WO2004084807A2

WO2004084807A2 - Micro-cluster compositions

Info

Publication number: WO2004084807A2
Application number: PCT/US2004/008039
Authority: WO
Inventors: William D. Holloway Jr.; Michael A. Holloway; Nikolai Tankovich; Eugene Baranov
Original assignee: Aquaphotonics, Inc.
Priority date: 2003-03-20
Filing date: 2004-03-17
Publication date: 2004-10-07
Also published as: EP1613352A4; MXPA05010042A; BRPI0409023A; AU2004224397A1; JP2006521811A; EP1613352A2; KR20060008299A; CA2519488A1; WO2004084807A3

Abstract

Micro-clustered liquids, methods of manufacture and use. Culture media and cultures comprising micro-clustered water; use of micro-clustered culture media and cultures for cell, tissue and organ maintenance and growth; use in microbial biotechnology. Micro-clustered water compositions of bio-affecting agents, body-treating agents, and adjuvants or carriers, pharmaceutical and diagnostic compositions thereof. Methods of using the compositions involving administering them ex vivo to cells, tissues or organs, or in vivo to living bodies; and methods of making the compositions. Methods of hydrating foods and food ingredients in food processing systems with micro-clustered water. Edible foods, ingredients, flavoring and sweetening compositions containing micro-clustered water.

Description

MICRO-CLUSTER COMPOSITIONS OF DRUGS, BIO-AFFECTING

COMPOSITIONS, BODY-TREATING COMPOSITIONS, CULTURE

MEDIA, FOODS AND BEVERAGES

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates generally to micro-cluster liquids and methods of making and using them. The present invention provides a process of making micro-cluster liquid and methods of use thereof. CONTENTS OF APPLICATION I. Micro-cluster Liquids and Methods of Making and Using Them

II. Culture Media and Methods of Making and Using Culture Media

III. Drugs, Bio-affecting and Body-Treating Compositions

IV. Food or Edible Material and Beverages; Processes, Compositions, and Products

I. MICRO-CLUSTER LIQUIDS AND METHODS OF MAKING AND USING THEM

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Water is composed of individual H₂0 molecules that may bond with each other through hydrogen bonding to form clusters that have been characterized as five species: un-bonded molecules, tetrahedral hydrogen bonded molecules comprised of five (5) H₂0 molecules in a quasi-tetrahedral arrangement and surface connected molecules connected to the clusters by 1,2 or 3 hydrogen bonds, (U.S. Patent 5,711,950 Lorenzen; Lee H.). These clusters can then form larger arrays consisting of varying amounts of these micro-cluster molecules with weak long distance van der Waals attraction forces holding the arrays together by one or more of such forces as; (1) dipole-dipole interaction, i.e., electrostatic attraction between two molecules with permanent dipole moments; (2) dipole-induced dipole interactions in which the dipole of one molecule polarizes a neighboring molecule; and (3) dispersion forces arising because of small instantaneous dipoles in atoms. Under normal conditions the tetrahedral micro-clusters are unstable and reform into larger arrays from agitation, which impart London Forces to overcome the van der Waals repulsion forces. Dispersive forces arise from the relative position and motion of two water molecules when these molecules approach one another and results in a distortion of their individual envelopes of intra-atomic molecular orbital configurations. Each molecule resists this distortion resulting in an increased force opposing the continued distortion, until a point of proximity is reached where London Inductive Forces come into effect. If the velocities of these molecules are sufficiently high enough to allow them to approach one another at a distance equal to van der Waals radii, the water molecules combine.

There is currently a need for a process whereby large molecular arrays of liquids can be advantageously fractionated. Furthermore, there is a desire for smaller molecular (e.g., micro-clusters) of water for consumption, medicinal and chemical processes.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The inventors have discovered that liquids, which form large molecular arrays, such as through various electrostatic and van der Waal forces (e.g., water), can be disrupted through cavitation into fractionated or micro-cluster molecules (e.g., theoretical tetrahedral micro-clusters of water). The inventors have further discovered a method for stabilizing newly created micro-clusters of water by utilizing van der Waals repulsion forces. The method involves cooling the micro-cluster water to a desired density, wherein the micro- cluster water may then be oxygenated. The micro-cluster water is bottled while still cold. In addition, by overfilling the bottle and capping while the micro-cluster oxygenated water is dense (i.e., cold), the London forces are slowed down by reducing the agitation which might occur in a partially filled bottle while providing a partial pressure to the dissolved gases (e.g., oxygen) in solution thereby stabilizing the micro-clusters for about 6 to 9 months when stored at 40 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit.

The present invention provides a process for producing a micro-cluster liquid, such as water, comprising subjecting a liquid to cavitation such that dissolved entrained gases in the liquid form a plurality of cavitation bubbles; and subjecting the liquid containing the plurality of cavitation bubbles to a reduced pressure, wherein the reduction in pressure causes breakage of large liquid molecule matrices into smaller liquid molecule matrices. In another embodiment the liquid is substantially free of minerals and can be water which may also be substantially free of minerals. The embodiment provides for a process which is repeated until the water reaches about 140°C (about 60°C). The cavitation can be provided by subjecting the liquid to a first pressure followed by a rapid depressurization to a second pressure to form cavitation bubbles. The pressurization can be provided by a pump. In one embodiment the first pressure is about 55 psig to more than 120 psig. In another embodiment the second pressure is about atmospheric pressure. The embodiment can be carried out such that the pressure change caused the plurality of cavitation bubbles to implode or explode. The pressure change may be performed to create a plasma which dissociates the local atoms and reforms the atom at a different bond angle and strength. In another embodiment the liquid is cooled to about 4°C to 15°C. Further embodiment comprises providing gas to the micro-cluster liquid, such as where the gas is oxygen. In a further embodiment the oxygen is provided for about 5 to about 15 minutes. In a further embodiment the invention provides a process for producing a micro-cluster liquid, comprising subjecting a liquid to a pressure sufficient to pressurize the liquid; emitting the pressurized liquid such that a continuous stream of liquid is created; subjecting the continuous stream of liquid to a multiple rotational vortex having a partial vacuum pressure such that dissolved and entrained gases in the liquid form a plurality of cavitation bubbles; and subjecting the liquid containing the plurality of cavitation bubbles to a reduced pressure, wherein the plurality of cavitation bubbles implode or explode causing Shockwaves that break large liquid molecule matrices into smaller liquid molecule matrices. In a further embodiment the liquid is substantially free of minerals and in an additional embodiment the liquid is water, preferably substantially free of minerals. The invention provides that the process can be repeated until the water reaches about 140°F (about 60°C). In another embodiment the cavitation is provided by subjecting the liquid to a first pressure followed by a rapid depressurization to a second pressure to form cavitation bubbles. Further the invention provides that the pressurization is provided by a pump. In a further embodiment the first pressure is about 55 psig to more than 120 psig and, in another embodiment the second pressure is about atmospheric pressure, including embodiments where the second pressure is less than 5 psig. The invention also provides for micro-cluster liquid where the pressure change causes the plurality of cavitation bubbles to implode or explode. In a further embodiment, the pressure change creates a plasma which dissociates the local atoms and reforms the atoms at a different bond angle and strength. The invention also provides a process where the liquid is cooled to about 4°C to 15°C. In another embodiment, the invention provides subjecting a gas to the micro- cluster liquid. Preferably, the gas is oxygen, especially oxygen administered for about 5 to 15 minutes and more preferably at pressure from about 15 to 20 psig. The present invention also provides for a composition comprising a micro-cluster water produced according to the procedures noted above.

Still another aspect of the invention is a micro-cluster water which has any or all of the properties of a conductivity of about 3.0 to 4.0 μmhos/cm, a FTIR spectrophotometric pattern with a major sharp feature at about 2650 wave numbers, a vapor pressure between about 40°C and 70°C as determined by tliermogravimetric analysis, and an ¹⁷O NMR peak shift of at least about +30 Hertz, preferably at least about +40 Hertz relative to reverse osmosis water.

The present invention further provides for the use of the micro-cluster water of the invention for such purposes as modulating cellular performance and lowering free radical levels in cells by contacting the cell with the micro-cluster water.

The present invention further provides a delivery system comprising a micro-cluster water

(e.g., an oxygenated microcluster water) and an agent, such as a nutritional agent, a medication, and the like.

Further, the micro-cluster water of the invention can be used to remove stains from fabrics by contacting the fabric with the micro-cluster water.

The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. All publications, patents and patent applications cited herein are hereby expressly incorporated by reference for all purposes.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a water molecule and the resulting net dipole moment.

FIG. 2 shows a large array of water molecules. FIG. 3 shows a micro-cluster of water having 5 water molecules forming a tetrahedral shape.

FIG. 4 shows an example of a device useful in creating cavitation in a liquid. The device provides inlets for a liquid, wherein the liquid is then subjected to multiple rotational vortexes reaching partial vacuum pressures of about 27" Hg. The liquid then exits the device at point A through an acceleration tube into a chamber less than the pressure within the device (e.g., about atmospheric pressure).

FIG. 5 shows FTIR spectra for RO water (Figure 5(a)) and processed micro-cluster water (Fig. 5(b)).

FIG. 6 shows TGA plots for RO water and oxygenated micro-cluster water. FIG. 7 shows NMR spectra for RO water (Fig. 7(a)), micro-cluster water without oxygenation (Fig. 7(b)) and micro-cluster water with oxygenation (Fig. 7(c)).

Fig. 8 shows a schematic illustration of a device for Raman spectroscopy.

Fig. 9 shows the effects of micro-clustered cell culture medium on macrophage plasma membranes. Fig. 10 shows the effects of micro-clustered cell culture medium on intracellular pH.

Fig. 11 shows the effects of micro-clustered cell culture medium on the viability of 293T cells.

Figs. 12a and 12b show the effects of micro-clustered water on growth and transfection of two types of human cells.

Fig. 13 shows the effects of micro-clustered water on the expression profiles of dendritic cell markers.

Fig. 14 shows the effects of micro-clustered water on the functional state of brain tissue perfused with micro-clustered medium.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Liquids, including for example, alcohols, water, fuels and combinations thereof, are comprised of atoms and molecules having complex molecular arrangements. Many of these arrangements result in the formation of large molecular arrays of covalently bonded atoms having non-covalent interactions with adjacent molecules, which in turn interact via additional non-covalent interactions with yet other molecules. These large arrays, although stable, are not ideal for many applications due to their size. Accordingly it is desirable to create and provide liquids having smaller arrays by reducing the number of non-covalent interactions. These smaller molecules are better able to penetrate and react in biological and chemical systems. In addition, the smaller molecular arrays provide novel characteristics that are desirable.

As used herein, "covalent bonds" means bonds that result when atoms share electrons. The term "non-covalent bonds" or "non-covalent interactions" means bonds or interactions wherein electrons are not shared between atoms. Such non-covalent interactions include, for example, ionic (or electrovalent) bonds, formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another to create ions, interactions resulting from dipole moments, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. Van der Waals forces are weak forces that act between non-polar molecules or between parts of the same molecule, thus bringing two groups together due to a temporary unsymmetrical distribution of electrons in one group, which induces an opposite polarity in the other. When the groups are brought closer than their van der Waals radii, the force between them becomes repulsive because their electron clouds begin to interpenetrate each other.

Numerous liquids are applicable to the techniques described herein. Such liquids include water; alcohols, petroleum and fuels. Liquids, such as water, are molecules comprising one or more basic elements or atoms (e.g., hydrogen and oxygen). The interaction of the atoms through covalent bonds and molecular charges form molecules. A molecule of water has an angular or bent geometry. The H-O-H bond angle in a molecule of water is about 104.5° to 105°. The net dipole moment of a molecule of water is depicted in FIG. 1. This dipole moment creates electrostatic forces that allow for the attraction of other molecules of water. Recent studies by Pugliano et al, (Science, 257:1937, 1992) have suggested the relationship and complex interactions of water molecules. These studies have revealed that hydrogen bonding and oxygen-oxygen interactions play a major role in creating large clusters of water molecules. Substantially purified water forms complex structures comprising multiple water molecules each interacting with an adjacent water molecule (as depicted in FIG. 2) to form large arrays. These large arrays are formed based upon, for example, non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bond formation and as a result of the dipole moment of the molecule. Although highly stable, these large molecules have been suggested to be detrimental in various chemical and biological reactions. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of forming fractionized or micro-cluster water as depicted in FIG. 3 having as few as about 5 molecules of water.

The present invention provides small micro-cluster liquids (e.g., micro-cluster water molecules) a method for manufacturing fractionized or micro-cluster water and methods of use in the treatment of various biological conditions.

Accordingly, the present invention provides a method for manufacturing fractionized or micro-cluster liquids (e.g., water) comprising pressurizing a starting liquid to a first pressure followed by rapid depressurization to a second pressure to create a partial vacuum pressure that results in release of entrained gases and the formation of cavitation bubbles. The thermo-physical reactions provided by the implosion and explosion of the cavitation bubbles results in an increase in heat and the breaking of non-covalent interactions holding large liquid arrays together. This process can be repeated until a desired physical-chemical trait of the fractionized liquid is obtained. Where the liquid is water, the process is repeated until the water temperature reaches about 140° F (about 60 °C). The resulting smaller or fractionized liquid is cooled under conditions that prevent reformation of the large arrays. As used herein, "water" or "a starting water" includes tap water, natural mineral water, and processed water such as purified water. Any number of techniques known to those of skill in the art can be used to create cavitation in a liquid so long as the cavitating source is suitable to generate sufficient energy to break the large arrays. The acoustical energy produced by the cavitation provides energy to break the large liquid arrays into smaller liquid clusters. For example, the use of acoustical transducers may be utilized to provide the required cavitation source.

In addition, cavitation can be induced by forcing the liquid through a tube having a constriction in its length to generate a high pressure before the constriction, which is rapidly depressurized following the constriction. Another example, includes forcing a liquid through a pump in reverse direction through a rotational volute.

In one embodiment, a liquid to be fractionized is pressurized into a rotational volute to create a vortex that reaches partial vacuum pressures releasing entrained gases as cavitation bubbles when the rotational vortex exits through a tapered nozzle at or close to atmospheric pressure. This sudden pressurization and decompression causes implosion and explosion of cavitation bubbles that create acoustical energy Shockwaves. These Shockwaves break the covalent and non-covalent bonds on the large liquid arrays, break the weak array bonds, and form micro-cluster or fractionized liquid consisting of, for example, about five (5) H₂0 molecules in a quasi tetrahedral arrangement (as depicted in FIG. 3), and impart an electron charge to the micro-cluster liquid thus producing electrolyte properties in the liquid. The micro-cluster liquid is recycled until desired number of micro-cluster liquid molecules are formed to reach a given surface tension and electron charge, as determined by the temperature rise of the liquid over time as cavitation bubbles impart kinetic heat to the processed liquid. Once the desired surface tension and electron charge are reached the micro-cluster liquid is cooled until liquid density increases. The desired surface tension and electron charge can be measured in any number of ways, but is preferably detected by temperature. Once the liquid reaches a desired density, typically at about 4 to 15 °C, a gas, such as, for example, molecular oxygen, can be introduced for a sufficient amount of time to attain the desired quantity of oxygen in the micro-cluster liquid. The micro-cluster liquid is then aliquoted into a container or bottle, preferably filled to maximum capacity, and capped while the gassed micro-cluster liquid is still cool, so as to provide a partial pressure to the gassed micro-cluster liquid as the temperature reaches room temperature. This enables larger quantities of dissolved gas to be maintained in solution due to increased partial pressure on the bottles contents.

