• Rats were injected IP with sodium heparin (200 U/Kg). 30 minutes after the injection, the rats were euthanized and the renal artery and vein was immediately cannulated.
• Saline 0.5 ml
• antisense NF- KB 15 mg/Kg
• blank nanosphere were injected into the cannulated kidney.
• the kidneys were kept at 37 OC for 2 hours and then stored at 4 OC till 24 hours.
• the isolated kidney was perfused with UW organ preserving solution at 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours and the perfusate collected. NO levels were determined by a spectrophotometric assay based on Griess reaction.
• Fig. 2 it is evident that albumin nanospheres are taken up by the renal cells, thus demonstrating that drugs can be delivered to ischemic organs using particulate delivery vehicle.
• a known stimulator of cytokine production like LPS was injected into the kidney.
• Fig. 3, 4, 5 show the levels of TNF- ⁇ , IL- l ⁇ and NO at 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours respectively in the study groups after LPS stimulation.
• Other drugs such as immunosuppressant drugs such as FK-506, and anti-cytokine drugs such as dexamethasone might prove useful in altering the viability of the cells in a transplant donor situation.
• Albumin nanospheres prepared by spray drying can be a potential drug delivery method for the delivery of oligonucleotides
• Example 3 Formulation of nanospheres containing a bioactive protein, namely, catalase in a septic shock model.
• Septic shock is the culmination of a cascade of cellular events initiated by the host innate immune response to pathogenic infection or ischemia. These cellular events which occur primarily in the endothelium and leukocytes. This leads to the increased release of proinflammatory cytokines.
• Tumor necrosis factor ⁇ TNF- ⁇
• IL- l ⁇ Interleukin 1 beta
• IL-6 Interleukin 6
• ROS Reactive Oxygenated Species
• ROS such as superoxide anion (02), nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
• ROS also stimulate Nuclear Factor kappa B (NF-kB) to induce proinflammatory gene expression.
• NF-kB Nuclear Factor kappa B
• Nitric oxide or endothelial derived relaxing factor also causes smooth muscle relaxation.
• SIRS Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome
• refractory hypotension and multiple organ failure are all atypical of septic shock.
• Catalase an endogenous antioxidant produced primarily in leukocyte perioxisomes, mitigates the toxicity of ROS which include enhanced NF-kB activation, but is overwhelmed in septic shock.
• catalase The potential for the therapeutic use of catalase has been limited by its short intravenous half-life and low intracellular uptake.
• Encapsulated catalase formulations nanospheres
• Potential catalase therapy directed to vascular endothelial tissue and macrophages could protect against the toxicity of excessive ROS and pro-inflammatory cytokine production.
• Catalase nanospheres were formulated by the following method:
• PBS phosphate buffered saline
• the product was collected and stored in a sealed container.
• the mean particle size and zeta potential was determined using a Malvern Zetasizer.
• catalase formulations The effect of catalase formulations on pro-inflammatory cytokine release in an E. coli infected sepsis animal model (rat) was evaluated. All three groups were pretreated for 4 hours intraperitonially with catalase formulations: 15mg/kg followed by E. coli LPS l ⁇ g/ml/kg. The three groups were: (1) positive control (LPS only); (2) catalase solution; and, (3) catalase nanospheres. Blood samples were obtained at 24 hours and the serum assayed for IL- l ⁇ by ELISA.
• Fig. 6 shows the effect of catalase formulations on IL- l ⁇ release in an in- vivo (rat) septic shock model.
• Catalase nanospheres inhibited IL- l ⁇ release in an in -vivo animal model.
• Albumin nanospheres provided for a potentially effective delivery vehicle for the endogenous antioxidant catalase as a potential therapeutic in the treatment of septic shock.
• Example 4 Example of vaccine delivery system: Oral vaccine: Induction of mucosal immunity to Mycobacterium Tuberculosis (TB) using nanospheres to TB antigens
• tuberculosis remains one of the world's most devastating diseases.
• most vaccines including BCG (Bacillus Calmette- Guerin)
• BCG Bacillus Calmette- Guerin
• mucosal application of an antigen by oral route can lead to induction of both systemic and mucosal responses.
• Oral administration of a vaccine against TB has a number of advantages, including ease of administration, low cost, and avoidance of needles and the associated reduced risk of disease transfer. Furthermore, oral immunization more effectively targets the mucosal immune responses.
• M. bovis BCG Oral immunization of guinea pigs and mice with M. bovis BCG has been shown to induce immune responses in spleen and lymph node cell populations as well as purified protein derivative (PPD)-specific delayed-type hypersensitivity and antibody responses.
• PPD purified protein derivative
• One exemplary embodiment of a method for formulation of nanospheres containing Mycobacterium tuberculosis dead cell antigens with enteric coated properties comprises the following process:
• the spray dryer settings were as follows, pump 2%, aspirator 50%, inlet temperature 110 0 C, air flow 600 psi.
• the product was collected and stored in a sealed container.
• the mean particle size and zeta potential was determined using a Malvern Zetasizer.