The present invention provides a method for making a micro-cluster or fractionized water or liquid, for ease of explanation water will be used as the liquid being described, however any type liquid may be substituted for water. A starting water such as, for a example, purified or distilled water is preferably used as a base material since it is relatively free of mineral content. The water is then placed into a food grade stainless steel tank for processing. By subjecting the starting water to a pump capable of supplying a continuous pressure of between about 55 and 120 psig or higher a continuous stream of water is created. This stream of water is then applied to a suitable device (see for example FIG. 4) capable of establishing a multiple rotational vortex reaching partial vacuum pressures of about 27" Hg, thereby reaching the vapor pressure of dissolved entrained gases in the water. These gases form cavitation bubbles that travel down multiple acceleration tubes exiting into a common chamber at or close to atmospheric pressure. The resultant shock waves produced by the imploding and exploding cavitation bubbles breaks the large water arrays into smaller water molecules by repeated re-circulation of the water. The recycling of the water creates increases results in an increase in temperature of the water. The heat produced by the imploding and exploding cavitation bubbles release energy as seen in sonoluminescence, in which the temperature of sonoluminance bubbles are estimated to range from 10 to 100 eV or 2,042.033 degrees Fahrenheit at 19,743,336 atmospheres. However the heat created is at a sub micron size and is rapidly absorbed by the surrounding water imparting its kinetic energy. The inventors have determined that the breaking of these large arrays into smaller water molecules can be manipulated through a sinusoidal wave utilizing cavitation, and by monitoring the rise in temperature one can adjust the osmotic pressure and surface tension of the water under treatment. The inventors have determined that the ideal temperature for oxygenated micro-cluster water (Penta-hydrate™) is about 140 degrees F (about 60 °C). This can be accomplished by using four opposing vortex volutes with a 6-degree acceleration tube exiting into a common chamber at or close to atmospheric pressure, less than 5 pounds backpressure. As mentioned above, the inventors have also discovered that liquids undergo a sinusoidal fluctuation in heat/temperature under the process described herein. Depending upon the desired physical-chemical traits, the process is repeated until a desired point in the sinusoidal curve is established at which point the liquid is collected and cooled under, conditions to inhibit the formation of large molecular arrays. For example, and not by way of limitation, the inventors have discovered that water processed according to the methods described herein undergoes a sinusoidal heating process. During the production of this water a high negative charge is created and imparted to the water. Voltages of -350 mV to- 1 volt have been measured with a superimposed sinusoidal wave with a frequency of 800 cycles or higher depending on operating pressures and subsequent water velocities. The inventors have found that the third sinusoidal peak in temperature provides an optimal number of micro-cluster structures for water. Although the inventors are under no duty to provide the mechanism or theory of action, it is believed that the high negative ion production serves as a ready source of donor electrons to act as antioxidants when consumed and further act to stabilize -the water micro-clusters and help prevent reformation of the large arrays by aligning the water molecules exposed to the electrostatic field of the negative charge. While not wanting to be bound to a particular theory, it is believed that the high temperatures achieved during cavitation may form a plasma in the water which dissociates the H₂0 atoms and which then reform at a different bond association, as evidenced by the FTIR and NMR test data, to generate a different structure. It will be recognized by those skilled in the art that the water of the present invention can be further modified in any number of ways. For example, following formation of the micro-cluster water, the water may be oxygenated as described herein, further purified, flavored, distilled, irradiated, or any number of further modifications known in the art and which will become apparent depending on the final use of the water. In another embodiment, the present invention provides methods of modulating the cellular performance of a tissue or subject. The micro-cluster water (e.g., oxygenated microcluster water) can be designed as a delivery system to deliver hydration, oxygenation, nutrition, medications and increasing overall cellular performance and exchanging liquids in the cell and removing edema. Tests accomplished utilizing an RJL Systems Bio-Electrical Impedance Analyzer model BIA101 Q Body Composition Analysis System™ demonstrated substantial intracellular and extracellular hydration, changes in as little as 5 minutes. Tests were accomplished on a 58-year-old male 71.5" in height 269 lbs, obese body type. Baseline readings were taken with Bio-Electrical Impedance Analyzer™ as listed below. As described in the Examples below it is contemplated that the micro-cluster water of the present invention provides beneficial effects upon consumption by a subject. The subject can be any mammal (e.g, equine, bovine, porcine, murine, feline, canine) and is preferably human. The dosage of the micro-cluster water or oxygenated micro-cluster water (Penta- hydrate™) will depend upon many factors recognized in the art, which are commonly modified and adjusted. Such factors include, age, weight, activity, dehydration, body fat, etc. Typically 0.5 liters of the oxygenated micro-cluster water of the invention provide beneficial results. In addition, it is contemplated that the micro-cluster water of the invention may be administered in any number of ways known in the art, including, for example, orally and intravenously alone or mixed with other agents, compounds and chemicals. It is also contemplated that the water of the invention may be useful to irrigate wounds or at the site of a surgical incision. The water of the invention can have use in the treatment of infections, for example, infections by anaerobic organisms may be beneficially treated with the micro-cluster water (e.g., oxygenated microcluster water). In another embodiment, the micro-cluster water of the invention can be used to lower free radical levels and, thereby, inhibit free radical damage in cells.

In still another embodiment the micro-cluster water of the invention can be used to remove stains from fabrics, such as cotton. The following examples are meant to illustrate but no limit the present invention. Equivalents of the following examples will be recognized by those skilled in the art and are encompassed by the present disclosure.

EXAMPLE 1 How to Make Micro-Cluster Water Described below is one example of a method for making micro-cluster liquids. Those skilled in the art will recognize alternative equivalents that are encompassed by the present invention. Accordingly, the following examples is not to be construed to limit the present invention but are provided as an exemplary method for better understanding of the invention. 325 gallons of steam distilled water from Culligan Water or purified in 5 gallon bottles at a temperature about 29 degrees C. ambient temperature, was placed in a 316 stainless steel non-pressurized tank with a removable top for treatment. The tank was connected by bottom feed 2 1/4" 316 stainless steel pipe that is reduced to 1" NPT into a 20" U.S. filter housing containing a 5 micron fiber filter, the filter serves to remove any contaminants that may be in the water. Output of the 20" filter is connected to a Teel model 1 V458 316 stainless steel Gear pump driven by a 3HP 1740 RPM 3 phase electric motor by direct drive. Output of the gear pump 1" NPT was directed to a cavitation device via 1" 316 stainless steel pipe fitted with a 1" stainless steel ball valve used for isolation only and pasta pressure gauge. Output of the pump delivers a continuous pressure of 65 psig to the cavitation device. The cavitation device was composed of four small inverted pump volutes made of Teflon without impellers, housed in a 316 stainless steel pipe housing that are tangentially fed by a common water source fed by the 1 V458 Gear pump at 65 psig, through a 1/4" hole that would normally be used as the discharge of a pump, but are utilized as the input for the purpose of establishing a rotational vortex. The water entering the four volutes is directed in a circle 360 degrees and discharged through what would normally be the suction side of a pump by the means of an 1" long acceleration tube with a 3/8" discharge hole, comprising what would normally be the suction side of a pump volute but in this case is utilized as the discharge side of the device. The four reverse fed volutes establish rotational vortexes that spin the water one 360 degree rotation and then discharge the water down the 5 degree decreasing angle from center line, acceleration tubes discharging the water into a common chamber at or close to atmospheric pressure. The common chamber was connected to a 1" stainless steel discharge line that fed back into the top of the 325-gallon tank containing the distilled water. At this point the water made one treatment trip through the device.

The process listed above is repeated continuously until the energy created by the implosions and explosions of the cavitation (e.g., due to the acoustical energy) have imparted its kinetic heat into the water and the water is at about 60 degrees Celsius. Although the inventors are under no duty to explain the theory of the invention, the inventors provide the following theory in the way of explanation and are not to be bound by this theory. The inventors believe that the acoustical energy created by the cavitation brakes the static electric bonds holding a single tetrahedral Micro-Clusters of five H 0 molecules together in larger arrays, thus decreasing their size and/or create a localized plasma in the water restructuring the normal bond angles into a different structure of water.

The temperature was detected by a hand held infrared thermal detector through a stainless steel thermo well. Other methods of assessing the temperature will be recognized by those of skill in the art. Once the temperature of 60 degrees C. has been reached the pump motor is secured and the water is left to cool. An 8 foot by 8 foot insulated room fitted with a 5,000 Bru. air conditioner is used to expedite cooling, but this is not required. It is important that the processed water not be agitated for cooling it should be moved as little as possible.

A cooling temperature of 4 degrees C. can be used, however 15 degrees C. is sufficient and will vary depending upon the quantity of water being cooled. Once sufficiently cooled to about 4 to 15 degrees C the water can be oxygenated.

Once the water is cooled to desired temperature, the processed water is removed from the 325 gallon stainless steel tank into 5-gallon polycarbonate bottles for oxygenation. Oxygenation is accomplished by applying gas O₂ at a pressure of 20 psig fed through a 1/4" ID plastic line fitted with a plastic air diffuser utilized to make fine air bubbles (e.g., Lee's Catalog number 12522). The plastic tube is run through a screw on lid of the 5 gallon bottle until it reaches the bottom of the bottle. The line is fitted with the air diffuser at its discharge end. The Oxygen is applied at 20 psig flowing pressure to insure a good visual flow of oxygen bubbles. In one embodiment (Penta-hydrate™) the water is oxygenated for about five minutes and in another embodiment (Penta-hydrate Pro™) the water is oxygenated for about ten minutes.

Immediately after oxygenation the water is bottled in 500ml PET bottles, filled to overflowing and capped with a pressure seal type plastic cap with inserted seal gasket. In one embodiment, the 0.5 L bottle is over filled so when the temperature of the water increases to room temperature it will self pressurize the bottle retaining a greater concentration of dissolved oxygen at partial pressure. This step not only keeps more oxygen in a dissolved state but also for preventing excessive agitation of the water during shipping.

EXAMPLE 2 A novel water prepared by the method of the invention was characterized with respect to various parameters. A. Conductivit

Conductivity was tested using the USP 645 procedure that specifies conductivity measurements as criteria for characterizing water. In addition to defining the test protocol, USP 645 sets performance standards for the conductivity measurement system, as well as validation and calibration requirements for the meter and conductivity. Conductivity testing was performed by West Coast Analytical Service, Inc. in Santa Fe Springs, CA. Conductivity Test Results w/O? RO Water Micro-cluster Water Micro-cluster Water

Conductivity at 25°C*

(μmhos/cm) 5.55 3.16 3.88

* Conductivity values are the average of two measurements.

The conductivity observed for the micro-cluster water is reduced by slightly more than half compared to the RO water. This is highly significant and indicates that the micro- cluster water exhibits significantly different behavior and is therefore substantively different, relative to RO unprocessed water. B. Fourier Transform Infra Red Spectroscopy (FTIR)

Water, a strong absorber in the IR spectral region, has been well-characterized by FTIR and shows a major spectral line at approximately 3000 wave numbers corresponding to O- H bond vibrations. This spectral line is characteristic of the hydrogen bonding structure in the sample. An unprocessed RO water sample, Sample A, and a unoxygenated micro- cluster water sample, Sample B, were each placed between silver chloride plates, and the film of each liquid analyzed by FTIR at 25° C. The FTIR tests were performed by West Coast Analytical Service, Inc. in Santa Fe Springs, CA using a Nicolet Impact 400D™ benchtop FTIR. The FTIR spectra are shown in Figure 5. In comparing the FTIR spectra for the unoxygenated micro-cluster and RO waters, it is clear that the two samples have a number of features in common, but also significant differences. A major sharp feature at approximately 2650 wave numbers in the FTIR spectrum is observed for the micro-cluster water (Figure 5(b)). The RO water has no such feature (Figure 5(a)). This indicates that the bonds in the water sample are behaving differently and that their energetic interaction has changed. These results suggest that the unoxygenated micro-cluster water is physically and chemically different than RO unprocessed water.

C. Simulated Distillation

Simulated distillations were carried out on RO water and unoxygenated micro-cluster water without oxygenation by West Coast Analytical Service, Inc. in Santa Fe Springs,

CA.

Simulated Distillation Test Results

RO Water Unoxygenated Micro-cluster

Water Boiling Point range *

(deg. C.) . 98-100 93.2-100

* Corrected for barometric pressure.

These results show a significant lowering of the boiling temperature of the lowest boiling fraction in the unoxygenated micro-cluster water sample. The lowest boiling fraction for micro-cluster water is observed at 93.2° C. compared with a temperature of 98° C. for the lowest boiling fraction of RO water. This suggests that the process has significantly changed the compositional make-up of molecular species present in the sample. Note that lower boiling species are typically smaller, which is consistent with all observed data and the formation of micro-clusters. D. Thermogravimetric Analysis

In this test, one drop of water was placed in a dsc sample pan and sealed with a cover in which a pin-hole was precision laser-drilled. The sample was subject to a temperature ramp increase of 5 degrees every 5 minutes until the final temperature. TGA profiles were run on both unoxygenated micro-cluster water and RO water for comparison.

The TGA analysis was performed on a TA Instruments Model TFA2950™ by Analytical Products in La Canada, CA. The TGA test results are shown in Figure 6. Three test runs utilizing three different samples are shown. The RO water sample is designated, "Purified Water" on the TGA plot. The unoxygenated micro-cluster water was run in duplicate, designated Super Pro 1^st test and Super Pro 2^nd Test. The unoxygenated micro-cluster water and the unprocessed RO water showed significantly greater weight loss dynamics. It is evident that the RO water began losing mass almost immediately, beginning at about 40° C until the end temperature. The micro-cluster water did not begin to lose mass until about 70° C. This suggests that the processed water has a greater vapor pressure between 40 and 70° C. compared to unprocessed RO water. The TGA results demonstrated that the vapor pressure of the unxoygenated micro-cluster water was lower when the boiling temperature was reached. These data once again show that the unoxygenated micro-cluster water is significantly changed compared to RO water. These data once again show that the unoxygenated micro-cluster water also shows more features between the temperatures of 75 and 100 + deg. C. These features could account for the low boiling fraction(s) observed in the simulated distillation.

E. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

NMR testing was performed by Expert Chemical Analysis, Inc. in San Diego, CA utilizing a 600 MHz Bruker AM500™ instrument. NMR studies were performed on micro-cluster water with and without oxygen and on RO water. The results of these studies are shown in Figure 7. In ^1? O NMR testing a single expected peak was observed for RO water (Figure 7 (a)). For micro-cluster water without oxygen (Figure 7(b)), the single peak observed was shifted +54.1 Hertz relative to the RO water, and for the micro-cluster water with oxygen (Figure 7(c)), the single peak was shifted + 49.8 Hertz relative to the RO water. The shifts of the observed NMR peaks for the micro-cluster water and RO water. Also of significance in the NMR data is the broadening of the peak observed with the micro- cluster water sample compared to the narrower peak of the unprocessed sample. EXAMPLE 4 - RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY

Raman spectroscopy , which is highly sensitive to structural modification of liquids, was employed to characterize and differentiate micro-cluster structures and micro-clustered molecular structure liquids. This study was based on obtaining and processing spontaneous Raman spectra and allowing a registration of types of phase transition in liquid water at 4, 19, 36 and 75 degrees Celsius. The hydrogen bond network and the average per unit volume hydrogen bond concentration were determined, which led to characterization of waters produced by different methods and in particular differentiation and definition of water composition produced by the methods described above for making micro-clusters.

Figure 8 schematically illustrates the device used in these studies. The source of illumination was a Q-switched solid state Nd:YAG laser (Spectra Physics Corp., Mountain View, CA) with two harmonics output at 1064 nm and its doubled frequency to produce a wavelength of 532 nm. A second harmonic generator comprised a KTP crystal available from Kigre, Tuscon, AZ. The first harmonic was at 1064 nm with a pulse energy of 200 mJ, width of 10 ns, and repetition rate of 6Hz. The optical mirror and translucent cell were obtained from CVC Optics, Albuquerque, NM. The spectrometer was obtained from Hamamatsu (Japan), and its auto-collimation system from Newport Corporation, Costa Mesa, CA. The electro-optical converter was from Texas Instruments, Houston, TX.

The cell was filled with water as a test subject. The following water samples were studied: oxygenated micro-cluster water, unoxygenated micro-cluster water, Millipore (tm) distilled water, distilled water prepared in the laboratory, medical-grade double distilled injection water, bottled commercial reverse osmosis water, and tap water

(unprocessed).The test water was subjected to strong ultrasonic fields produced by a pulse generator and a sine wave generator and a focusing horn. A laser beam was directed into a cell. Signals scattered at 90 degrees entered the spectrometer, which contained a grating unit providing a dispersion of 2 nm mm. A Raman scattering spectrum was measured by a detector.

The results indicated the modifications in micro-cluster water of the local structure of the hydrogen-bond net in the acoustic field. In particular, the modification corresponded to a local decrease of the average distance between oxygen atoms to 2.80 angstroms, enhancing the ordering of the net structure of hydrogen-bonded water molecules to nearly that of hexagonal ice, where this distance is 2.76 angstroms.

The test samples which contained micro-cluster water were shown to have about a ten degree Celsius higher cluster temperature compared to the other water samples, which indicated that the average cluster size was smaller in the micro-cluster waters than in the other water samples. Further, the micro-cluster waters represented a more homogeneous composition of cluster sizes than the other waters, i.e. a more homogenous molecular cluster structure.

II. CULTURE MEDIA, METHODS OF MAKING AND USING

The present invention involves compositions of culture media for biological, agricultural, pharmaceutical, industrial, and medical uses. The compositions comprise micro-cluster water. Methods of making and using the culture media compositions are within the scope of the invention.

General Description and Definitions The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques within the skill of the art in (1) culturing animal cells, plant cells, and tissues thereof; microorganisms, subcellular parts, viruses, and bacteriophage; (2) perfusion of differentiated tissues and organs; (3) biochemistry; (4) molecular biology; (5) microbiology; (6) genetics; (7) chemistry. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature. See, e.g. Culture of Animal Cells: A Manual of Basic Technique, 4th edition, 2000, R. Ian Freshney, Wiley Liss Publishing; Animal Cell Culture, eds. J.W. Pollard and John M. Walker; Plant tissue Culture: Theory and Practice, 1983, Elsevier Press; Plant Cell Culture Secondary Metabolism Toward Industrial Application, Frank DiCosmo and Masanaru Misawa, CRC Press; Plant Tissue Culture Concept and Laboratory Exercises, 2nd edition, Robert N. Trigiano and Dennis Gray, 1999, CRC Press; Plant Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2nd ed., eds. Peter J. Lea and Richard C. Leegood, 1999, John Wiley and Sons; Experiments in Plant Tissue Culture, Dodds & Roberts, 3rd edition; Neural Cell Culture: A Practical Approach, vol. 163, ed. James Cohen and Graham Wilkin; Maniatis et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual; Molecular Biology of The Cell, Bruce Alberts, et.al., 4th edition, 2002, Garland Science: Microbial Biotechnology, Fundamentals of Applied Microbiology, Alexander N. Glazer and Hiroshi

Nikaido 1995, W.H. Freeman Co.; Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, eds. Daan J.A.

Crommelin and Robert D. Sindelar, 1997, Harwood Academic Publishers).. Relevant periodicals include Cell Tissue Research; Cell; Science; Nature; Journal of Immunology;

Thymus; International Journal of Cell Cloning; Blood; Hybridoma.

The following terminology will be used in accordance with the definitions set out below in describing the present invention.

The term "micro-clustered culture medium " as used herein refers to a culture medium which comprises micro-cluster water. The adjective "micro-clustered " which modifies any of the aqueous compositions including medium, media, liquid, gel, composition, constituent or ingredient refers to micro-clustered water in that composition, i.e. which is dissolved in or mixed with micro-cluster water.

As defined in the Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (Oxford University Press, 1997), the term "culture" refers to 1(a) a collection of cells, tissue fragments, or an organ that is growing or being kept alive in or on a nutrient medium (i.e. culture medium); (b) any culture medium to which such living material has been added, whether or not it is still alive. 2. the practice or process of making, growing, or maintaining such a culture. 3. to grow, maintain or produce a culture.

A "cell" is the basic structural unit of all living organisms, and comprises a small, usually microscopic, discrete mass of organelle-containing cytoplasm bounded externally by a membrane and/or cell wall. Eukaryotes are cells which contain a cell nucleus enclosed in a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotes are cells in which the genomic DNA is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane within the cells.

"Culture medium" refers to any nutrient medium that is designed to support the growth or maintenance of a culture. Culture media are typically prepared artificially and designed for a specific type of cell, tissue, or organ. They usually consist of a soft gel (often referred to as solid or semi-solid medium) or a liquid, but occasionally they are rigid solids. "Tissue culture" refers to 1. the technique or process of growing or maintaining tissue cells (cell culture), whole organs (organ culture) or parts of an organ, from an animal or plant, in artificial conditions; 2. any living material grown or maintained by such a technique.

"Tissue" refers to any collection of cells that is organized to perform one or more specific function.

"Organ" is any part of the body of a multicellular organism that is adapted and or specialized for the performance of one or more vital functions.

"Organ culture" refers to a category of tissue culture, in which an organ or part of an organ, or an organ primordium, after removal from an animal or plant, is maintained in vitro in a nutrient medium with retention of its structure and/or function.

"Organelle" is any discrete structure in a unicellular organism or in an individual cell of a multicellular organism, that is adapted and/or specialized for the performance of one or more vital functions.

"Microbial biotechnology" refers to the use of cells, prokaryotic or eukaryotic, in production of proteins, recombinant and synthetic vaccines, microbial insecticides, enzymes, polysaccharides and polyesters, ethanol, amino acids, antibiotics; in organic synthesis and degradation by microbes (and by enzymes); and to environmental applications, including sewage and wastewater microbiology; microbial degradation of xenobiotics; use of microorganisms in mineral recovery, and in removal of heavy metals from aqueous effluents. The broad scope of microbial biotechnology is, in part, disclosed in Microbial Biotechnology, Fundamentals of Applied Microbiology, Alexander N. Glazer and Hiroshi Nikaido 1995, W.H. Freeman Co.; Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, eds. Daan J.A. Crommelin and Robert D. Sindelar, 1997, Harwood Academic Publishers.

Cell Culture Media - Fundamentals

The basic ingredients (as set forth below) of cell culture media - as individual components, as premixed components, dry or formulated with water — are commercially available from any vendors (e.g. Sigma Chemical, Invitrogen, Biomark, Cambrex, Clonetics to name just a few). Methods of formulating culture media with water are well known in the art (Culture Media for Cells, Organs, and Embryos, CRC Press, 1977; Animal Cells: Culture and Media: Essential Data, John Wiley & Son, 1995; Methods for Preparation of Media, Supplements and Substrata for Serum Free Animal Cell Culture in Cell Culture Methods for Molecular and Cell Biology, Vol. 1, Wiley-Liss, 1984). The media compositions of the invention comprise micro-cluster water. For the sake of listing the various ways of cell culturing Methods of cell culturing and types of cell media are well known in the art, and are briefly set forth below.

Types of cell cultures:

Primary cultures are taken directly from excised, normal animal tissue. These tissues are cultured either as an explant culture or cultured after dissociation into a single cell suspension by enzyme digestion. At first heterogeneous, these cultures are later dominated by fibroblasts. Generally, primary cultures are maintained in vitro for limited periods, during which primary cells usually retain many of the differentiated characteristics of the cells seen in vivo.

Continuous Cultures are comprised of a single cell type. These cells may be serially propagated in culture either for a limited number of cell divisions (approximately fifty) or otherwise indefinitely. Some degree of differentiation is maintained. Cell banks must be set up to maintain these cultures over long periods.

Culture Morphology

Cell cultures either growing in suspension (as single cells or small free-floating clumps) or as a monolayer attached to the tissue culture flask. Sometimes cell cultures may grow as semi-adherent cells in which there is a mixed population of attached and suspension cells.

Types of Culture Media

In general, cultured cells require a sterile environment, a supply of nutrients for growth, and a stable culture environment, e.g. pH and temperature. Various defined basal media types have been developed and are now available commercially. These have since been modified and enriched with amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids and lipids. Consequently media suitable for supporting the growth of a wide range of cell types are now available. The precise media formulations have often been derived by optimizing the concentrations of every constituent.

Vendors of culture media distribute via catalogs or the vendors' web sites to those skilled in the art literature for making and using culture media. For example, the Sigma- Aldrich company's web site discloses a book entitled Fundamental Techniques in Cell Culture, A Laboratory Handbook Online (Sigma- Aldrich Company), examples of different media and their uses are given in the table below. One of skill in the art would substitutes micro- clustered water for all or part of the non-micro-clustered water in the culture media recited below. Table 1. Different types of culture medium and their uses

Balanced salt solutions PBS, Hanks BSS, Earles salts

DPBS (Prod. No. D8537 / D8662)

HBSS (Prod. No. H9269 / H9394)

EBSS (Prod. No. E2888) Form the basis of many complex media Basal media MEM (Prod. No. M2279) Primary and diploid cultures.

DMEM (Prod. No. D5671) Modification of MEM containing increased level of amino acids and vitamins. Supports a wide range of cell types including hybridomas.

GMEM (Prod. No. G5154) Glasgows modified MEM was defined for BHK-21 cells

Complex media RPMI 1640 (Prod. No. R0883) Originally derived for human leukaemic cells. It supports a wide range of mammalian cells including hybridomas

Iscoves DMEM

(Prod. No. 13390) Further enriched modification of DMEM which supports high density growth Leibovitz L-15

(Prod. No. L5520, liquid) Designed for CO2 free environments

TC 100 (Prod. No. T3160)

Grace's Insect Medium

(Prod. No. G8142) Schneider's Insect Medium (Prod. No. S0146) Designed for culturing insect cells

Serum Free Media CHO (Prod. No. C5467)

HEK293 (Prod. No. G0791) For use in serum free applications.

Ham F10 and derivatives Ham F12 (Prod. No. N4888)

DMEM/F12 (Prod. No. D8062) NOTE: These media must be supplemented with other factors such as insulin, transferrin and epidermal growth factor. These media are usually

HEPES buffered Insect cells Sf-900 II SFM, SF Insect-Medium-2 (Prod. No. S3902) Specifically designed for use with Sf9 insect cells

Basic Ingredients of Media

Solutions of basic ingredients of media which comprise micro-clustered water are included in the compositions of the invention.

Inorganic salts

Carbohydrates

Amino Acids

Vitamins Fatty acids and lipids

Proteins and peptides

Serum

Each type of constituent performs a specific function as outlined below: Inorganic salts help to retain the osmotic balance of the cells and help regulate membrane potential by provision of sodium, potassium and calcium ions. All of these are required in the cell matrix for cell attachment and as enzyme cofactors.

Buffering Systems. Most cells require pH conditions in the range 7.2 - 7.4 and close control of pH is essential for optimum culture conditions. There are major variations to this optimum. Fibroblasts prefer a higher pH (7.4 - 7.7) whereas, continuous transformed cell lines require more acid conditions pH (7.0 - 7.4). Regulation of pH is particularly important immediately following cell seeding when a new culture is establishing and is usually achieved by one of two buffering systems; (i) a "natural" buffering system where gaseous CO2 balances with the CO3 / HCO3 content of the culture medium and (ii) chemical buffering using a zwitterion called HEPES (Prod. No. H4034).

Cultures using natural bicarbonate/CO2 buffering systems need to be maintained in an atmosphere of 5-10% CO2 in air usually supplied in a CO2 incubator. Bicarbonate/CO2 is low cost, non-toxic and also provides other chemical benefits to the cells. HEPES (Prod. No. H4034) has superior buffering capacity in the pH range 7.2 - 7.4 but is relatively expensive and can be toxic to some cell types at higher concentrations. HEPES

(Prod. No. H4034) buffered cultures do not require a controlled gaseous atmosphere.

Most commercial culture media include phenol red (Prod. No. P3532 / P0290) as a pH indicator so that the pH status of the medium is constantly indicated by the color. Usually the culture medium should be changed / replenished if the color turns yellow (acid) or purple (alkali).

Carbohydrates. The main source of energy is derived from carbohydrates generally in the form of sugars. The major sugars used are glucose and galactose however some media contain maltose or fructose. The concentration of sugar varies from basal media containing lg/1 to 4.5g/l in some more complex media. Media containing the higher concentration of sugars are able to support the growth of a wider range of cell types.

Vitamins. Serum is an important source of vitamins in cell culture. However, many media are also enriched with vitamins making them consistently more suitable for a wider range of cell lines. Vitamins are precursors for numerous co-factors. Many vitamins especially B group vitamins are necessary for cell growth and proliferation and for some lines the presence of B 12 is essential. Some media also have increased levels of vitamins A and E. The vitamins commonly used in media include riboflavin, thiamine and biotin.

Proteins and Peptides. These are particularly important in serum free media. The most common proteins and peptides include albumin, transferrin, fibronectm and fetuin and are used to replace those normally present through the addition of serum to the medium.

Fatty Acids and Lipids. Like proteins and peptides these are important in serum free media since they are normally present in serum, e.g. cholesterol and steroids essential for specialized cells.

Trace Elements. These include trace elements such as zinc, copper, selenium and tricarboxylic acid intermediates. Selenium is a detoxifier and helps remove oxygen free radicals.

It is time consuming to make media from the basic ingredients, and there is a risk of contamination in the process. Conveniently, most media are available as ready mixed powders or as 1 Ox and lx liquid media. The commonly used media are listed in the catalogs of media vendors (e.g. Sigma- Aldrich Life Science Catalogue). If one skilled in the art purchases media ingredients as powder or lOx media, it is essential that the water used to reconstitute the powder or dilute the concentrated liquid is free from mineral, organic and microbial contaminants. It must also be pyrogen free (Prod. No.

W3500, water, tissue culture grade, Sigma- Aldrich). In most cases water prepared by reverse osmosis and resin cartridge purification with a final resistance of 16- 18Mx is suitable. Once prepared the media should be filter sterilized before use. Obviously purchasing lx liquid media direct from a vendor eliminates the need for this. In all instances, media of the invention involve micro-clustered water, preferably tissue culture grade, as a constituent. Vendors of media (e.g. Sigma- Aldrich, Invitrogen, Clonetics) and vendors of cells and cell cultures commonly purvey one or more of their products (media, media ingredients, and cells) in the form of kits which have containers for the products.

The invention includes kits which comprise micro-clustered in its own container or as an ingredient of another container in the kit.

Serum. Serum is a complex mix of albumins, growth factors and growth inhibitors and is probably one of the most important components of cell culture medium. The most commonly used serum is fetal bovine serum. Other types of serum are available including newborn calf serum and horse serum. The quality, type and concentration of serum can all affect the growth of cells and it is therefore important to screen batches of serum for their ability to support the growth of cells. Serum is also able to increase the buffering capacity of cultures that can be important for slow growing cells or where the seeding density is low (e.g. cell cloning experiments).

The culture media of the invention, which comprise micro-clustered water, and methods of making and using them are arbitrarily classified for purposes of this application into use for the following categories of biological entities. It is understood that this classification does not preclude the compositions or their methods of use from application in more than one category.

ANIMAL CELL. PER SE (E.G.. CELL LINES. ETC.) Compositions of the invention include:

1. A composition comprising micro-clustered culture medium, in particular medium formulated for use with animal cells. 2. A composition comprising micro-clustered culture medium formulated for use with animal cells, and animal cells.

3. Compositions comprising animal cells made from using micro-clustered animal cell culture media in methods enumerated below.

The culture media of the invention formulated for use with animal cells are used for:

1. Propagating, maintaining or preserving an animal cell or composition thereof.

2. Isolating or separating an animal cell or composition thereof.

3. Preparing a composition containing an animal cell. Also covered by the invention are processes for preparing micro-clustered animal cell culture media, and for preparing compositions which comprise micro-clustered animal cell culture medium and animal cells. Vaccines are examples of products derived from such animal cell cultures.

Stem Cells

The compositions and methods of the invention are adapted for use with stem cells. Embryonal stem cells and lineage- or tissue-specific stem cells are important models in biomedical studies, but the availability and accessibility of research materials in this rapidly advancing field often become limiting. The compounds and methods of the invention are intended for expanding, preserving embryonic stem cells, as well as postnatally derived stem cells from a variety of strains and species. (National Center for Research Resources; American Type Culture Collection, Manasas, VA). Stem cells are also retrieved from bone marrow, subcutaneous fat, and the reticular dermis bulge area. Products available from the National Stem Cell Resource include: (a) nonhuman embryonic stem cells, and lineage- or tissue-specific neonatally derived stem cells from a variety of species; these are available as either frozen vials, shipped on dry ice; (b)selected reagents related to stem cell characterization and utilization are available; these include antibodies, nucleic acid probes, cDNAs, genomic libraries and plasmid vectors for targeted mutagenesis or other stem cell-related purposes; (c) standardized media, as they are developed. Reagents identifying common traits among stem cell strains and species also will be available as they are identified or developed. These include reagents for RT- PCR and immunologically based assays. The present invention includes use of micro- clustered media and reagents for use with stem cells, including stem cell retrieval. Microorganisms Microorganisms include actinomycetales, unicellular algae, bacteria, fungi (yeast and molds), and protozoa.

Compositions of the invention include

1. Culture media comprising micro-cluster water for use with microorganisms. 2. Culture media comprising micro-cluster water and microorganisms.

The culture media of the invention involved with microorganisms are used for: 1. Propagating, maintaining or preserving microorganisms, or compositions of microorganisms. 2. Preparing or isolating a composition containing a microorganism, which processes involve the use of micro-cluster water or culture media comprising micro-cluster water. 3. Isolating microorganisms.

Also covered by the invention are processes for preparing culture media comprising micro-cluster water, and for preparing compositions which comprises culture media and microorganisms.

VECTOR, PER SE (E.G., PLASMID, HYBRID PLASMID, COSMID, VIRAL VECTOR, BACTERIOPHAGE VECTOR. ETC.)

These biological entities include self-replicating nucleic acid molecules which may be employed to introduce a nucleic acid sequence or gene into a cell; such nucleic acid molecules are designated as vectors and may be in the form of a plasmid, hybrid plasmid, cosmid, viral vector, bacteriophage vector, etc.

Vectors or vehicles may be used in the transformation or transfection of a cell. Transformation is the acquisition of new genetic material by incorporation of exogenous DNA. Transfection is the transfer of genetic information to a cell using isolated DNA or RNA. A plasmid is an autonomously replicating circular extrachromosomal DNA element. A hybrid plasmid is a plasmid which has been broken open, has had DNA from another organism spliced into it, and has been reεealed. A cosmid is a plasmid into which phage lambda "cos" sites have been inserted. A viral vector (e.g., SV40, etc.) is a plant or animal virus which is specifically used to introduce exogenous DNA into host cells. A bacteriophage vector (e.g., phage lambda, etc.) is a bacterial virus which is specifically used to introduce exogenous DNA into host cells. VIRUS OR BACTERIOPHAGE These biological entities include a virus or bacteriophage which is a microorganism that (a) consists of a protein shell around a nucleic acid core of either ribonucleic acid or deoxyribonucleic acid, and (b) is capable of independently entering a host microorganism, and (c) requires a host microorganism, having both ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid to replicate.

Compositions of the invention include

1. A composition of micro-clustered medium formulated for use with virus or bacteriophage.

2. A composition of micro-clustered medium formulated for use with virus or bacteriophage, which composition comprises virus or bacteriophage.

The culture media of the invention involved with virus or bacteriophage are used for:

1. Preparing or propagating virus or bacteriophage.

2. Purifying virus or bacteriophage. 3. Producing viral subunits.

Propagation is limited to processes concerned with the multiplication of viruses and not with processes concerned with the artificial alteration of genetic material involving changes in the genotype of the virus. Such processes of artificial alteration of genetic material are intended for processes of mutation, cell fusion, or genetic modification, and include (1) producing a mutation in an animal cell, plant cell or microorganism, (2) fusing animal, plant, or microbial cells, (3) producing a stable and heritable change in the genotype of an animal cell, plant cell, or a microorganism by artificially inducing a structural change in a gene or by incorporation of genetic material from an outside source, or (4) producing a transient change in the genotype of an animal cell, plant cell, or microorganism by the incorporation of genetic material from an outside source.

A mutation is a change produced in cellular DNA which can be either spontaneous, caused by an environmental factor or errors in DNA replication, or induced by physical or chemical conditions. The processes of mutation included are processes directed to production of either directed or essentially random changes to the DNA of an animal cell, plant cell, or a microorganism without incorporation of exogenous DNA. It should be noted that in the art that incorporation of exogenous genetic material into a cell or microorganism or rearrangement of genetic material within a cell or microorganism is not necessarily considered a mutation.