• Other polymers that can be used include, but are not limited to, hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose, Eudragit, combinations and mixtures thereof and the like.
• Table 3 shows the results of the product yield, particle sizes and the zeta potentials of the nanospheres of the two formulations. The results show that the product yield was high and the process can be used without significant losses.
• the particle size and Zeta potential were within the range established to be ideal for phagocytosis by antigen presenting cells such as macrophages.
• Mtb whole cell lysate was used as model antigen in the formulation of the nanospheres.
• the studies were done on six rats by the oral administration of the encapsulated antigens in small specially designed capsules for oral administration to rats and enteric coated with methyl methacrylate, a pH dependent anionic polymer that solubilizes above pH 5.5 and useful for targeted drug delivery in the duodenum.
• the average weight of loaded nanospheres per capsule was 15mg and the number of cells per capsule was found to be 6.525 x 109.
• Boosters of the antigens were given on week 1, week 10 and week 12 after the initial administration. Three capsules of blank nanospheres were given to the control rats.
• Saliva was obtained following intra-peritoneal injection with 150 ⁇ l of 500ng/ml pilocarpine (Sigma) to induce saliva flow.
• Fecal samples were collected, weighed, and dissolved in PBS containing 0.1% sodium azide. lOOmg of fecal pellet was suspended in I ml of PBS. Following suspension by vortexing for 10 minutes, fecal samples were centrifuged, and supernatants were collected for analysis. Nasal secretions were collected by washing the nasal cavities three times with 50 ⁇ l (150 ⁇ l total) of PBS. Blood samples were collected by tail bleeding and serum was obtained following centrifugation.
• Serum and fecal samples were collected on the day of initial administration, week 1, week 3, week 7 and week 18. Saliva and nasal wash were collected on week 18. An enzyme- linked immunosorbent assay was used to probe for antigen specific IgG in the serum and IgA in all the collected samples.
• Fig. 7 shows the optical densities of the un-encapsulated Mtb whole cell lysate control, encapsulated Mtb whole cell lysate and the BSA blank control when probed with Mtb whole cell lysate specific antibodies.
• Both the Mtb lysate and the Mtb nanospheres showed absorbance that was significantly (p ⁇ 0.05) different from that of the blank nanospheres.
• Both the Mtb whole cell lysate and the encapsulated Mtb whole cell lysate nanospheres showed absorbance that was significantly (p ⁇ 0.05) different from that of the blank nanospheres.
• Figs. 7-10 show antibody production in the test and control animals in serum and samples from selected mucosal surface.
• Fig. 7 shows the bioactivity of the encapsulated Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) whole cell lysate as compared to that of un-encapsulated Mtb whole cell lysate and blank BSA nanospheres when probed with anti-Mtb whole cell lysate antibodies.
• Mtb Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Serum IgG shows the optical densities of the antigen specific IgG up to the seventh week after initial immunization and five weeks after a booster administration of nanospheres. No significant differences were found between the test animals and controls until two weeks after the booster. From there onward, the antigen specific IgG levels remain significantly higher in the test animals up to the seventh week.
• Fig. 8 shows optical densities of Mtb antigen specific serum IgG in test and control rats (p ⁇ 0.05 from controls).
• Serum IgA shows the optical densities of the antigen specific IgA up to the eighteenth week. No significant differences were found between the test animals and controls until the third week and two weeks after the booster. The antigen specific IgA levels remain significantly higher in the test animals up to the eighteenth week. The IgA level in the test animals on the eighteenth week was significantly higher (p ⁇ 0.05) than that of the third and seven week. This shows a significant effect of the boosters given on the 10th and 12th week.
• Fig. 9 shows serum IgA levels after oral vaccination with whole cell antigens in test and control rats.
• Mucosal surface IgA The results presented in Fig. 10 show a significant production of antibodies to the encapsulated M. tuberculosis whole cell antigens in all mucosal surfaces. In all the mucosal surfaces sampled there was significant difference (p ⁇ 0.05) between the test and control animals. In both the salivary secretions and nasal washes the amount of Mtb whole cell antigen specific IgA produced formed a large percentage of the total IgA produced (NSNASAL and NSSALIVA). The antigen specific IgA produced in nasal washed was 37.85% of the total nasal IgA produced, while the antigen specific IgA produced in the salivary secretion formed 80.97% of the total salivary IgA.
• Fig. 10 shows optical densities of Mtb antigen specific serum IgA in test and control rats in different body fluids (p ⁇ 0.05 from controls).
• Formulation processes of most pharmaceuticals involve various physical and chemical stresses that are enough to cause change in the native structure and conformation of most proteins drugs.
• a major challenge in the formulation and delivery of protein drugs, particularly antigens, is the preservation of their structural integrity and, therefore, their bioactivity until they reach their sites of action.
• the titer of the antibodies increased with boosters of antigens, something that BCG has not been shown to do.
• a significant difference was observed in the IgA and IgG titres between the test animals and controls as indicated in Figs. 7-10. There was also a significant difference between the antibody titers at zero time and one week after initial antigen administration and antibody titers after booster administrations.
• results show that the encapsulated dead cells could induce immune response if prepared in a manner that can aid their uptake by antigen presenting cells and that microencapsulation is an ideal way presenting antigens for immune response.
• results also show that micro-encapsulation with BSA by the spray drying method did not affect the bioactivity of the antigen.
• the oral administration was also successful in inducing both systemic and mucosal immune responses.
• Example 5 Example of vaccine delivery system: oral tumor vaccine: induction of mucosal immunity to oral melanoma vaccine antigens
• the induction of an immune response is a complex and intricate process requiring an intact immune system to evaluate.
• a mouse tumor model was used to evaluate the nanoencapsulated extracellular antigen (MECA) vaccine preparation.
• the antigens used in the vaccine were derived from the B16 murine melanoma cells growing in culture.
• MECA containing 20 ⁇ g ECA in a total of 80 ⁇ g MECA
• blank nanoparticles NP
• the three groups were vaccinated with 20 ⁇ g of extracellular antigen (ECA) contained within a total of 80 ⁇ g of encapsulated extracellular antigen (MECA), resuspended in a total volume of 100 ⁇ l with PBS, extra-cellular antigen in solution (ECA solution) in PBS and blank nanoparticles (Blank NP) in PBS, respectively.
• ECA extracellular antigen
• MECA extra-cellular antigen in solution
• Blank NP blank nanoparticles
• mice Female C57BL/6 mice were vaccinated with MECA (20 ⁇ g ECA contained in 80 ⁇ g total MECA), blank MP or ECA solution subcutaneously. After the first vaccination the mice were boosted once a week for three weeks. Seven days after the last vaccination boost the C57BL/6 mice were inoculated at a distant site with 7x105 live syngeneic B16 melanoma cells. The mice were subsequently monitored for the development of tumors and tumor incidence was reported (Fig. 11).
• mice were vaccinated with a total of four injections in a volume of 100 microliter PBS subcutaneously. The injections were done weekly. Seven days after the last injection the mice were challenged with 7x105 live tumor cells (B 16) and tumor incidence was monitored in the MECA group, and in the controls: ECA in solution (ECA SOLN) and blank nanoparticles (BLANK NP).
• ECA SOLN ECA in solution
• BLANK NP blank nanoparticles
• Fig. 11 shows serum IgG response in blank microparticles, oral vaccine nanoparticles and oral vaccine solution groups.
• the mice were given doses of 50.0 mg/0.5ml of nanoparticles weekly until week 6. Blood was collected weekly throughout this study and the IgG response was analyzed using an ELISA assay.
• the B16 murine melanoma tumor represents a very rigorous tumor model. For this reason it is possibly more representative of cancer in the human situations. These results do indicate that the nanoparticle induces a greater anti-tumor effect.
• Example 6 Cell transfection system: transfection of DNA material into cells using anti-sense oligomers to NF-kB
• the nanospheres can be used as an effective tool for transfection of genetic material into cells. Some of the current methods of cell transfection result in a significant number of cell deaths during transfection processes, such as microporation. Since the nanospheres used in our studies are less than 1 micron in size, they are readily taken up into the cells and can transfer the drug/material within the nanospheres directly into cells.
• Nanospheres containing an antisense oligonucleotide to NF-kB were prepared by the method described in Example 1.
• RAW macrophages were plated in 24- well cell culture plates. The cells were incubated and allowed to adhere to the wells for 2 hours and then treated with lipopolysaccharide (1 ⁇ g/ml) for 1 hour. The cells were then washed and treated with fluorescein labeled antisense NF-kappa B either in the free or encapsulated form. At predetermined time intervals (1, 4, 8, 24 hr), cells were washed 5 times with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and incubated at 4°C with Triton-X (1%). The cell lysate was then analyzed for fluorescein using a fluorescent plate reader (available from Phoenix Research Products).
• PBS phosphate buffered saline
• Triton-X 1%
• antisense NF-kappa B was found at a higher concentration in the encapsulated group at each time point. In the nanosphere group, there was no significant difference in concentration of antisense NF-kappa B between 1 hour and 4 hours or between 8 hours and 24 hours. However, there was a significant increase in concentration between 4 hours and 8 hours. Although there seemed to be a time dependent increase in concentration of antisense NF-kappa B within the solution group, there was no significant increase observed.
• Fig. 12 shows intracellular concentrations of anti-sense NF-kappa B oligonucleotides in macrophages after nanosphere and solution administration
• Study b Intracellular levels of antisense NF-kappa B oligonucleotide in non phagocytic cells namely, Human Microvascular Endothelial Cells (HMEC) (nanosphere vs. solutions formulation)
• HMEC Human Microvascular Endothelial Cells
• HMECs were plated in 24-well cell culture plates and were incubated and allowed to adhere to the wells for 24 hours.
• cells were washed 5 times with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and incubated at 4oC with Triton-X 100 (1%). The cell lysate then analyzed for fluorescein using a fluorescent plate reader (Phenix Research Products).