In vitro mutagenesis, which is a method where cloned DNA is modified outside of the cell or microorganism and then incorporated into a cell or microorganism is not considered to be a mutation. Genetic material from an outside source may include chemically synthesized or modified genes. Transient changes effected by incorporation of genetic material from an outside source involve expression of one or more phenotypic traits encoded by said genetic material. A transient change is one which is passing or of short duration. Methods producing nongenetically encoded changes effected by a nucleic acid molecule, such as antisense nucleic acid are not considered mutations.

These compositions and processes involve use with viruses of all types, i.e., animal, plant, etc.

PLANT CELL OR CELL LINE. PER SE (E.G.. TRANSGENIC. MUTANT. ETC.)

These biological entities include plant cells or cell lines, per se which may be transgenic, mutant, or products of other processes for obtaining plant cells.

The compositions of the invention include: 1. A composition comprising micro-clustered water and medium formulated for plant cells or cell lines.

2. A composition comprising micro-clustered water and medium formulated for plant cells or cell lines and plant cells. The culture media of the invention involved with plant cells or cell lines are used for:

1. In- vitro propagating

2. Maintaining or preserving plant cells or cell lines.

3. Isolating or separating plant cells.

4. Regenerating plant cells into tissues, plant parts, or plants, per se, with or without genotypic change occurring. (Total Lab Systems, Ltd., New Zealand; e.g. Commercial Propagation of Orchids in Tissue Culture: Seed Flasking Methods. Orchid Manual Basics, Kay S. Greisen, 2000, American Orchid Society; Plant Tissue Culture Protocols as disclosed in Sigma-Aldrich Co. web site and catalogs)

Subcellular Parts

It is understood that the compositions of the invention include media formulated for subcellular parts of microorganisms, animal cells and plants, such as organelles, i.e. mitochondria, microsomes, chloroplasts, etc.. These media are used for isolating or treating subcellular parts. Methods of making these media are included in the invention.

Media for Use With Differentiated Tissues or Organs

The invention includes micro-clustered media adapted for use with differentiated tissues or organs, including blood. These media are used for the maintenance of a differentiated tissue or organ, i.e. maintained in a viable state in a nutrient or life sustaining media.

Maintenance includes keeping an organ under conditions in which it produces a product (e.g., hormone) which is later recovered, or exhibits an activity (e.g. synthesis of a hormone).

Accordingly, the invention includes perfusion media formulated with micro-clustered water, which are used in processes for the maintenance of differentiated tissue or organs by continuously perfusing with a fluid, or compositions of the invention. U.S. Patents 4,879,283; 4,873,230; and 4,798,824 (herein incorporated by reference) disclose solutions for perfusing and maintaining organs. D'Alessandro AM, Kalayoglu M, Sollinger HW, Pirsch JD, Southard JH, Belzer FO. Current status of organ preservation with University of Wisconsin solution. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1991;115(3):306-310; Viaspan (r), an organ perfusion and maintenance solution, manufactured by Barr Laboratories, Inc. and used for transplantation and viability preservation of organs and tissues.

Compositions of the invention include those formulated for freezing of differentiated tissues or organs, and used in processes for maintaining differentiated tissues or organs by freezing.

Compositions of the invention include those formulated for maintaining blood or sperm in a physiologically active state, and those formulated for methods of in vitro blood cell separation or treatment. Also included are compositions for artificial insemination.

It is understood that micro-clustered compositions of the invention include physiological solutions or aqueous media which may not contain nutrient ingredients yet still formulated having pH, buffer capacity, osmolarity, conductance, sterility and which otherwise are used alone or in combination with other physiological solutions to maintain living cells, tissues, organs, and organisms. Examples of physiological solutions include, but are not limited to, Ringer's solutions, saline solutions, buffer solutions. These solutions are commonly known and used in handling biological materials, and are apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art.

Stimulation of growth or activity using micro-clustered medium

Effects of Micro-cluster Water on Cellular Viability

A study was performed to determine the influence of micro-cluster water on cell viability as measured by cell membrane integrity.

A population of macrophages was subjected to growth medium which was formulated with micro-cluster water, and growth medium formulated with double distillated water (DDW).

Macrophages were obtained by mice. 2 ml of Hanks solution (10 mM HEPES, pH 7.2) was injected into the peritoneum of sacrificed mice. The solution, containing macrophages, was collected. The cell concentration was adjusted to 10⁶ cells/ml with Hanks balanced salt solution. Generally, 20 microliter aliquots of the cell suspension were placed on glass cover slips, incubated for 45 minutes in a wet chamber, and then washed with Hanks solution to remove the cells attached to the glass surface.

The integrity of the cell membranes was determined by double staining the cells with ethidium bromide (EthBr, Sigma) and fluoresceindiacetate (FDA, Sigma). A staining solution was used which contained 5 micrograms/ml of EthBr and 5 micrograms/ml of FDA. Cells with damaged cell membranes were counted. The method is based on the ability of EthBr to enter cells which have damaged membranes. The EthBr binds to DNA. EthBr has a bright red fluorescence when bound to DNA. FDA easily penetrates cells from the medium and is structurally transformed to fluorescein which has bright green fluorescence. Accordingly, cells with intact plasma membranes accumulate fluorescein, whereas cells with damaged cell membranes allows fluorescein to easily leave the cells. As a result of this double staining, after five minutes, one observed cells with intact plasma membranes which had green fluorescence. Cells which had damaged plasma membranes had red fluorescence.

In a first series of experiments, macrophages were incubated for 15 minutes in media containing EthBr and FDA. They were then thoroughly washed to remove free dyes in the extracellular media. Growth media was then replaced with 199 medium (199 Powder medium - Russia, Paneko) prepared with either DDW or with micro-cluster water. Dead cells were then counted.

In a second series of experiments, cells were incubated for 230 minutes in either 199 cell medium prepared with DDW or micro-cluster water. Cells were then appropriately stained to determine how many cells had died.

Figure 9 is an assessment of the number of macrophages with damaged plasma membranes after incubation in 199 cell medium prepared on DDW or on micro-cluster water. The data is presented as percentage of cells with damaged plasma membranes - P% - after 15 minutes and 240 minutes of incubation in different 199 cell media. The results indicate that the amount of cells with damaged cell membranes was 2.6 times greater in cell medium prepared with double distilled water compared to medium prepared with micro-cluster water. Accordingly, it appeared that cell culture medium formulated with micro-cluster water prolonged or increased the life of cells compared with the effects of cell culture medium formulated with DDW. Alternatively, it appeared that cell culture medium prepared with micro-cluster water inhibited damage to cell plasma membranes compared to cell culture medium prepared with DDW.

Effects of Micro-cluster Water on Intracellular pH

A study was performed to determine the influence of micro-cluster water on intracellular pH. Mouse macrophages were obtained as described above. Intracellular pH of these cells was determined after 15 minutes and after 240 minutes of incubation in 199 medium prepared either with DDW or micro-cluster water.

Macrophage intracellular pH was measured based on a microspectrophotometric method using a fluorescent microscope (LUMAM 13, LOMO, Russia), which as a modified system of fluorescence excitation and emission.

Fluorescence excitation was performed using a blue (lambda max=435 nm photodiode. Fluorescence was measured simultaneously at two different wavelengths by a two-channel system, which has lambdal=520 mn, lambda2=567 nm interference filters respectively.

Fluorescence excitation and synchronous emission measurement was achieved with a built-in microcontroller (LA-70M4).

Macrophages were incubated with fluorescent FDA (5 micrograms/ml) , which is a pH indicator, for 15 minutes. After incubation with the dye, the cells were washed free from dye in the surrounding medium. The cells were then placed in the medium in a small petri dish, and observed using a water immersion objective (x40). A pH calibration curve was established for a range of ionic conditions.

Cells, which had been incubated with FDA dye for 15 minutes and washed free from dye in the surrounding medium, were then placed in either 199 medium prepared with DDW or with micro-cluster water. Kinetic measurements of intracellular pH were made with no less than 30 microscopic observations, and repeated three times. Cells were incubated for as long as 230 minutes. Figure 10 illustrates the kinetics of intracellular pH change (delta pHi) in macrophages after replacement of incubation medium with 199 medium prepared either with DDW or with micro-cluster water. The x-axis is time in seconds after change of cell medium. The y-axis is changes in intracellular pH - delta pHi. It can be seen that the intracelluar pH in a standard incubation medium 199-DDW and in 199-micro-cluster water were both about pH 7.15. After 15 minutes of incubation in 199-micro-cluster water, the pH increased by 0.16 unites. No significant change was observed in macrophages incubating in 199-DDW during the same 15 minutes. After 230 minutes, a 0.43 increase was observed in the intracellular pH of the cells incubating on 199-micro- cluster water. There was a negligible increase in intracellular pH of the cells incubating on 199-DDW. It is concluded that contacting cells with culture medium prepared with micro-cluster water instead of "normal" water increased the intracellular pH of the cells.

A separate series of experiments using pig embryo kidney cells cultured with 199 mediums and with 10% bovine serum demonstrated increases in intracellular pH and robust cell viability when the growth mediums were prepared with micro-clustered water compared to growth mediums prepared with normal water.

Effects of micro-cluster water on growth and transfection of two types of human cells A series of experiments was performed to determine the effects of micro-cluster water on the growth of cells and on the transfection of cells in medium prepared with micro-cluster water.

The effects were studied using human epithelial cells (293T) and human dendritic cells. DMEM medium (Life Technologies, Gaithersburg, MD) was prepared from a lOx concentrate by dilution in micro-cluster water obtained from AquaPhotonics, Inc., San Diego, CA). The cells were supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum (FCS).

In a parallel experiment, the cells were cultured with standard DMEM medium, i.e. medium prepared without micro-clustered water.

At days 0, 3, 6, and 9 the cells were stained with 0.4% trypan blue (Life Technologies) to determine the viability of the culture.

On day 1 of culturing, the 293T cells were subjected to transfection with an HIV molecular clone (which encodes GFP) by a calcium phosphate precipitation method (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). As a control, 293T cells cultured in standard DMEM medium were transfected with the same HIV molecular clone. The following day, supematants were harvested from both HIV transfected cultures and assayed for HIV Gag p24 content by ELISA. To find optimal dilution in the range of sensitivity of the method, supematants were titrated by a factor of 10.

The harvested viruses were then used to infect primary cultures of dendritic cells (DC). Two cultures of DC were maintained in the medium prepared from concentrated DMEM and diluted by a factor of 10, one culture (experimental) in DMEM diluted with micro- cluster water, the other culture (control) diluted with normal water. Infection was monitored at the single-cell level by scoring the GFP-positive DC at fifth day after HIV exposure.

Results: A. Viability tests, as shown in Figure 11 , demonstrated that the micro-cluster water used as a solvent for medium preparation, improved 293 T cell viability by 70% at the 9th day of culture over the cells cultured in medium prepared with normal water.

B. Replication of HIV in transfected 293 T cell-cultures three-fold higher in the experimental cultures compared with the control cultures when supematants from the respective cultures were titrated at the point of 3 log (Figure 12a).

C. Culturing of DC in a DMEM medium prepared with micro-cluster water and exposure of DC to HIV harvested from 293 T cells cultured in DMEM prepared with micro-cluster water greatly enhanced the "permissivity" (Figure 12b) of DC to HIV (35% DC were infected in the experimental culture compared with 3.7% in the control.) These experiments demonstrated in a transformed cell-line, in a virus, and in primary cells, biological effects on these biological entities when micro-clustered water replaced normal water in the culture medium. There was 2-3 fold enhancement of the cells' viability; and an augmentation of either or both HIV replication and replication rate in vitro in the cell line and in the primary cell culture. Effects Of Micro-Cluster Water On The Expression Profiles Of Characteristic Dendritic

Cell Markers

This study's objective was to monitor difference between the expression profiles of characteristic DC markers in media prepared with de-ionized water and media prepared with micro-clustered water.

Experimental design and results. DC were cultured in media prepared from 10X- concentrate MEM (Life-Technologies, Gaitersburg, MD) diluted to a final concentration either by de-ionized water or micro-clustered water. Both media were supplemented with cytokines IL-4 and GM-CSF (20 ng/ml). DC were generated according to standard protocols (Sallusto et al., 1994), phenotyped on day 6 of differentiation and cultured. On days 30 and 69, respectively, phenotyping was repeated with the same monoclonal antibodies. The level of surface-marker expression was assessed by flow cytometry using FACscan reader (Bekton-Dickenson, CA).

Description of cell surface markers:

1. DC-SIGN - M.W. ~ 44K, cell-specific ICAM-3 receptor

Paper was attached about a function of DC-SIGN in dendritic cells.

2. CD4 - main HIV gpl20 receptor, MW ~55K. CD4 is an anchor place for HIV envelope proteins

3. CDla- is an analog of MHC complex in professional antigen-presenting cells, which is responsible for presentation and processing of lipid antigens (non canonical antigen- presentation system).

4. CD80 - co-stimulatory molecule which provides signal 2 from antigen presenting cell (such as DC) for induction of T-cell proliferation.

5. CD83- maturation marker of dendritic cells (DC)

6. CXCR4 and CCR5 - inflammatory chemokine receptors

7. MHC-II - Major Histo-Compatibility complex type II. Presents epitopes of exogeneous processed proteins.

As shown in Figure 12, during long-term culturing in medium prepared with micro- clustered water as a solvent, it was observed that a substantial change occurred in the pattern of expression of the CD83 marker. CD83 is a main indicator of DC maturation. DCs that express a low level of CD83 on day 60 and show typical morphology (grown in suspension) are immature and functionally ready to take up foreign antigens. Typically,

DCs exhibit such a phenotype in vitro (in standard medium) during first two weeks of differentiation. Further culturing in standard medium leads to a spontaneous maturation and cell-death mediated, most likely, through apoptosis. In a pilot phenotyping experiment it was detected that micro-clustered water (i) preserved immature DC phenotype and (ii) mediated DC surviving longer than 2.5 months. Phenotype preservation was shown by analysis of expression of other markers (most important are DC-SIGN and MHC II) on the surface of DC cells. This analysis indicates that micro- clustered medium provides a satisfactory maintenance of functions typical to immature DC as seen by similarity of markers expression between DC in standard and micro- clustered media. The survival of DCs for more than 2.5 months was never observed before with standard medium formulation. Preliminary results demonstrated that micro- clustered water exhibited a biological activity reflected in modulation of DC cell surface markers. Summary

1. Micro-clustered water was fully applicable as a solvent for fine tissue culture experiments.

2. Contacting the cells with micro-clustered water altered the cells' biological activity, which was reflected in modulation of CD83 marker and elongation of a lifetime span of DCs in vitro.

In Figure 13, the horizontal axis reflects the type of different receptors on the cell surface. The vertical axis represents responses (per cent of fluorescent intensity of labeled monoclonal antibodies bound to a specific receptors). Cells were stained with the respective monoclonal antibodies and signal was compared to the isotype control (per cent ofISO ~ l.l%).

In Figure 13, the gray columns represent measurements after 6 days in control medium. The black columns after 30 days in control medium. The white columns after 60 days in micro-clustered medium. Data were not obtained for normal water in a day 60 since the cell culture underwent apoptosis at early date. Contrary to almost complete die-off of the cell in a standard medium, a surprisingly large number of cells in micro-structured medium showed a morphology of immature DC and a corresponding pattern of cell surface markers at day 60. Cell life survivability appeared to be enhanced by micro- clustered medium.

Effect Of Micro-Clustered Water On The Functional State Of Brain Tissue Perfused In Artificial Cerebrospinal Fluid Prepared With Double Distilled And Micro-Clustered Waters.

The purpose of the study was to measure the effect of various types of waters on the functional state of brain tissue. Recording of an induced electrical signal from the brain sections in perfused fluid due to activity of hippocampus nervous cells was used as the testing method. According to the literature, the technology of making rat brain sections with a hippocampus of 300-450 μm in perfusion with artificial cerebrospinal fluid allows the brain tissue to keep its functional status for about 6-8 hours.

The method employed involved testing of the functional status of brain tissue by recording electrical neuron responses to the applied pulses of electric current. Neuronal reaction is very sensitive to the characteristics of perfusion medium. Stimulation of the axon group reflects the change in membrane potential of postsynaptic cells, which are located in a region of the measuring electrode. The amplitude of the signal depends on the efficacy of the synaptic connections between stimulating axons and postsynaptic neurons and it also depends on the excitability of the postsynaptic neurons themselves. Declining functional activity of brain tissue is a result of a reduction in the neurons which are responding to the applied pulses of electric current. This is directly correlated with a decrease in summary amplitude.

The main advantages of the method involved easy access to the extracellular space of brain tissue in the specimen which made it possible to use chemical substances of required concentration directly. Furthermoe, there was an absence of interference due to respiration, heart beating, and animal movement, which make prolonged measurements difficult; experimental condition were easy to control in the absence of anesthesia, humoral, and hormonal influences. Also, it was relatively simple to use the tested tissue for biochemical and morphological analysis quickly after the electrophysiological part was completed. Requirements for the survivability of brain tissue sections. To maintain viability of isolated brain sections, artificial fluids are used which are similar in salt composition to the intercellular medium of the brain. However, the composition of cerebrospinal fluid may vary depending on the specific task.