• antisense NF-kappa B was found at a higher concentration in the encapsulated group (p ⁇ 0.05 as compared to the solution) at each time point. Within the microsphere group, there was no significant increase in concentration of antisense NF-kappa B between any of the time points. Although there seemed to be a time dependent increase in concentration within the solution group, no significant difference was observed.
• Fig. 13 shows uptake of NF-kappa B antisense oligonucleotides in human microvascular endothelial cells in the nanosphere and solution formulation.
• Example 7 Evaluation of nanospheres of antibiotic drugs, namely, gentamicin and vancomycin in septic shock.
• Endotoxemia in animals is associated with the release of pleiotropic cytokines such as TNF-alpha and IL-I -beta from the activated macrophages and polymorphonuclear cells.
• Experimental drugs that inhibit the effect of these cytokines such as monoclonal neutralizing antibodies (TNF-alpha monoclonal antibody), receptor antagonists (IL-I receptor antagonist) and receptor fusion proteins have been evaluated in animals and in the clinic for their efficacy in septic shock.
• Gentamicin is effective against gram negative bacteria.
• Vancomycin on the other hand is bactericidal against most gram-positive bacteria, and is indicated for the treatment of serious or severe infections caused by susceptible strains of methicillin resistant Staphylococci (MRSA). Though vancomycin has been effective against extracellular bacteria, it is still a challenge to fight intracellular bacteria. Most of the causative agents of bacterial sepsis take refuge in endothelial cells, thereby eluding the effect of antimicrobial agents. It is therefore necessary to target drugs to the intracellular compartment. This can be achieved by employing the use of particulate delivery systems such as nanospheres.
• nanosphere formulation of gentamicin and vancomicin was made according to Example 1 ; with the exception that gentamicin and vancomicin were used as the encapsulated drug.
• Group 1 Determination of the efficacy of the encapsulated and solution formulation of gentamicin. [Pre-treatment Group].
• E. CoIi bacteria (1.1x109 cfu/mL) were administered i.p. and simultaneously the NS and solution gentamicin formulations (15 mg/kg twice/day for 3 days) or blank nanospheres (control) were injected subcutaneously to different groups of rats. Blood samples were obtained to determine the bacterial count at 0, 4, 24, 48, 96 and 120 hrs.
• E. CoIi bacteria (1.1x109 cfu/mL) were administered i.p. to different groups of rats and 4 hrs following infection the NS and solution gentamicin formulations (15 mg/kg twice/day for 3 days) or blank nanospheres (control) were injected. Blood samples were obtained to determine the bacterial count at 0, 4, 24, 48, 96 and 120 hrs.
• the control group which involves the administration of blank BSA nanospheres, showed a higher bacteremia count in the blood, whereas the groups treated with the gentamicin solution or nanospheres showed a significant lower bacterial count.
• the solution treatment group showing about 75% inhibition in bacteremia, whereas the nanosphere group showing 84% inhibition in the bacterial growth in the blood at the end of 120 hours (Table 4).
• the survival data (Table 5) show a higher survival rate in the gentamicin nanosphere treatment group of 75% compared to 55% in the gentamicin solution treatment group and 35% in the control group.
• Table 4 Percent inhibition of the bacterial growth in the blood samples obtained at the end of the study in the simultaneous treatment group.
• Table 5 Survival rate in the simultaneous treatment group in the peritonitis rat model.
• the control group which involves the administration of blank BSA nanospheres, shows a higher bacteremia count in the blood, whereas the groups treated with the gentamicin solution or nanospheres show a significant lower bacterial count.
• the solution treatment group showing about 35% inhibition in bacteremia, whereas the nanosphere group showing 80% inhibition in the bacterial growth in the blood at the end of 120 hours (Table 6). All the rats survived in this group of treatment.
• Table 6 Percent inhibition of the bacterial growth in the blood samples obtained at the end of the study in the prophylactic treatment group.
• the control group which involves the administration of blank BSA nanospheres, shows a higher bacteremia count in the blood, whereas the groups treated with the gentamicin solution or nanospheres show a significant lower bacterial count.
• the solution treatment group showed about 15% inhibition in bacteremia, whereas the nanospheres group showed 50% inhibition in the bacterial growth in the blood at the end of 120 hours (Table 7). All the rats survived in this group of treatment.
• Table 7 Percent inhibition of the bacterial growth in the blood samples obtained at the end of the study in the delayed treatment group.
• the in vivo results demonstrates the gentamicin nanospheres being more effective in reducing the bacterial counts in the blood compared to the gentamicin solution form, with gentamicin nanospheres being 9% more effective in inhibiting the bacterial growth then the solution form in the simultaneous group, 45% more effective then the solution form in the prophylactic group and 35% more effective then the solution form in the delayed treatment group over a period of 120 hrs.
• These results show that the gentamicin nanospheres offer more sustained and prolonged duration of action compared to the traditional solution formulation thus can be used in reducing the frequency of dosage administration thereby decreasing the toxicity associated with the drug.
• S. Aureus bacteria (1.0x108 cfu/mL) were administered i.p. and simultaneously the NS and solution gentamicin formulations (15 mg/kg twice/day for 3 days) or blank nanospheres (control) were injected subcutaneously to different groups of rats. Blood samples (0.5 mL) were obtained to determine the bacterial count at 0, 4, 24, 48, 96 and 120 hrs.
• S. Aureus bacteria (1.0x108 cfu/mL) were administered i.p. to different groups of rats and 4 hrs following infection the NS and solution gentamicin formulations (15 mg/kg twice/day for 3 days) or blank nanospheres (control) were injected. Blood samples (0.5 mL) were obtained to determine the bacterial count at 0, 4, 24, 48, 96 and 120 hrs.
• the control group which involves the administration of blank BSA nanospheres, showed a higher bacteremia count in the blood, whereas the groups treated with the vancomycin solution or nanospheres showed a significant lower bacterial count ( Figure 14).
• the survival data show a higher survival rate in the gentamicin nanosphere treatment group of 80% compared to 40% in the gentamicin solution treatment group and 25% in the control group.
• Table 8 Survival rate in the simultaneous treatment group in the peritonitis rat model.
• Example 8 Formulation and evaluation of stealth nanospheres containing an anti-fungal drug, Amphotericin B
• HMEC human micro-vascular endothelial cells
• HMEC human micro-vascular endothelial cells
• RAW murine macrophage cell line
• Figs. 17 and 18 show the uptake of particles with and without PEG into two different cell lines, namely, endothelial cells (HMEC) and macrophages (RAW) respectively.
• HMEC endothelial cells
• RAW macrophages
• Fig. 17 shows comparative uptake of formulation F-I (no Polyethylene glycol) and F-2 (with polyethylene glycol) into human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC).
• Fig. 18 comparative uptake of formulation F-I (no polyethylene glycol) and F-2 (with polyethylene glycol) by the macrophage cell line (RAW cells).
• Formulation F-I and F-2 did not show any increase in potassium levels at any experimental concentration.
• the solution formulation of Amphotericin B demonstrated significant release of potassium from the RBCs up to 0.08 mg/ml and remained same for higher drug concentrations. This study clearly demonstrates the superior nature of the encapsulated formulation of Amphotericin B when compared to its solution formulation.
• Example 9 Evaluation of nanospheres of a glyco-protein drug: Heparin, using oral administration.
• Nanospheres were prepared by the method described in Example 1, with the exception that heparin was used as the drug in this example.
• Table 9 formulations which were investigated
• Fig. 19 shows the absorption of heparin after administration of different formulations. Heparin is absorbed well after oral administration of formulation F4, which contains 30% of the low molecular weight heparin, with 10% papain contained in a 60% albumin matrix.
• Fig. 19 shows plasma antifactor Xa activity levels of LMWH after single oral administration of different nanosphere formulation over 24 hrs on anti-clotting activity in rats.
• Fig. 20 shows pharmacokinetic profiles of LMWH solution after intravenous (IV), subcutaneous (SC) and oral (MS.3) routes.
• Nanospheres of desired size ranges were prepared by optimizing the conditions of spray drying.
• the formulation F-2 was the best. This exemplary method can be easily optimized for preparing nanospheres on a large scale for a wide variety of applications, especially in the area of drug delivery and development.
• Example 10 Protein nanospheres: Oral delivery of encapsulated insulin in diabetes
• Insulin is an endogenously produced protein which is needed for the treatment of diabetes mellitus.
• the insulin which is administered is taken up by the liver/muscle cells which then convert glucose and glycogen.
• Insulin is a protein molecule made up of 2 chains of amino acids (A&B). These two chains contain 51 amino acids and are linked via disulphide bonds.
• Oral delivery is the most popular method for drug delivery. However, two major problems arise in oral delivery of protein molecules. First, insulin is inactivated by digestive enzymes in the gastro-intestinal tract (GIS) system (mainly the stomach and the proximal regions of the small intestine).
• GIS gastro-intestinal tract
• This inactivation can be overcome by designing carriers that can protect insulin from the harsh environment of the stomach before releasing it into the more favorable regions of the GIT. Additionally, a protease inhibitor in the drug formulation may help to prevent insulin degradation by the proteolytic enzymes.
• the second major barrier is the slow transport of insulin across the lining of the colon into the blood stream. Insulin has to pass the tight junctions which guard the para-cellular transport mechanism for hydrophilic drug molecules. An attempt to overcome this slowness can be made by the use of absorption enhancers which facilitate transport of macromolecules across the GIT.
• One exemplary method for the formulation of nanospheres containing insulin comprises the following process:
• PBS phosphate buffered saline
• Fig. 21 shows the effect of oral dosing with insulin in the nanosphere formulation on blood glucose levels.
• Example 11 Ocular delivery system: Preparation and characterization of tetracaine and atropine nanospheres for ocular delivery.
• Tetracaine is used during eye surgery for cataracts. However, at the present time, it is available on the market as a 1% solution. When this solution is used for cataract surgery, the drug has to be repeatedly administered every 10 minutes, due to its short duration of anesthetic action. This results in major discomfort to the patient and causes major obstruction to the surgeons, who must repeatedly instill the solution formulation. Thus there is a need for a sustained release formulation of tetracaine.