Glucose was used as an energetic substrate in fluid. The pH of the fluid was controlled with a bicarbonate buffer. Osmotic pressure was in the range of 294-3 llmosm/1. The solution was also oxygenated by carbogen gas (mixture consisting of 95% oxygen and 5%

CO2). Temperature was maintained in the range of 22-33 Celsius. Since the sections were without normal capillary blood flow, the exchange of substances was sustained due to the diffusion of oxygen, substrates, and metabolites between the incubation medium and the whole tissue section. Therefore, the thickness of the section had to be small enough to allow complete diffusion through the specimen. According to the empirical formula used in calculating the section thickness, the maximum value is approximately 600 microns and this depends on the intensity of the oxidation process. During isolation, section cells in the surface layers with a size of 100 microns are damaged. Pyramidal cells are approximately the same size, so the section depth should be at least 300 microns

Experiments were conducted on brain tissue sections of Wistar rats, 1 month of age. Anesthesia was performed using ether. Rat brain was isolated and placed into cold artificial cerebrospinal (AC) fluid prepared with double distilled water. AC fluid composition: (mM): NaCl-130, KC1-3.5, NaH2*PO4-1.2, MgC12 - 1.3, CaC12-2.0, NaHCO3-25.0, and glucose. A Carbogen gas mixture was continuously pumped through the solution. Hippocampus sections of 400 microns were obtained using a vibratome.

The sections were then placed into an incubation chamber, which contained AC fluid, and maintained at 22-25 Celsius. After 1 hour in the incubation chamber, the sections were transferred separately to the testing chamber, with AC fluid flowing through it at the rate of 3-5 ml/rnin. Stimulating electrical pulses (100 msec, 100-400 mA) were been delivered through bipolar wolfram electrodes (200 mm), which were located on the Shaffer's collators (nerve fibers, ending exciting synapses in the CA1 region of hippocampus). Induced potentials, which are an electrical response to the stimulation of assembly/totality, were recorded in the CA1 region of hippocampus by using a glass microelectrode filled with AC fluid (resistance 0.5- 1.0 mW). Two series of experiments were performed. Standard AC fluid (A) was used as the initial 100% level of signal in both series. In the first series of experiments, AC fluid was replaced with the solution having the same salt composition and double distilled water - (solution B). In the second series of experiments, micro-clustered water replaced double distilled water in solution B (solution C).

The perfusion system utilized made it possible to continuously switch the supply of the solutions into the testing chamber. The complete substitution of one solution by another in the chamber with a volume of 2 ml occurred during 1 minute. The amplitude of induced response was the comparative characteristic. To measure the induced negative monophase response, which is 30-40% of the maximum amplitude for the parameters of power, duration and location of stimulation were selected. Testing was produced with a series of 10 single pulses with intervals of 10 msec. A series of pulses were applied at intervals of 2 to 10 minutes. The recorded signal was digitized by an analog-digital converter and was saved for the following analysis. Final data processing was completed using Excel and Origin software. Statistical analysis was performed using paired t-tests. The value of P<0.05 was accepted as being statistically significant..

Results. Shaffer's collators were stimulated in the CA1 region and the induced response was recorded after 0.5-4 msec and from 4-6 msec.

Figure 14 shows the dependence of focal potential measured from the rat hippocampus on the type of perfusing fluid. The horizontal axis represents the time after the beginning of the experiment. The vertical axis is the amplitude of electric signal (% relative to signal measured in standard AC fluid). Brain sections were placed in flowing standard AC fluid (A), fluid prepared with distilled (B), or micro-clustered water (C). Arrow indicates replacement of standard AC fluid with the test medium prepared with micro-clustered water. Results are averaged for 14 sections from seven rats.

In the first series of experiments the dynamics of induced response amplitude was recorded after replacing standard AC solution with the solution prepared with double distilled water. Immediately after changing the solution, an increase in the induced response amplitude was observed with a maximum at 5 min 128.2% (Fig.14). A steady decrease in the amplitude was observed, to the point at which after one hour the amplitude decreased to only 31.7% of the initial value.

In the second series of experiments, micro-clustered water was used instead of double distilled water. Immediately after replacing the standard solution with the solution prepared with micro-clustered water, the amplitude of induced response sharply increased, with a maximum of 135.2% reached after 1-3 minutes. Afterwards, the amplitude decreased slightly and after 1 hour it was down to 102%; 2 hours down to 94.8%.

Thus, the results obtained show that replacement of standard AC solution with the solution prepared with micro-clustered water, within experimental error, did not affect the initial amplitude of induced response for 2 hours. Replacement of the standard AC solution with the solution prepared with double distilled water resulted in a decrease to 31.7% (P<0.005) amplitude after 1 hour.

The study was stopped after 2 hours on the micro-clustered solution, as the test unit was out of solution. How long the rat brain tissue would have continued to be viable should be the subject of future studies. At the time the study was stopped the tissues in micro- clustered water still had an average amplitude of 94.8%.

Accordingly, a method of the invention includes stimulating or modulating the growth or activity of cells by contacting the cells for a sufficient period of time with either micro- clustered water or the micro-clustered media compositions of the invention. This method finds utility in using micro-clustered media to enhance the synthesis of compounds or products derived from culture of either animal cells, plant cells, or microorganisms, or from culture of organelles. Typically, the synthesis of compounds or products by these methods involves the preparation of a composition or compound which did not exist in the starting material.

The above examples illustrate that the compositions of the invention are useful in methods of regulating cell metabolism or physiology. Examples of such activities include but are not limited to altering or regulating the differentiation state of said cells, ability of cells to metabolize nutrient materials, cell cycle synchronization or lack thereof, resistance or sensitivity to particular compounds, alteration of intracellular pH. Other methods of using the compositions of the invention find use in mere culturing of cells in a medium, which promotes normal cell growth and division.

Bioprocess Technology; Industrial Product Formation Through Microbial Processes

The micro-cluster water and micro-clustered compositions of the invention are generally useful in bioprocess technology in small, medium and large scale processes, and in methods of production and product recovery or isolation, inoculum and medium preparation, cultivation and downstream processing.

Industrial/pharmaceutical microbiology/biotechnology rely on aqueous compositions, methods of preparing and using them, and the resultant products in the form of small-, medium-, large/macromolecules (Microbial Biotechnology, Fundamentals of Applied Microbiology, Alexander N. Glazer and Hiroshi Nikaido 1995, W.H. Freeman Co.; Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, eds. Daan J.A. Crommelin and Robert D. Sindelar, 1997, Harwood Academic Publishers). The cultivation of cells takes place in vessels containing an appropriate liquid growth medium. Production-scale cultivation is commonly performed in bioreactors which are devices adapted for the growth or propagation of a microorganism or enzyme, or for the synthesis of a composition or compound using a microorganism or enzyme (Ibid, Crommelin, Chapter 3; Glazer at p. 250). Accordingly, the present invention includes the use of micro-clustered compositions in bioreactors in bioprocess technology as described herein.

The compositions of the present invention involve partial or complete substitution of micro-clustered compositions for aqueous compositions heretofore in use by those of skill in the art. Included in the invention are novel intermediate or final products, which are produced with the micro-clustered compositions, as well as methods of using them

Some of the major products dependent on microbial/animal cell/plant cell biotechnology include fermented juices and distilled liquors, cheese, antibiotics, industrial alcohol, high fructose syrups and amino acids, baker's yeast, steroids, vitamins, citric acid, enzymes, hormones, growth factors, vaccines, polysaccharide gums. Accordingly, the present invention includes micro-clustered compositions and their use in:

1. Production of proteins in bacteria.

2. Production of proteins in yeast.

3. Production of recombinant and synthetic vaccines.

4 Production of microbial insecticides. 5 Production of enzymes 6 Production of microbial polysaccharides and polyesters 7 Production of ethanol 8 Production of amino acids 9 Production of antibiotics

10. Organic synthesis and degradation by enzymes and microbes

11. Environmental applications, including sewage and wastewater microbiology; microbial degradation of xenobiotics; use of microorganisms in mineral recovery, and in removal of heavy metals from aqueous effluents.

EFFECTS OF MICRO-CLUSTERED WATER ON MUTATION RATES

The study of the effects of micro-clustered water at the cytogenetic level was performed using the methods of counting chromosomal aberrations and sister chromatid exchange (SCE) in the lymphocytes of peripheral human blood. In addition, the analysis was performed during the entire cell cycle process of human lymphocytes in cell culture using the method of counting the number of cells after one, two, and three replication cycles.

The analysis of the frequency of chromosomal aberrations in a culture of human lymphocytes is one of the main tests applied in the study of mutagenic activity of environmental factors and is approved by the (WHO) World Health Organization (Methods for the analysis of human chromosome aberrations. Eds. Buckton K. E. and Evans H. J. WHO, Geneva, 1973, p. 66).

The determination of SCE frequency is also one of the standard tests used in the evaluation of mutagenicity. This method possesses specificity and high sensitivity in the evaluation of mutagenic properties of chemical compounds (Sister Chromatid Exchanges (Parts A and B). Eds. Tice R. R. and Hollander A. Plenum Press, N.Y., London, 1984). The procedure of determining the frequency of SCE in a culture of human lymphocytes makes it possible to specifically evaluate the number of emergent SCE during cell culturing (Bochkov R.P., Chebotarev A.N., Platonova V.I., Debova G.A. Invention

Certificate No. 1,175,165. Government Committee of the USSR on Inventions and Discoveries, 1985).

Specimen analysis for SCE was accomplished in parallel with the assessment of the number of metaphases after one, two, and three cycles of replication. From this, the determination of the average number of cell divisions and the duration of the cell cycle until the moment of cell fixation was made possible (Vedenkov V.G., Bochkov N. P., Volkov I.K., Urubkov A. R., Chebotarev A. N., Mathematical model of determination number of cells passing different number of divisions in culture. Proceeding of Academy of Sciences of USSR, v. 274, Nol, pl86-189, 1984).

The evaluation of mutagenicity was based on the comparison of the frequency of sister chromatid exchange and chromosomal aberrations in human lymphocytes cultured in cell medium prepared with micro-clustered and standard deionized water.

Materials and Methods Experiments were performed using the blood of a 58-year-old male and blood from two females, ages 26 and 61. Dry RPMI 1640 (Gibco) cell medium was used to prepare the dividing lymphocytes of peripheral blood in culture. Dry cell medium powder was mixed with 25 mM/ml of sodium bicarbonate (Serva) and 24 mM/ml HEPES (Serva) and then dissolved in deionized water (18 Mohm/cm) (control) or in micro-clustered water. These cell culture media solutions were then sterilized by passing them through membrane filters with a pore diameter of 0.22 m .

Cell cultures were prepared as follows: 1 ml of heparinized venous blood was placed in sterile plastic test tubes, then 0.015 ml of phytohemagglutinin P (Beckon & Dickinson), 8 ml of RPMI 1640 medium (control or micro-clustered water based), and 1 ml of embryonic calf serum were added (Biowest). Test tubes were shaken and placed in an incubator set at 37°C. Colchicine (Calbiochem) was added 2 hours prior to fixation, with a final concentration of 0.5 μg/ml. Cells were fixed after 48 hours of culturing to count chromosomal aberrations. 5- bromodeoxyuridine was added (up to a final concentration of 10 μg/ml) after 48 hour of culturing to determine SCE in the cells. Then, cells were fixed after 80 hours.

10 ml of 0.55% potassium chloride (37°C) solution was added to the cells before fixation after centrifuge spin (10 min at 1000 r/min.) and the supernatant was removed. Then, cells were resuspended and left in the incubator for 10 minutes. The incubated cells were fixed with a mixture of methanol and glacial acetic acid (3:1) and cooled to -10°C. The cells were placed onto cooled wet glass slides, warmed, and left for at least 24 hours at room temperature before staining.

The specimens on glass slides were stained by azure-eosin to count chromosomal aberrations. Specimens were stained to determine SCE frequency in accordance with Chebotarev A.N., Selezneva T.G., Platonova V.I. Modified method of differential staining of sister chromatids. Bulletin of experimental biology and medicine. V85, No 2, p.242- 243, 1978.

Student's t-Test was used to determine the difference in the average number SCE per cell.To evaluate the difference in the frequency of aberrations, a 2 x 2 size chi-square test is applied during the analysis of coupling tables. The same criteria was used for evaluating the changes in mitoses after the different number of replications of DNA, but only for the tables of 3 x 2 sizes.

Results of the Experiment Sister chromatid exchanges

Two series of measurements were performed for each individual. In each series, two specimens were prepared and 25 metaphases were analyzed. Analysis showed that medium frequency of SCE was not different for both specimens. In addition, the average number of SCE for the series was not significantly different. Table 1 shows the results of SCE measurements. Table 1. Average SCE number per cell

The data presented in Table 1 for all individuals shows the SCE average number per cell was lower when micro-clustered water was used as the solvent of dry medium RPMI 1640 compared to standard deionized water. This difference was statistically significant at the level of P<0.01 for the 2nd individual. For the whole group, this statistical difference was even higher, at the level of P<0.001. Thus, SCE analysis revealed that using micro- clustered water as a solvent inhibited the frequency of mutation in a culture of cells, resulting in a smaller amount of damage in cell culture compared to standard deionized water.

Average number of divisions

Metaphases with uniformly stained sister chromatids were associated with first mitosis. Metaphases with one dark and one bright (arlequin chromosome) chromatid were associated with second mitosis. In these cells, half of the chromosomal material was bright and the other half was dark. Cells having only

of their chromosomal material dark and % bright were associated with third mitosis.

The average mitosis number was calculated by the formula:

(∑ n,i)/(∑ ni)

The average number of cell divisions, taking the doubling of the number of cells after each division into account was calculated according to the formula:

(∑ i-m/2^wy(∑ ni/2^1"1) In these formulas i is the mitosis number, and ni is the number of cells of the i-th mitosis. The results showing the proportion of different mitoses in cells are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Number of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd mitoses

Table 2 shows that for t e first individual only, the cells in the medium with micro- clustered water divided more rapidly than in a medium prepared with standard water. However this effect was insignificant on the investigated group as a whole. On the basis of time that 5- bromodeoxyuridine was present (32 hour), during which it could have been incorporated into DNA resulting in brighter staining of chromosomal material, it was possible to determine the average time for the complete cell cycle process. It gave 32/1.51=21.2 hours, which corresponded to the data found in the literature.

Chromosomal aberrations

Analysis of chromosomal aberrations was performed in 2 series of experiments for each individual, similar to the SCE analysis. In each series, 300 metaphases were analyzed for deionized and for micro-clustered waters. Data was not obtained for one of the individual women, age 61 years old. Analysis shows that for both series and for both individuals analyzed, the frequency of chromosomal aberrations did not differ for each type of water.

Therefore, data for both series were combined. Table 3 shows the data on the frequency of chromosomal aberrations. Table 3. Frequency of chromosomal aberrations

Table 3 shows that the frequency of aberrant metaphases during the use of micro-clustered water was significantly inhibited or reduced in the 58 year old male and also in the 26 year old female. The frequency of aberrant metaphases was less statistically significant for micro-clustered water compared with standard deionized water for the individuals analyzed as a whole.

Accordingly, this study showed that (1) a difference in cell cycle duration was not observed for deionized and micro-clustered waters; (2) sister chromatid exchange frequency was statistically lower in micro-clustered water; and (3) frequency of chromosomal aberrations was also lower in micro-clustered water. The use of micro- clustered water resulted in less mutagenic effects in comparison with standard deionized water.

The micro-clustered water inhibited the frequency of mutation in a culture of cells, and had a stabilizing effect on genetic material as evidenced by a lower sister chromatid exchange frequency and lower chromosomal aberrations in comparison with standard deionized water. As used herein, the term "genetic material" refers to a gene, a part of a gene, a group of genes, or fragments of many genes, on a molecule of DNA, a fragment of DNA, a group of DNA molecules, or fragments of many DNA molecules. Genetic material could refer to anything from a small fragment of DNA to the entire genome an organism. Accordingly, a method of the invention is directed to inhibiting the frequency of mutation of genetic material, the method involving the step of culturing cells for a sufficient time in a culture medium which comprises a sufficient amount of micro- clustered water to inhibit the frequency of mutation. The frequency of mutation is referenced with respect to a biological entity which could be cells in cell culture, cells in tissue, cells in organ culture, or cells in vivo. As detailed above, cells include animal cells, microorganisms, and plant cells. Effective culturing of cells situated in vivo or in situ, involves administering a sufficient quantity of micro-clustered water or medium comprising micro-clustered water to a subject animal or plant which is otherwise a multicellular organism. Genetic material in biological entities of vectors, viruses or bacteriophage, and subcellular parts is subject as well to mutation inhibiting effects of micro-clustered water. It should be understood that the mutation-inhibiting effect of micro-clustered water is achieved by culturing or cultivating any of said biological entities in micro-clustered water.

The invention is further directed to inhibiting the frequency of mutation in the presence of a mutagenic substance. The frequency of mutation is referenced with respect to a biological entity which includes cells in cell culture, cells in tissue, cells in organ culture, or cells in vivo. As detailed above, cells include animal cells, microorganisms, and plant cells. Genetic material in biological entities such vectors, viruses or bacteriophage, and subcellular parts is subject as well to mutation inhibiting effects of micro-clustered water.