• the purpose of this study was to prepare and test tetracaine hydrochloride in the nanosphere formulations using chitosan-albumin as the encapsulation matrix
• Atropine is currently used for its mydriatic effect (i.e., inducing pupil dilation) on the eye.
• mydriatic effect i.e., inducing pupil dilation
• administration of the solution formulation that is currently available on the market has lead to serious side effects including death in children.
• the purpose of this study is to prepare sustained release formulations of atropine to reduce the toxicity often observed with the administration of this drug.
• BSA-CSN bovine serum albumin-Chitosan
• Tetracaine hydrochloride was added to the cross-linked BSA-CSN matrix to achieve 10% drug loading.
• BSA-CSN bovine serum albumin-Chitosan
• nanospheres were suspended in 1 mM KCl solution at a final concentration of 2mg/ml; the suspension was loaded into an optical well and zeta potential was measured using Malvern Zetasizer, ZEN 1600.
• the zeta potential is listed in Table 9 below.
• a scanning electron microscope (JEOL JSM 5800LV, Tokyo, Japan) was used to evaluate surface characteristics of the nanospheres. The surface was found to be smooth.
• the mydriatic effect was measured by determining the ratio of the pupil to cornea length.
• the drug was administered onto the cornea of the eye and at specific time points, cornea and pupil lengths were measured along the axis of the rabbit's eye.
• Fig. 22 shows the data for the microsphere formulation (0.66%) in comparison to the atropine solution formulation (1%).
• the strength of the atropine sulfate nanosphere suspension (0.66%) is lower than that of the strength of the standard marketed solution (1%), but the mydriatic effect of the nanosphere formulation at a lower concentration (0.66%) was superior to that of the standard 1% solution (Fig. 22).
• Fig. 22 shows a comparison of the effect of standard Atropine 1% solution and a lower strength of atropine sulfate-encapsulated nanospheres (0.66%) on the pupil to corneal length ratio in rabbit eyes.
• Example 12 Development of Nanospheres Containing the HIV-I Inhibitor Carrageenan for Prevention of HIV Transmission
• Carrageenan belongs to a class of compounds called microbicides. Microbicides could substantially reduce the transmission of HIV and possibly other sexually transmitted infections when applied vaginally or rectally.
• Lambda carrageenan is the active pharmaceutical ingredient in carrageenan that has been shown to block HIV-I infection in vitro in a gel formulation. However, its use in a phase III clinical trial failed to reduce HIV-I sexual transmission. Possible factors associated with this clinical trial failure could be improper use of gel and short residence time of gel formulation.
• We developed a nanosphere formulation that may be delivered in water soluble form into human vagina to provide sustained release and longer residence time.
• Other anti-HIV drugs may also be encapsulated and formulated and used in this manner.
• the yield of spray-dried microparticles was between 51% and 58%.
• the drug release at room temperature was complete at 24 hr in pH 6 and 7 solutions but there was no release in pH 4 and pH 5 solutions up to 96 hr.
• drug release in the pH 4 and 5 solutions was 30% at 1 hr and 40% at 24 hr.
• release was 90% complete within 1 hr at pH 6 and 7 solutions and completely released at 24 hr (Table 12).
• Table 12 Release of carrageenan from nanospheres at room temperature in lactic acid solutions (pH 4, 5, 6, and 7).
• Example 13 Formulation and evaluation of antivirals nanospheres such as fluoroquinolones for the treatment of Poxvirus disease
• Fluoroquinolones This research was carried out to study a class of antibiotics, called Fluoroquinolones, and their efficacy against Orthopoxvirus vaccinia, the prototype poxvirus. A standardized assay was developed to test and compare multiple Fluoroquinolones and their potency against vaccinia.
• fluoroquinolones in the solution formulation, show excellent in vitro antiviral activity against poxviruses and may be good therapeutic candidates in the treatment of Poxvirus disease, they have serious side effects.
• juveniles animal and human
• the fluoroquinolones have shown arthrotoxicity.
• arthralgia pain in joints
• tedonopathy abnormal gait and arthritis
• articular lesions loss of proteglycans, and abnormal chondrocytes have been demonstrated.
• encapsulation should target the fluoroquinolones drug to sites of poxvirus replication (dendritic cells, macrophages, spleen, lung, liver, bone marrow) as well as reduce the high volume of distribution that fluoroquinolones have and revamping the drug away from articular cartilage; thereby reducing the juvenile arthrotoxicity as mentioned earlier.
• poxvirus replication dendritic cells, macrophages, spleen, lung, liver, bone marrow
• Table 13 lists the Inhibitory Concentrations (IC50). Clinafloxacin and Sarafloxacin are most potent and have almost 10 x higher anti-pox viral activity than Ofloxacin and Levofloxacin.
• Table 13 Fluoroquinolone nanosphere potency in order of decreasing anti-pox viral activity in cell cultures.
• Clinafloxacin and Sarafloxacin are most potent and have almost 10 x higher anti- pox viral activity than Ofloxacin and Levofloxacin.