Inhibiting Induced Mutagenesis in vitro To determine the frequency of chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes, mitomycin C (the mutagen) is added to the cell culture in three different doses 24 hours before fixation. Control cells do not have mutagens. There are 4 experimental settings. Mutagenesis occurs before DNA synthesis. Dioxydine is added to the lymphocyte culture in three different concentrations in order to determine the chromosome aberrations after DNA synthesis. All together, there are 16 settings: the control, with no mutagens + 3 different concentrations of mitomycin C, the control + 3 different concentrations of dioxydine, micro-clustered water + 3 different concentrations of mitomycin C, and Penta water + 3 different concentrations of dioxydine. 100 metaphases are analyzed for each setting, or 1600 cells are used. Mitomycin C is also added in three different doses 24 hours before the fixation to determine the frequency of sister chromatid exchange (SCE). However, the concentration of mutagen is one order less than it is for chromosome aberrations, plus control without mutagen. There are 4 settings for the standard and 4 settings for micro-clustered water, which make 8 different settings.

25 metaphases are analyzed in each case - a total of 200 cells. Findings from these studies indicate that micro-clustered water inhibited the frequency of mutation in the presence of a mutagen.

Inhibiting Induced Mutagenesis in vivo Chromosome aberrations are counted in mouse bone marrow, 100 cells for each setting. Mice drink standard (control) and micro- clustered water over a 15-day period. Mitomycin C is injected (3 doses + control without mutagen) 24 hours before animals are to be sacrificed and before cell fixation. Dioxydine is injected 2 hours prior to sacrifice and cell fixation (3 doses + control). 6 mice are in each group; all together a total of 96 mice or 9600 cells. Findings from these studies indicate that micro-clustered water inhibited the frequency of mutation in vivo in the presence of a mutagen.

[399056- drugs]

III. DRUGS, BIO-AFFECTING AND BODY TREATING COMPOSITIONS

General Description and Definitions

The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques within the skill of the art in (1) organic and physical chemistry; (2) biochemistry; (3) molecular biology; (4) pharmacology; (5) pharmacological therapeutics; (6) physiology; (7) toxicology; (8) microbiology, (9) internal medicine and diagnostics. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature. See, e.g. Maniatis et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual; Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, eds. Daan J.A. Crommelin and Robert D. Sindelar, 1997, Harwood Academic Publishers; Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, eds. Joel G. Hardman, Lee E. Limbird, Tenth Edition, 2001, McGraw Hill; Basic & Clinical Pharmacology, Bernard G. Katzung, Eighth Edition, 2001 , McGraw Hill; Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and D g Delivery Systems, Howard C. Ansel, Loyd V. Allen, Jr., Nicholas G. Popovich, Seventh Edition, 1999, Lippincott, William & Wilkins; Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine by Eugene Braunwald M.D. (Editor), Anthony S. Fauci M.D. (Editor), Dennis L. Kasper M.D. (Editor), Stephen L. Hauser M.D. (Editor), Dan L. Longo M.D. (Editor), J. Larry Jameson M.D. (Editor). The following terminology will be used in accordance with the definitions set out below in describing the present invention.

The term "d g" refers to a chemical agent intended for use in the diagnosis, mitigation, treatment, cure, or prevention of disease in human or in other animals. Synonymous with the term "drug" are the terms "bio-affecting agents" and "body-treating agents." In a broad sense, drugs are substances that interact with living systems through chemical processes. These substances may be chemicals administered to a living body to achieve a beneficial therapeutic effect on some process within the patient or for their toxic effects on regulatory processes in parasites infecting the patient. It is understood that the biological properties are expressed on cells, tissues, and organs of living bodies. These agents, substances, or drugs are subjects of the micro-clustered compositions of the invention. The terms "medicinal activity," and "medical properties," and "active ingredient" also refer to the action of drugs on living tissue or bodies.

The terms "bio-affecting" and "body-treating" include subject matter defined generally, and in particular, by the classification definitions and examples or embodiments disclosed in the United States Manual of Classification, U.S. Patent Classification from the United States Patent and Trademark Office, in particular, Class 424 (and related lines of classification as disclosed therein): Drug, Bio-Affecting, and Body Treating

Compositions, which is hereby incorporated by reference. Further defined and embodied by Class 424 (and as described herein) are the terms and phrases "adjuvant or carrier compositions," "fermentates," "plant and animal extracts or body fluids or material containing plant or animal cellular structure" intended for use as bio-affecting or body treating compositions. The compositions of the invention are further defined and classified according to specific structures (e.g. layered tablet, capsule). Processes of using the compositions of the invention are embodied in Class 424, as well as processes of preparing the compositions.

Drugs are derived from plant or animal sources, as byproducts of microbial growth, through chemical synthesis, molecular modification of existing chemical agents.

Sources of drugs: New drugs may be discovered from a variety of natural animal, plant, or microbial sources, or created synthetically in the laboratory. Plant materials have served as a reservoir of drugs. Animals are a source of drugs, that are derived from their tissues or through their biologic processes. By way of non-limiting examples, hormonal substances, such as thyroid extract, insulin and pituitary hormone are obtained from the endocrine glands of cattle, sheep, and swine. The urine of pregnant mares is a rich source of estrogens. Fermentates, which are compositions of or derived from bacteria or the microorganisms occurring in unicellular plants such as yeast, molds or fungi, are well known in the art (Glazer and Nikaido, Microbial Biotechnology, Fundamentals of Applied

Microbiology, 2001, W.H. Freeman and Company).

The bric "medical pharmacology" refers to the science of substances used to prevent, diagnose and treat disease.

Products of biotechnology contribute as well to pharmaceutical and diagnostic compositions of the invention (Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Dmg Delivery Systems, Howard C. Ansel, Loyd V. Allen, Jr., Nicholas G. Popovich, Seventh Edition, 1999, Lippincott, William & Wilkins, See Chapter 18, incorporated by reference).

The term "prodrug" describes a compound that requires metabolic biotransformation after administration to produce the desired pharmacologically active compound.

The term "micro-clustered composition" as used herein refers to a composition which comprises micro-cluster water. The adjective "micro-clustered " which modifies any of the compositions of bio-affecting agents, body-treating agents, adjuvant or carriers, or ingredients thereof refers to micro-clustered water in that composition, i.e. which is dissolved in, mixed with, or otherwise combined with micro-cluster water.

"Tissue" refers to any collection of cells that is organized to perform one or more specific function. " Organ" is any part of the body of a multicellular organism that is adapted and/or specialized for the performance of one or more vital functions.

COMPOSITIONS OF THE INVENTION

The compositions of the invention are micro-clustered water compositions. These compositions comprise micro-clustered water and one or more agents selected from one or more of the group consisting of bio-affecting agents, body-treating agents, and adjuvant or carrier compositions.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The micro-clustered water compositions disclosed herein comprise one or more agents selected from one or more of the group consisting of bio-affecting agents, body-treating agents, and adjuvant or carrier compositions. The biological properties of the body treating agents include (a) preventing, alleviating, treating or curing abnormal and pathological conditions of the living body; (b) maintaining, increasing, decreasing, limiting or destroying a physiologic body function; (c) diagnosing a physiological condition or state by an in vivo test; and (d) controlling or protecting an environment or living body by attracting, disabling, inhibiting, killing, modifying, repelling or retarding an animal or micro-organism. Body treating agents may be selected from the group of agents intended for deodorizing, protecting, adorning or grooming a body.

The compositions of the invention can take the form of liquid, ointments, creams, gels, dispersions, powders, granules, capsules, tablets, and transdermal dmg delivery devices. In any case, the compositions can be pharmaceutical compositions.

Disclosed herein are methods of using the compositions of the invention, the methods involving a step of administering said composition to a living body, or administering the compositions ex vivo to cells, tissues, and organs. In another aspect, methods are provided for preparing the compositions, the methods involving a step of combining micro-clustered water with one or more agents selected from one or more of the group consisting of bio-affecting agents, body-treating agents, and adjuvant or carrier compositions. Formulation Fundamentals

Each particular pharmaceutical product which contains a dmg or a body-treating agent is a formulation unique unto itself. In addition to the active therapeutic ingredients, a pharmaceutical formulation also contains a number of nontherapeutic or pharmaceutic ingredients. It is through their use that a formulation achieves its unique composition and characteristic physical appearance. Pharmaceutic ingredients include such materials as fillers, thickeners, solvents, suspending agents, tablet coating and disintegrants, stabilizing agents, antimicrobial preservatives, flavors, colorants and sweeteners.

The formulation must be such that all components are physically and chemically compatible, including the active therapeutic agents, the pharmaceutic ingredients and the packaging materials.

Pharmaceutic Ingredients: Definitions and Types

To prepare a dmg substance into a dosage form or pharmaceutical composition, pharmaceutic ingredients, which the art also refers to as adjuvants or carriers, are required. For example, in the preparation of pharmaceutic solutions, one or more solvents are used to dissolve the d g substance, flavors and sweeteners are used to make the product more palatable, colorants are added to enhance product, preservatives may be added to prevent microbial growth and stabilizers, such as antioxidants and chelating agents, may be used to prevent dmg decomposition. In the preparation of tablets, diluents or fillers are commonly added to increase the bulk of the formulation, binders to cause the adhesion of the powdered dmg and pharmaceutic substances, anti-adherents or lubricants to assist the smooth tableting process, disintegrating agents to promote tablet break-up after administration, and coatings to improve stability, control disintegration, or to enhance appearance. Ointments, creams, and suppositories achieve their characteristic features due to the pharmaceutic bases which are utilized. Thus for each dosage form, the pharmaceutic ingredients establish the primary features of the product, and contribute to the physical form, texture, stability, taste and overall appearance.

The principal categories of pharmaceutic ingredients are numerous and well known to those skilled in the art. For the sake of not reproducing herein a catalog of categories and examples within each, Applicant refers the reader to the treatise Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Dmg Delivery Systems, Howard C. Ansel, Loyd V. Allen, Jr., Nicholas G. Popovich, Seventh Edition, 1999, Lippincott, William & Wilkins, which is hereby incorporated by reference. In particular, attention is focused on Chapter 3 - Dosage Form

Design: Pharmaceutic and Formulation Considerations. Table 3.3 in this reference provides non-limiting examples of pharmaceutic ingredients, and examples thereof. It is understood that the micro-clustered compositions of the invention include aqueous compositions of pharmaceutic ingredients and/or excipients.

The reader should also be aware of the Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients which presents monographs on over 200 excipients used in pharmaceutical dosge form preparation. Included in each monograph is such information as: nonproprietary, chemical, and commercial names; emperical and chemical formulas and molecular weight; pharmaceutic specifications and chemical and physical properties; incompatibles and interactions with other excipients and drug substances; regulatory status; and applications in pharmaceutic formulation or technology. DOSAGE FORMS

In addition to liquid dosage forms of micro-clustered compositions, the micro-clustered compositions of the invention are directed to non-liquid dosage forms (as set forth below) which comprise micro-clustered water. See Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Dmg Delivery Systems, Howard C. Ansel, Loyd V. Allen, Jr., Nicholas G. Popovich, Seventh Edition, 1.999, Lippincott, William & Wilkins.

Solid Dosage Forms and Modified-Release Dmg Delivery Systems Powders and Granules Capsules and Tabets Modified-Release Dosage Forms and Dmg Delivery Systems

Semi-Solid and TransdermalSystems Ointments, Creams, and Gels Transdermal Dmg Delivery Systems Pharmaceutical Inserts Suppositories and Inserts

Liquid dosage forms commonly comprises solutions and disperse systems. Sterile dosage forms and delivery systems involve parenterals, biologicals, ophthalmic solutions and suspensions. Novel and advanced dosage forms, delivery systems, and devices include radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and for therapeutics, and liposomes.

The invention further covers micro-clustered compositions, as described above, in combination with drag delivery systems, generally for parenteral delivery, which incorporate mechanical, electronic, and computerized components. Methods for administering micro-clustered compositions to a living body which involve a step using a mechanical, electronic, or computerized component or device are within the scope of the present invention. Examples of these medical device assisted compositions involve drag delivery systems which include iontophoresis, phonophoresis, dialysis, implanted pumps, fluorocarbon propellant pumps, intravenous controllers and infusion pumps ( Chapter 19, Ansel, incorporated by reference). Commonplace dmg delivery systems which for access and delivery to the vascular system include syringes, needles or devices for injection, catheters, liquid composition containers, lines or tubing for delivering liquids between devices and/or the body or tissues.

SOLVENTS AND VEHICLES FOR INJECTION WHICH COMPRISE MICRO- CLUSTERED WATER

The most frequently used solvent in the large scale manufacturer of injections is Water for Injection, USP. An aqueous vehicle is generally preferred for an injection, and water is used in the manufacture of injectable products. Examples of micro-clustered waters include:

Purified Water, USP, Sterile Water for Injection, USP, Bacteriostatic Water for Injection,

USP. Sodium Chloride Injection, US, Bacteriostatic Sodium Chloride Injection, USP, Ringer's

Injection, USP, Lactated Ringer's Injection, USP.

Bio-Affecting Agents and Body Treating Agents

Micro-clustered compositions of the invention include compositions of bio-affecting agents and body-treating agents. "Bio-affecting agents" and "body-treating agents" are substances which may possess biological or medical properties as set forth below. These agents, substances, or drags are components of the micro-clustered compositions of the invention. It is understood that the biological properties are expressed on cells, tissues, and organs of living bodies. The terminology of these biological or medical properties, as used herein, is consistent with their usage in standard medical dictionaries (e.g. Dorland's

Medical Dictionary), and treatises (e.g. The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, eds.

Joel G. Hardman, Lee E. Limbird, Tenth Edition, 2001, McGraw Hill; Basic & Clinical

Pharmacology, Bernard G. Katzung, Eighth Edition, 2001, McGraw Hill; Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems, Howard C. Ansel, Loyd V. Allen, Jr.,

Nicholas G. Popovich, Seventh Edition, 1999, Lippincott, William & Wilkins.)

While body-treating agents may have medicinal effects, the primary meaning of "body- treating agents" for purposes of this invention is directed to agents administered topically to a living body and which are intended for deodorzing, protecting, adorning or grooming the body.

In general terms, the biological properties of the bio-affecting agents and body treating agents include: a. preventing, alleviating, treating or curing abnormal and pathological conditions of the living body; b. maintaining, increasing, decreasing, limiting or destroying a physiologic body function; c. diagnosing a physiological condition or state by an in vivo test; d. controlling or protecting an environment or living body by attracting, disabling, inhibiting, killing, modifying, repelling or retarding an animal or micro- organism.

Body-treating agents include, but are not limited to, dentifrices; topical sun or radiation screening or tanning preparations; manicure or pedicure compositions, bleach for live hair or skin; live skin colorants (e.g. lipstick); anti-perspirants or perspiration deodorants; live hair or scalp treating compositions; topical body preparations containing solid synthetic organic polymers (e.g. skin cosmetic coating).

Therapeutic Classification of the Bio- Affecting Agents

The following classification of drags, which is non-limiting, is derived from Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, eds. Joel G. Hardman, Lee E. Limbird, Tenth Edition, 2001, McGraw Hill, herein incorporated by reference for the subject matter disclosed herein. The micro-clustered compositions of the invention comprise drugs which have one or more of the following medicinal activities.

Drags Acting at Synaptic and Neuroeffector Junctional Sites These agents affect neurotransmission in the autonomic and somatic motor nervous systems. Included are muscarinic receptor agonists and antagonists: anticholinesterase agents; agents acting at the neuromuscular junction and autonomic ganglia; catecholamines, sy pathomimetic drugs, and adrenergic receptor antagonists; 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin): receptor agonists and antagonists.

Drags Acting on The Central Nervous System

These include general anesthetics and local anesthetics; therapeutic gases (oxygen,carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, and helium; hypnotics and sedatives; ethanol; drugs for treating psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety disorders, psychosis, mania; drugs for treating epilepsies; drags for treating central nervous system degenerative disorder; opioid analgesics; drugs for treating drag addiction and drug abuse.

Autacoid: Drug Therapy of Inflammation

These include histamine, bradykinin, and their antagonists; lipid derived autocoids: eicosainoids and platelet activating factor; analgesic-antipyretic and antiinflammatory agents and drag employed in the treatment of gout; drags used in the treatment of asthma.

Drags Affecting Renal and Cardiovascular Function

These include diuretics; vasopressin and other agents affecting renal conservation of water; renin and angiotensin; drugs for treating myocardial ischemia; antihypertensive agents and drags for treating hypertension; drags for treating heart failure; antiarrhythmic drugs; drags for treating hypercholesterolemia and dyslipidemia. Drugs Affecting Gastrointestinal Function

These include agents for control of gastric acidity and treatment of peptic ulcers and gastroesophageal reflux disease; prokinetic agents, antiemetics, and agents used in irritable bowel syndrome; agents used for diarrhea, constipation, and inflammatory bowel disease; agents used for biliary and pancreatic disease.

Chemotherapy of Parasitic Infections

These include agents used in the chemotherapy of protozoal infections, for example, malaria, amebiasis, giardiasis, trichomoniasis, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis; and for treating helminthiasis;

Chemotherapy of Microbial Diseases

These include antimicrobial agents such as sulfonamides, trimethoprim- sulfamethoxazole, quinolones and agents for urinary tract infections; penicillins, cephalosporins, andother beta-lactam antibiotics; aminoglycosides; protein synthesis inhibitors; drags used in chemotherapy of tuberculosis, mycobacterium avium complex disease, and leprosy. Further included are antifungal agents, antiviral agents, and antiretroviral agents.

Chemotherapy of Neoplastic Diseases

These include alkylating agents, nitrogen mustards, ethylenimines and methylmelamines; alkyl sulfonates; nitrosoureas; folic acid analogs; pyrimidine analogs; purine analogs; natural products such as vinca alkaloids, paclitaxel, epipodophyllotoxins; camptothecin analogs; antibiotics such as dactinomycin, daunorabicin, doxorabicin, idarubicin; bleomycin, mitomycin; platinum coordination complexes; hydroxyurea; porocarbazine; adrenocorticosteroids; aminoglutethimide and other aromatase inhibitors; antiestrogens (e.g. tamoxifen); gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs; antiandrogens; biological response modifiers such as interleukins, granulocyte colony stimulating factor, granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor; monoclonal antibodies.

Drags Used for Immunomodulation

These include immunosuppressive agents, tolerogens, and immunostimulants.

These drags include vaccines based on compositions of antibodies ranging from immune globulin to purified antibody compositions to monoclonal antibody compositions.

Drags Acting on the Blood and the Blood-Forming Organs These include hematopoietic agents, such as growth factors, minerals and vitamins; and anticoagulant, thrombolytic, and antiplatelet drugs.

Hormones and Hormone Antagonists

These include pituitary hormones and their hypothalamic releasing factors; thyroid and antithyroid drags; estrogens and progestins; androgens; adrenocorticotropic hormone; adrenocortical steroids and their synthetic analogs; inhibitors of the synthesis and actions of adrenocortical hormones; insulin, oral hypoglycemic agents; agents affecting calcification and bone turnover: calcium, phosphate, parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, calcitonin.

The Vitamins

These include water-soluble vitamins: the vitamin B complex and ascorbic acid; and fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, K, and E.

Agents for Treating Dermatological Disorders: Agents for Ophthamological Treatment

ROUTE OF ADMINISTERING THE COMPOSITIONS OF THE INVENTION Of the micro-clustered compositions of the invention which are intended for administration to a living body, a variety of routes are available and chosen by those of skill in the art with reference to whether the composition is intended for local or systemic effects. A method of the invention involves using a composition of the invention for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes according to the medicinal or therapeutic activities described above. The method includes a step of administering or delivering the composition via a route which could be oral, sublingual, parenteral, epicutaneous (topical), transdermal, conjunctival, intraocular, intranasal, aural, intrarespiratory, rectal, vagina, urethral. Those of skill in the therapeutic and diagnostic arts will find guidance for administering the compositions of the invention according to methods and protocols described in standard textbooks of general and specialized medicine. Ex vivo administration. Alternatively, the biological properties of the micro-clustered compositions of the invention are administered to and expressed on cells, tissues, and organs ex vivo. Evaluation, screening, and treating of mammalian cells, tissues and organs in culture are common protocols in gene therapy, stem cell therapy (e.g. cord blood stem cell transplantation), grafting or transplanting cells/tissues (e.g. hematopoetic tissue), tumor medicine (e.g. host/graft/tumor interactions) and reproductive medicine (e.g. embryo culture) (Autologous Blood and Marrow Transplantation X: Proceedings of the Tenth International Symposium, edited by Karel A. Dicke and Armand Keating, May 2001 ; Bloodline Reviews; Blood and Marrow Transplantation Reviews; Ex Vivo Cell Therapy by Klaus Schindhelm and Robert Nordon). The aim of ex vivo therapy is to replace, repair, or enhance the biological function of damaged tissue or organs. An ex vivo process involves gathering cells from patients or donors, in vitro manipulation of to enhance the therapeutic potential of the cell harvest, and subsequent intravenous transfusion.

METHODS OF PREPARING THE COMPOSITIONS OF THE INVENTION Methods of preparing the micro-clustered compositions of the invention involve a step of combining or formulating one or more of a bio-affecting agent, body-treating agent, or an adjuvant or carrier compositions with micro-clustered water. Standard treatises of chemistry, clinical chemistry, medicinal chemistry, pharmacological sciences, formulation science are available to those of skill in the art for guidance in preparing the compositions of the invention.

DIAGNOSTIC COMPOSITIONS The compositions of the invention include diagnostic compositions ( Mosby's Manual of Diagnostic and Laboratory Tests by Kathleen Deska Pagana, Timothy James Pagana); methods of the invention include the use of micro-clustered diagnostic composition in diagnostic techniques performed in a living body (i.e. in vivo diagnosis or in vivo testing), or performed in vitro or ex vivo. Micro-clustered compositions comprising contrast agents for use in diagnostic radiological methods are included in the invention. Diagnostic reagents and methods for making them (Sigma Aldrich Co.; Worthington Biochemical Corporation; Wako Chemicals USA) and using them are well known in the art. The invention includes kits which comprise micro-clustered compositions. IV. FOOD OR EDIBLE MATERIAL AND BEVERAGES: PROCESSES, COMPOSITIONS, AND PRODUCTS

General Description and Definitions

The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional food technology, food chemistry, food processing, organic- and biochemistry within the skill of the art. Such techniques for foods and beverages are fully explained in the literature. See, e.g. Potter, N.N. and Hotchkiss, J.H., Food Science, Fifth Edition,

1998, Aspen Publishers; Belitz, H.D. and Grosch, W. Food Chemistry, Second Edition,

1999, Springer; T.P. Coultate, Food: The Chemistry of Its Components, Fourth Edition, 2002, Royal Society of Chemistry; Owen R. Fennema, Food Chemistry, 3rd Edition,

1996, Marcel Dekker, Inc.; The Properties of Water in Foods ISOPOW 6, Edited by David S. Reid; 1998 Shafiur Rahman, Food Properties Handbook, 1995, Culinary and Hospitality Industry Publications Services; Brennan, J.G., Butters, J.R. et al., 1990, Food Engineering Operations, Chapman and Hall; Heldman, D.R., and Hartel, R.W., 1997, Principles of Food Processing, Chapman and Hall; Encyclopedia of Agricultural, Food, and Biological Engineering, 2003, Edited by: Dennis R. Heldman, Marcel Dekker, Inc.; Food Structure - Creation and Evaluation, 1987, eds. J.R. Mitchell and J.M.V. Blanshard, Woodhead Publishing Ltd.; Amorphous Food and Pharmaceutical Systems, 2002, ed. H. Levine, RSC Publishers; Ruan, Roger and Chen, Paul L., Water in Foods and Biological Materials, A Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Approach, 1998, Culinary and Hospitality Industry Publ. Services; Jose M. Aguilera and Stanley, David W. ,Microstractural Principles of Food Processing and Engineering, Second Ed., 2000, Culinary and Hospitality Industry Publ. Services; Functional Properties of Food Macromolecules, eds. J.R. Mitchell and D.A. Ledward, 1986, Elsevier Applied Science Publ; Roos, Y.H., Phase Transitions in Foods, 1995, Academic Press. An extensive catalog of food science and technology reference books is available from American Technical Publishers, Ltd., Hitchin, Herts., SG4 0SX, England. Water structure and behavior, including water's role in the hydration of food molecules, is exhaustively set forth online at http://www.sbu.ac.uk/water/. The references or patents cited herein are incorporated to the extent possible for teachings which are relevant for supplementing the present disclosure. The subject invention is directed to foods or edible materials and beverages, which have been hydrated with stractured water. In one aspect, the invention comprises foods or edible materials and beverages which comprise structured water, and to stractured ingredients or additives that are involved in preparing a stractured or non-structured edible.

Another aspect of the invention involves the use of stractured water in food or beverage processing, a process which involves a step of hydrating a food processing system by contacting structured water with at least one of the ingredients or products of the food processing system.

The invention is directed to the use of stractured water as well as stmctured compositions for treating or perfecting a food material. In particular, the invention covers methods of using structured water in the various roles played by water including but not restricted to those set forth in the following table:

TABLE - Roles of Water in Food and Beverages

The solute hydration role of stractured water in food processing is further characterized by the classifications of the types of water-solute interactions as set forth in the following table reproduced from Fennema, Food Science, 3rd Edition.

Table 3 Classifications of Types of Water- Solute Interactions

Strength of interaction compared to water- water

Type Example hydrogen bond ^a

Dipole-ion Water-free ion Greater Water-charged group on organic molecule

Dipole-dipole Water-protein NH Approx. equal Water-protein CO Water-side chain OH

Hydrophobic hydration Water + R^Q → R(hydrated) Much less (ΔG > 0) Hydrophobic interaction R(hydrated) + R(hydrated) → R₂ N oott ccoommppaarraabbllee ^dd ((>> hydro

(hydrated) + H₂0 phobic interaction; (ΔG < 0)

"About 12-25 kJ/mol. ^b But much weaker than strength of single covalent bond. ^c R is alkyl group.

Hydrophobic interactions are entropy driven, whereas dipole-ion and dipole-dipole interactions are enthalpy driven. The invention provides in general for stmctured products and compositions in any physical form, which are intended to be consumed via in whole or part via the oral cavity by human beings or animals. Further, stractured water is included in the invention in any of its physical forms.

The scope of the present invention finds utility in the fields of food engineering, food chemistry, and food biology.

Food engineering involves food manufacturing, processing, packaging and preservation. Analogous to the roles of water, stractured water, compositions thereof, and methods of processing foods that involve the stractured water hydration methods described herein find applicability in fluid mechanics and mixing during extrusion, dough rheology, predicting diffusion of flavor compounds, understanding mechanism of expansion during extrusion, micro and macro structures of foods, baking and microwave processing, simultaneous heat and mass transfer during hybrid baking, and membrane-based technologies, as well as ice crystal size control during freezing, hot air jet impingement baking, health promotion through processed foods, food waste and by-product utilization, modified atmosphere packaging and smart packaging for microbial safety.

Food Chemistry applies chemical techniques, concepts and laws to determine the kinds and amounts of molecules in foods, their physical properties, and their chemical transformations during manufacture and storage. Stractured water, compositions thereof, and methods of processing foods that involve the hydration methods described herein find applicability in a broad range from the analysis of food components to measurements of the molecular mobility of amorphous solids; chemical transformations of lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins, processing techniques such as extrusion, control of antimicrobial or ice-nucleating proteins; spectroscopic, mechanical, and thermal techniques for characterizing how the physical properties of amorphous, non-crystalline, solids modulate their chemical and physical properties and thus their shelf-life and stability. DEFINITIONS

The meaning to be given to the various "art" terms appearing in the classes of patentable subject matter set forth herein, but which have not been included in the glossary below, is the same as that generally accepted or in common usage.

The terms "water" and "stractured water" and "microclustered water" are used interchangeably. The subject matter and scope of the "stractured" inventions is informed by and analogous to the meaning of the term "water" as derived from the context of its use herein (U.S. Patent No. 6,521,248).

The terms "food" and "edible" will be used synonymously and interchangeable herein. Each ingredient or additive used in a food processing system, whether naturally occurring as a product of nature or synthetically produced, that becomes a part of an edible composition, or treats an edible composition or is either disclosed or claimed as being edible, is to be regarded as being edible.

Food or edible material includes beverages, as defined broadly in Class 426. By way of example, but not limitation, subclass 590 involves liquid intended to be drank or a concentrate upon which the addition of aqueous material forms a liquid intended to be drunk.. Subclasses 569 (for beverages which form a foam) and 580 (for lacteal containing beverages) are included. Subclass 592 covers subject matter wherein the product contains ethyl alcohol. A detailed list of beverages, their definitions, and classifications which refer to the scope of subject matter within each is found in the U.S. Manual of Patent Classification, which is obtained from the United States Patent and Trademark Office. ,

Compositions which comprise stractured water are referred to herein as "micro-clustered compositions." The adjective "micro-clustered" modifies nouns which denote compositions of matter (e.g. substances, additives, ingredients) and indicates that the modified composition of matter comprises micro-clustered water as a result of otherwise being hydrated at least in part by structured water. The acronym MCW stands for stmctured water.

A food processing system, in one aspect, involves breaking down the inherent structures within food materials or ingredients to a varying extent, and is therefore concerned with all aspects of food ~ the chemical and physical properties of food and its constituents, the processing and production of food, and the packaging and marketing of food, which represent components of a food processing system. Food quality - texture, flavor release, nutrient availability, moisture migration, and microbial growth ~ are influenced and determined by the formation, stability and breakdown of structures within foods. Each ingredient or additive used in a food processing system, whether naturally occurring as a product of nature or synthetically produced, that becomes a part of an edible composition, or treats an edible composition or is either disclosed or claimed as being edible, is to be regarded as being edible. Food processing involves conversion of raw materials and ingredients into a consumer food or edible product. Food processing includes any action that changes or converts raw plant or animal materials into safe, edible, and more palatable foodstuffs. Improvement of storage or shelf life is another goal of food processing.

HYDRATION CHEMISTRY IN FOOD PROCESSING The present invention is directed to the use of stractured water in food processing. Water in combination with carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, represents one of the main components of foods. Accordingly, the invention is directed to methods of achieving combinations of stractured water with carbohydrates, lipids and proteins in food processing systems.

Water's hydration properties depend, in part, on its clustering (Water structure and behavior, including water's role in the hydration of food molecules, is exhaustively set forth online at http://www.sbu.ac.uk/water/; and The Properties of Water in Foods ISOPOW 6, Edited by David S. Reid). Stractured water's hydration properties toward biological macromolecules (particularly proteins and nucleic acids) is a determinant of their three-dimensional structures, and hence their functions, in solution.

Stractured water is used in processing of foods to improve texture, mixing, and flowing properties, and functionality. MCW is also involved in a number of interactions with other components of foods. These interactions may contribute to the molecularly disordered, amorphous state, e.g., in low moisture foods. In amorphous food systems, the glass transition is the characteristic temperature range over which a stiff material softens and begins to behave in a leathery manner. This change is a temperature-, time- (or frequency) and composition-dependent, material specific change in physical state, from a "glassy" mechanical solid to a "rubbery" viscous fluid

MCW plasticizes amorphous materials and enhances crystallization. The plasticizing effect of MCW gives rise to an increase in the molecular mobility that facilitates the arrangement of molecules and possibly enhances enzymatic reactions. The availability of MCW is a factor affecting rates of enzymatic reactions in amorphous food systems. Food materials are significantly plasticized by MCW. At increasing MCW contents, the materials also have higher water activities. Plasticizers are used to improve flexibility and workability of polymers as well as reduce viscosity.

Enzymatic reactions are often responsible for deleterious changes in low moisture foods. The rates of these changes may be related to changes in the physical state such as the glass transition. Water, in its normal and in its stractured form, is the most important plasticizer of food materials. Water and other plasticizers also affect rates of enzymatic reactions. Food systems including carbohydrates, such as sugars, are very susceptible to crystallization even at reduced moisture level. Upon crystallization, the sorbed water may be expelled to the food materials changing the moisture level of the food systems and possibly affect rate of enzymatic reactions. Water's effect as a plasticizer and its effects on the rate of enzymatic reactions as a function of the texture of foods are important factors on maintaining quality and shelf life of low moisture food systems.

The physical state of food systems depends on the amount of water and other plasticizers, and the types of molecular interactions that involve all the components.

"Water binding" and "hydration" refer to the tendency of water to associate with various degrees of tenacity to hydrophilic or hydrophobic substances. Hydrophilic solutes (i.e. solutes or structures possessing hydrophilicity) interact with water with greater or comparable strength to water-water interactions whereas hydrophobic solutes (i.e. solutes or structures possessing hydrophobicity) only weakly interact with water with strength far less than water-water interactions. Methods for determining the hydration of molecular species which comprise food and the effects of hydration on food qualities are well known in the art (Shafiur Rahman, Food

Properties Handbook, 1995, Culinary and Hospitality Industry Publications Services).

Water competes for hydrogen bonding sites with intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonding and is a major determinant of the conformation of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.

The contribution of water to protein structure Hydration is very important for the three-dimensional structure and activity of proteins. Indeed, enzymes lack activity in the absence of water. In solution they possess a conformational flexibility, which encompasses a wide range of hydration states, not seen in the crystal or in non-aqueous environments. Equilibrium between these states will depend on the activity of the water within its microenvironment; i.e. the freedom that the water has to hydrate the protein. Thus, protein conformations demanding greater hydration are favored by more reactive water (e.g. high density water containing many weak bent and/or broken hydrogen bonds) and 'drier' conformations are relatively favored by lower activity water (e.g. low-density water containing many strong intra-molecular aqueous hydrogen bonds).

The folding of proteins depends on the same factors as control the junction zone formation in some polysaccharides: i.e. the incompatibility between the low-density water (LDW) and the hydrophobic surface that drives such groups to form the hydrophobic core. In addition, water acts as a lubricant, so easing the necessary hydrogen bonding changes. Water molecules can bridge between the carbonyl oxygen atoms and amide protons of different peptide links to catalyze the formation, and its reversal, of peptide hydrogen bonding. The internal molecular motions in proteins, necessary for biological activity, are very dependent on the degree of plasticizing, which is determined by the level of hydration. Thus internal water enables the folding of proteins and is only expelled from the hydrophobic central core when finally squeezed out by cooperative protein chain interactions. The position of the equilibrium around enzymes has been shown to be important for their activity with the enzyme balanced between flexibility and rigidity. Protein folding is driven by hydrophobic interactions, due to the unfavorable entropy decrease forming a large surface area of non-polar groups with water. In protein denaturation, water is critical, not only for the correct folding of proteins but also for the maintenance of this stracture. The free energy change on folding or unfolding is due to the combined effects of both protein folding/unfolding and hydration changes.