• Oral vaccine delivery is a simple, easy, and safe vaccination method representing an attractive mode of immunization.
• Oral immunization can induce immune responses by stimulating the common mucosal immune system and antigen processing within the intestinal Peyer's patches.
• oral immunization is a preferred route because there is no need for trained medical personnel for administration.
• oral vaccination has fewer complications than intramuscular injection.
• Oral vaccines can be self-administered and can improve the immunization coverage as shown by oral polio vaccination.
• Annual influenza vaccination of the population is a huge burden for worldwide implementation and development of an effective oral vaccine will therefore have a significant health benefit for the public.
• encapsulated antigens represents a unique form of antigen that induces desirable immune responses without immune tolerance.
• encapsulated antigens can be strategically targeted to dendritic cells, lymphocytes and phagocytic M-cells, (such as with the use of M -cell antibodies or ligands) that are present in Peyer's patches in the intestine, which take up the encapsulated vaccine to generate immunity.
• influenza vaccine antigen We used the influenza vaccine antigen. However this method of vaccine administration can be applied to other vaccines that we have tested such as breast cancer antigens, prostate cancer antigen, ovarian cancer antigen, melanoma cancer antigen.
• Other bioactive drug candidates tested include insulin, hepatitis B antigen, typhoid antigen, and TB antigen. These particulate form of antigen and was found to be highly effective.
• the protective immune responses induced by killed influenza immunization were long-lived for over 14 months in mice.
• a single immunization with influenza induced protective immunity This influenza vaccine format is easily applicable for producing vaccine candidates for highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses or the 2009 A/California outbreak strain of swine origin influenza virus.
• Encapsulating formulations of novel microparticle/ nanoparticles that can be administered orally, subcutaneously or transdermally, containing sustained release matrix formulations with combination of ethyl cellulose (EC), hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose acetate (HPMCAS) and cyclodextrin is discussed below.
• Example 14 We prepared formulations containing sustained release matrix formulations with combinations of ethyl cellulose (EC), hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose acetate (HPMCAS) and cyclodextrin. Different drug and protein were encapsulated into nanoparticle and microparticles for different applications as described below:
• Cyclodextrin was dissolved in water (or other aqueous solvents such as PBS or saline) and two above solutions were mixed.
• Fig. 23 is a photomicrograph (SEM) of blank nanoparticles. The size was determined with the use of the Malvern zetasizer. The sizes range from 45-85 nm (mean of 68 nm). [00376]
• Example 15 Oral vaccination study with Influenza virus can provide immunization
• mice (Balb/c) were orally immunized with inactivated PR8 virus vaccine (approximately 7.5 ug HA) 3 times (weeks 0, 4, and 8). Orally immunized mice induced virus-specific serum IgG antibody responses. Mucosal immune responses are being determined. Induction of functional antibodies such as hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) and neutralizing activities (NA) in immune sera is a better indicator for protective immune responses. Significant levels of HAI and NA titers were detected after boost immunizations (Fig 24A).
• HAI hemagglutination inhibition
• NA neutralizing activities
• mice were challenged with a lethal dose (5 x LD50) of mouse adapted homologous virus (A/PR8) 10 weeks after the second boost immunization. All un-immunized (naive) mice died. Immunized mice were 100% protected although they experienced transient body weight loss (Fig. 24C). Oral vaccination required high doses of inactivated influenza viral vaccines to induce protective immunity. Therefore, it is highly feasible to induce protective immunity by oral vaccination. However, it remains as a challenge to improve the protective efficacy by oral vaccination.
• a lethal dose 5 x LD50
• A/PR8 mouse adapted homologous virus
• Fig. 24 shows graphs of the results of oral vaccination with inactivated viral vaccine induces protective immunity.
• the first bar is na ⁇ ve, unimmunized control; the second bar is I s , after the first boost immunization; the third bar is 2 nd , after the second boost immunization.
• PR8ina oral vaccination with inactivated A/PR8 virus.
• Example 16 Melanoma oral vaccine testing in mice
• mice were first orally vaccinated for 10 weeks to induce an anti-tumor response.
• mice were then dosed different groups of mice with vaccine formulations orally.
• Booster doses of the vaccine were administered every alternate week and after 10 weeks, the animals were challenged with live B- 16 melanoma tumor cells, injected subcutaneously in the shoulder areas.
• the B-16 melanoma cancer cells were cultured for 3 days in 75cm 2 tissue culture flask in a 95% CO2 incubator until sub-confluent.
• the cells were washed with Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS) pH 7.4.
• PBS Phosphate Buffered Saline
• the cells were then incubated in PBS for 3 days in the incubator.
• the cell suspension were collected and centrifuged at 100xg for 10 minutes.
• the cell pellet will be homogenized in a hypotonic buffer and centrifuged for 5 minutes at 1200 rpm to remove nuclei and other debris.
• the supernatant containing membrane fragments and cytoplasmic proteins were collected and used to prepare the vaccine.
• the protein content were determined by standard assays.
• Nanospheres (NS) of the vaccine antigens were prepared by a spray drying process as described above.
• the oral vaccine formulation will contain antigens derived from the B-16 melanoma cancer cells grown in culture.
• the general vaccine formulation procedure involves the use of pre-cross linked albumin as the biodegradable polymer matrix. Ethyl cellulose is also incorporated into the polymer matrix as the enteric coating material to protect the vaccine material from degradation in the gastric acid in the stomach.
• Concavalin A (ConA)
• Fig. 26 This study utilizes sections of the small intestines that are mounted in the Ussing diffusion apparatus. In this case, the release and transport of the vaccine material from the nanospheres can be very systematically evaluated and is an excellent model to represent the uptake of the vaccine nanospheres in the intestine.
• the vaccine nanospheres are placed in slurry on the top of the intestinal tissue section (apical side, representing the interior side of the intestine). Samples are taken from the lower chamber, which contains saline, representing nanoparticles that get transported across the intestinal segment.
• Fig. 25 are graphs showing the uptake of NS into Caco2 and M-cells in the presence of targeting lectins.
• Fig. 26 is a photomicrograph of nanospheres (green dots) distribution in the Payer's microvillus in the intestines.
• mice were first orally vaccinated for 10 weeks to induce an anti-tumor response.
• mice were then dosed different groups of mice with vaccine formulations orally.
• Booster doses of the vaccine were administered every alternate week and after 10 weeks, the animals were challenged with live B- 16 melanoma tumor cells, injected subcutaneously in the shoulder areas.
• Fig. 27A-C are graphs showing the efficacy of melanoma oral vaccines. Fig.
• FIG. 27A Mean tumor sizes post challenge with B 16 melanoma cells.
• Fig. 27B Fecal IgA kinetics of orally immunized mice.
• Fig. 27C Serum IgG levels in orally immunized mice.
• the tumor size was measured weekly for 4 weeks, with the aid of a vernier caliper (Fig. 27A). This study examined if an anti-tumor response was induced after oral vaccination, with the capacity to affect the development of the solid tumor. In the oral vaccination group, the onset of tumor development was 16 days compared to 6 days in the controls. The tumor size was also significantly lower in the vaccinated group. In Fig. 27B and 27C, both IgG and IgA levels were significantly higher after oral vaccination at the end of the 10 week study period, and during the tumor challenge period (week 11-14), when compared to the equivalent solution formulation or controls (blank microspheres). In summary the oral vaccination delayed tumor development and progression and generated high antibody titers.
• Example 17 Breast cancer Vaccine:
• 4T07 murine breast cancer antigens were used for the vaccine formulation as described for the B- 16 melanoma vaccine method and was tested in Balb/c mice. Mice vaccinated with the vaccine for a period of 8 weeks either orally or transdermally with the 4T07 murine breast cancer antigen encapsulated into nanoparticles and microparticles did not develop any tumors and demonstrated strong antibody titers (both IgA and IgG) after oral or transdermal administrations of the encapsulated vaccine. Control animals or animals treated with the solution formulation of the cancer antigen developed tumors and died.
• TRAMCl prostate antigen will be used for the vaccine formulation as described for the B- 16 melanoma vaccine method and were tested in C-57b/l 6 mice. Mice vaccinated with the vaccine for a period of 8 weeks either orally or transdermally with the TRAMCl prostate antigen encapsulated into nanoparticles and microparticles did not develop any tumors and demonstrated the development of a strong antibody IgG after transdermal administration and both IgG and IgA antibody titers after oral administration. Control animals or animals treated with the solution formulation of the cancer antigen developed tumors and died.
• Example 19 Ovarian cancer Vaccine:
• ovarian cancer vaccine antigens obtained from 4306 prostate cancer cells were used for the vaccine formulation as described for the B- 16 melanoma vaccine method and were tested in Balb/c mice. Mice vaccinated with the vaccine for a period of 8 weeks either orally or transdermally with the 4306 ovarian cancer antigen encapsulated into nanoparticles and microparticles did not develop any tumors and demonstrated strong immunity as represented by the development of a strong antibody IgG after transdermal administration and both IgG and IgA antibody titers after oral administration. Control animals or animals treated with the solution formulation of the cancer antigen developed tumors and died.
• Example 20 Hepatitis B vaccine:
• hepatitis plasmid vaccine were used for the vaccine formulation as described above for the B- 16 melanoma vaccine method and were tested in Balb/c mice. Mice vaccinated for a period of 7-8 weeks wither orally or transdermally with the plasmid vaccine encapsulated into nanoparticle or microparticles demonstrated strong immunity as represented by the development of a strong antibody IgG after transdermal administration and both IgG and IgA antibody titers after oral administration.
• a method of delivering drugs to the body
• a method of preparing and delivering an effective vaccine formulation that can be used to induce immunity after oral administration of the vaccine, without the aid of conventional adjuvants, and,
• a method of preparing and delivering an effective vaccine formulation that can be used to induce immunity after inhalation and systemic administration of the vaccine, without the use of conventional adjuvants.

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