Peptides and proteins play roles in foam, gels, emulsifying, flavor precursors, flavor compounds, and as enzymes. These properties are derived from the physico-chemical properties of amino acids and proteins. As described above, hydration of proteins plays an important role in the functionality of proteins, including binding of food components by proteins, gelation, swelling, production of dough, emulsifying, and foaming. The catalytic activity of enzymes and the regulation of enzyme reactions requires a knowledge of protein hydration and the aqueous microenvironment. Enzyme classes important to food processing include oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases. Water activity plays a key role in the regulation of enzyme reactions.

Even in low moisture foods, enzymatic changes can occur despite the low water activity. The occurrence of these reactions reduces the storage stability of products. Water can play several different roles in food systems: (1) Water may act as second substrate. It is well known that the spatial structure of protein, which governs their functional properties, is stabilized by several kinds of interactions that include hydrogen bonds, between polar groups or between polar groups and water, and hydrophobic bonds associated with the stracture of water around the protein molecule; (2) As disrupter of hydrogen bond and consequently contributing to the alteration of protein stracture; (3) As a solving medium facilitating the diffusion of reactants; (4) As a reagent in the case of hydrolysis reaction.

As a summary, enzyme activity depends on water-enzyme, water-substrate and water- matrix interactions. Also, matrix-substrate and matrix-enzyme interactions may be involved.

Finally, the occurrence of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in low moisture systems requires a certain quantity of water in order to facilitate both mobility and diffusion of reactants. This quantity may change according to the characteristics of the enzyme and the solubility and molecular size of the substrate. Enzymatic reactions involve the interaction of an enzyme with a substrate where often water is associated either as a solvent or a second substrate. The hydrolysis of sucrose requires that invertase is in contact with the hydrolytic bond of sucrose. If the system is dehydrated, the addition of water is necessary to restore the activity of the enzyme. There is, therefore, a requirement of mobility of the components. Water has to diffuse through the system, the enzyme may exert a certain mobility to reach the hydrolytic bond, or the substrate needs to move toward the active site of the enzyme. The rate of enzymatic reactions has to be dependent on the rate at which those motions take place, which depends in turn on the stracture of the matrix of the systems. The presence of polysaccharides in viscoelastic liquid for example has been shown to cause entanglement of the polysaccharide chain and restrict diffusion of water molecules.

In water restricted systems, it could be assumed that mobility would be limited. The activity of the enzyme would be dependent on its closeness to the substrate. The enzyme should, therefore, be distributed in such a way that it is available in the vicinity of the substrate. Poor miscibility could also lead to reduced reaction rates since it may reduce interactions between molecules. Composition, stracture, and environmental conditions including moisture content, temperature, and pH, determine the physical state and the dynamics of the systems.

Whitaker (Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences, 1994, 2nd ed., Marcel Dekker, Inc.; and Chapter 7 in Fennema, O.R. Food Chemistry, 3rd ed., 1996, Marcel Dekker, Inc.) elucidated the role of water on enzyme activity. Water plays at least four important functions in all enzyme-catalyzed reactions: (1) folding of the protein, (2) acting as a transport medium for the substrate and enzyme, (3) hydration of the protein, and (4) ionization of prototropic groups in the active sites of the enzyme.

Nucleic acid hydration

Hydration is very important for the conformation and utility of nucleic acids. Hydration is greater and more strongly held around the phosphate groups, due to their rather diffuse electron distribution, but more ordered and more persistent around the bases with their more directional hydrogen-bonding ability. Because of the regular structure of DNA, hydrating water is held in a cooperative manner along the double helix in both the major and minor grooves. The cooperative nature of this hydration aids both the zipping

(annealing) and unzipping (unwinding) of the double helix.

Nucleic acids have a number of groups that can hydrogen bond to water, with RNA having a greater extent of hydration than DNA due to its extra oxygen atoms (i.e. ribose O2') and unpaired base sites. In DNA, the bases are involved in hydrogen-bonded pairing. However even these groups, except for the hydrogen-bonded ring nitrogen atoms (pyrimidine N3 and purine NI) are capable of one further hydrogen-bonding link to water within the major or minor grooves. Such solvent interactions are key to the hydration environment, and hence its recognition, around the nucleic acids and directly contributes to the DNA conformation.

Water Activity

Water activity has been an extremely useful tool in food science and technology. It is useful in relating to dynamics of moisture transfer and mapping of regions of microbial growth, physical changes and chemical reactions. Controlling water activity in a food processing system is critical for achieving a desired food stability, and for predicting a product's shelf life.

Water activity, a_w, is a property of water in a material. In the mid 1970s, water activity came to the forefront as a major factor in understanding the control of the deterioration of reduced moisture and dry foods, drags and biological systems. It was found that the general modes of deterioration, namely physical and physicochemical modifications, microbiological growth, and both aqueous and lipid phase chemical reactions, were all influenced by the thermodynamic availability of water as well as the total moisture content of the system. It is the difference in the chemical potential of water between two systems that results in moisture exchange and above a certain chemical potential as related to the aw of a system there is enough water present to result in physical and chemical reactions.

The physical stracture of a food or biological product, important from both functional and sensory standpoints, is often altered by changes in water activity due to moisture gain or loss. For example, the caking of powders is attributed to the amorphous-crystalline state transfer of sugars and oligosaccharides that occurs as water activity increases above the glass transition point. This caking interferes with the powder's ability to dissolve or be free flowing and phase transitions can lead to volatile loss or oxidation of encapsulated lipids.

The desirable crispiness of crackers, dry snack products such as potato chips, and breakfast cereals is lost if a moisture gain results in a water activity elevated above a threshold, again above the glass transition. Conversely, raisins and other dried fruits may harden due to the loss of water associated with decreasing water activity. Thus, raisins or other fruits in breakfast cereals are sugar coated to reduce the moisture loss rate or are modified with glycerol to reduce the water activity thereby preventing moisture loss.

These procedures inhibit the net moisture transfer rate from the raisins to the cereal, therefore maintaining the cereal's crisp nature and the softness of the fruit pieces in the presence of a chemical potential driving force. Finally, as a_w, increases, the permeability of packaging films to oxygen and water vapor increases, due to swelling in the rubbery state.

Like physicochemical phenomena, the growth and death of microorganisms are also influenced by water activity. It has been repeatedly shown that each microorganism has a critical water activity below which growth cannot occur. For example, Aspergillus parasiticus does not grow below a certain water activity while the production of aflatoxin, a potent toxin, from the same organism is inhibited below a slightly higher water activity.

For growth or toxin production to cease, key enzymatic reactions in the microbial cell must cease. Thus, the lowering of water activity inhibits these biochemical reactions, which in rum restricts microbial functioning as a whole. With spores, the lower the water activity, the more resistant they are to heat kill.

Microbially stable dry foods generally are defined as those with a water activity below a defined level, below which no known microbe can grow.

Water activity has been shown to influence the kinetics of many chemical reactions. Except for lipid oxidation reactions where the rate increases as water activity decreases at very low water activities, the rates of chemical reactions generally increase with increasing water activity.

When water interacts with solutes and surfaces, it is unavailable for other hydration interactions. The term 'water activity' describes the equilibrium amount of water available for hydration of materials; a value of unity indicates pure water whereas zero indicates the total absence of water molecules. It has particular relevance in food chemistry and preservation.

Changes in water activity may cause water migration between food components. Foods containing macroscopic or microstmctural aqueous pools of differing water activity will be prone to time and temperature dependent water migration from areas with high water activity to those with low water activity, a useful property used in the salting offish and cheese but in other cases may have disastrous organoleptic consequences. Such changes in water activity may cause water migration between food components. Foods with lower water activity will tend to gain water, those with higher water activity tend to lose water.

Control of water activity (rather than water content) is very important in the food industry as low water activity prevents microbial growth (increasing shelf life), causes large changes in textural characteristics such as crispness and changes the rate of chemical reactions (increasing hydrophobe lipophilic reactions but reducing hydrophile aqueous- diffusion-limited reactions).

Free moisture has been identified in food art by the term water activity. Water activity is defined as the ratio of the vapor pressure of water in an enclosed chamber containing a food to the saturation vapor pressure of water at the same temperature. Water activity is an indication of the degree to which unbound water is found and, consequently, is available to act as a solvent or to participate in destructive chemical and microbiological reactions.

Highly perishable foodstuffs have a_w > 0.95. Growth of most bacteria is inhibited below about a_w = 0.91; similarly most yeasts cease growing below a_w = 0.87, and most molds cease growing below a_w > 0.80. The absolute limit of microbial growth is about a_w = 0.6. As the solute concentration required to produce a_w < 0.96 is high (typically > 1 molal), the solutes (and surface interactions at low water content) will control the structuring of the water within the range where a_w knowledge is usefully applied.

Many food preservation processes attempt to eliminate spoilage by lowering the availability of water to microorganisms. Reducing the amount of free moisture or unbound water also minimizes other undesirable chemical changes, which can occur in foods during storage. The processes used to reduce the amount of unbound water in foods include techniques such as concentration, dehydration, and freeze-drying. These processes often require intensive expenditure of energy and are not cost efficient.

Control of water activity can be used successfully in achieving stability of foods, in prediction of moisture transfer between regimes in a multi-component food, for the prediction of water vapor transfer through food packaging and the prediction of the final water activity of a mixture of components including dissolved species.

Molecular Mobility. The molecular mobility (Mm) approach is a recent development in food science designed to explain how freezing and drying change the storage stability of foods and is an alternative and complementary method to water activity (a_w) ideas.

Most food materials do not form crystalline structures. To join in a crystal, the molecule in solution must slot into an existing lattice, rather like a jigsaw piece, it can only fit in at one orientation. Molecules rotate and flex in solution but they must be able to do so fast enough to form crystals before all the water leaves and movement stops. In relatively slow drying operations of small molecules crystals may have a chance to form: table sugar and salt are largely crystalline. However, large slow moving molecules or fast drying operations do not provide time for the crystals to grow and practically, in most cases crystals do not form. Instead, the solution becomes very viscous and eventually behaves like a mbber. If more water is removed the mbber becomes more and more viscous until at a critical point mobility effectively stops and the material can be considered a glass. Both glassy and rubbery materials are described as amorphous solids. Freezing can be considered a very similar process to drying. Water crystallizes as a pure ice, which takes no part in the solvation of the food material. As a food is frozen ice crystals form leaving the food in an increasingly dehydrated environment.

In each case the key parameter is molecular mobility - the capacity of the molecules present to move. Molecular mobility increases with temperature (the more thermal energy the molecules have the faster they move) and the concentration of small molecules (almost always water which acts as a molecular level lubricant or plasticizer). Drying lowers the moisture content and hence the molecular mobility of the solute. Freezing also lowers the water content (ice crystals form) but additionally the cooling reduces the thermal energy of the food molecules and therefore their mobility. The molecular mobility of a material is inversely related to its viscosity (if the molecules don't move much the liquid is thicker) and viscosity affects the rate of diffusion limited reactions. For a reaction between two molecules to occur, the molecules must first collide and then have enough thermal energy to overcome the activation energy barrier to reaction.

The two technological approaches to getting food into a glassy state are freezing and drying. The molecular mobility approach is a novel complement to the a_w method of 0 understanding the role of water in food spoilage. In general molecular mobility analysis is better for diffusion limited reactions, frozen foods and physical changes, they are about equal for understanding crispness and stickiness, and a_w is preferred for dried foods and non-diffusion limited processes. Some properties and behavioral characteristics of food that are dependent on molecular mobility are shown in the following table: 5

Table 7 Some Properties and Behavioral Characteristics of Foods That Are Governed by Molecular Mobility (Diffusion-Limited Changes in Products Containing Amorphous Regions)

Dry or Semidry Foods Frozen Foods

Flow properties and stickiness Moisture migration (ice crystallization,

Crystallization and recrystalization formation of in-package ice)

Sugar bloom in chocolate Lactose crystallization ("sandiness" in frozen

Cracking of foods during drying desserts)

Texture of dry and intermediate moisture foods Enzymatic activity

Collapse of stracture during secondary (desorption) Structural collapse of amorphous phase durin phase of freeze-drying sublimation (primary) phase of freeze- Escape of volatiles encapsulated in a solid, drying amorphous matrix Shrinkage (partial collapse of foam-like froze Escape of volatiles encapsulated in a solid, desserts) amorphous matrix Enzymatic activity Maillard reaction Gelatinization of starch Staling of bakery products caused by retrogradation of starch Cracking of baked goods during cooling Thermal inactivation of microbial spores Glass Transition and Water Activity: Physical Properties of the rubbery and glassy state and food stability

Phase and state transitions. Phase transitions are changes in the state of materials occurring at well-defined transition temperatures- melting (solid to liquid)- crystallization (liquid to solid)- vaporization (liquid to gas)- condensation (gas to liquid). A number of materials, including foods, are noncrystalline but may exhibit properties of solids or liquids. Noncrystalline materials are amorphous materials, i.e., their molecules are arranged randomly. Amorphous materials are often supercooled liquids or solids. Supercooled liquids are often called "rabbers" and the solids are "glasses." Transformation between the supercooled liquid and solid states occurs over a temperature range ,and the transition is known as the "glass transition."

Glass transition is typical of inorganic and organic amorphous materials, including such food components as sugars and proteins. A number of material properties change over the glass transition temperature range.

Water Plasticisation. Water is the most important solvent, dispersion medium, and plasticizer in biological and food systems. Plasticization and its modulating effect on temperature location of the glass transition is a key technological aspect of synthetic polymer technology where a plasticizer is defined as a material incorporated in a polymer to increase the material's workability, flexibility, or extensibility. The plasticizing effect is usually described by the dependence of the glass transition temperature on either the weight, the volume, or molar fraction of water. Water plasticization can be observed from the decrease in the glass transition temperature with increasing water content which may also improve the detectability of the transition. Both carbohydrates and proteins are significantly plasticised by water, i.e., water acts as a softener, depressing the glass transition temperature. The glass transition of water, i.e., solid noncrystalline water, is at about -135°C. At high water contents the glass transition approaches that of water. The detectability of the glass transition often increases with increasing water content- decreasing broadness of the transition- increasing change in heat capacity over the transition temperature range. Glass transitions in foods.

Understanding the glass transition and its relationships with physicochemical changes is very important for predicting the state and the behavior of food during processing, distribution, and storage.

The glass transition curve is a critical factor needed to understand physical changes of food. By way of example, in a cereal food processing system, it is important to recognize that if textural changes in a cereal system can be correlated with a glass transition, and the state diagram for the cereal food is known, then the processing and environmental conditions can be controlled such that the desired state for the food is achieved and is also retained during distribution and storage.

The amorphous state of nonfat food solids is typical of low moisture and frozen foods. Typical amorphous, glassy or rubbery foods are- dried fruits and vegetables- extruded snacks and breakfast cereals- hard sugar candies- free flowing powders- freeze- concentrated solids in frozen foods. The glass transition of food materials can be observed from a change in heat capacity, from a change in mechanical properties, and from a change in dielectric properties. The temperature range of the glass transition is dependent on the food material- low molecular weight food components, e.g., sugars, show a clear glass transition occurring over a temperature range of about 20°C- high molecular weight food components, e.g., proteins and starch, show a wide glass transition.

The glass transition temperature range is a specific property of each material. Carbohydrates. Sugars have clear glass transitions. The glass transition temperatures of sugars increase with increasing molecular weight.

Proteins. Amorphous proteins are important structural biopolymers. Amorphous proteins are important structural components of cereal foods, e.g., gluten in bread. The glass transitions of proteins are often difficult to determine calorimetrically due to a small change in heat capacity and broadness of the transition. Frozen materials. Ice formation during freezing results in freeze-concentration of solutes. The extent of freeze-concentration is dependent on the solutes and temperature. At low temperatures the freeze-concentrated solutes with unfrozen water vitrify, i.e., the materials contain a crystalline ice phase and a noncrystalline, glassy solute phase. Some solutes may crystallize, e.g., NaCl solution- freeze-concentrated sugars and foods often vitrify. Maximally freeze-concentrated solutions show glass transition at an initial concentration dependent temperature above which ice melting has an onset temperature.

In defining the relationship between moisture content and chemical reaction rates, polymer sciences provides theories of glass transition and water activity to explain the textural properties of food systems and the changes which occur during food processing and storage such as stickiness, caking, softening and hardening. Food may be a complicated mixture of lipids, polysaccharides, sugars, proteins, etc. existing in different phases. There may be local differences in water content affecting the glass transition.

By way of examples, if an amorphous material exists in the glassy state, it is hard and brittle, e.g. for cereals it would represent a crisp product. In the rubbery state the material is soft and elastic, for a fried snack or cereal this would represent an undesirable soggy state.

Thus glass transition theory provides a clearer approach to understanding the physical and texture changes of crisp cereals or snacks as water content increases. Texture is an important sensory attribute for many cereal based foods and the loss of desired texture leads to a loss in product quality and a reduction in shelf life. Saltine crackers, popcorn, puffed com curls, puffed rice cakes, and potato chips lost crispness if the water activity exceeded a threshold. Crispness is attributed to intermolecular bonding of starch forming small crystalline-like regions when little water was present. These regions require force to break apart which gives the food a crisp texture. Above a certain water activity, the water was presumed to disrupt these bonds allowing the starch molecules to slip past each other when chewed. The crisp perception of dry cereal snacks was the result of sounds generated when chewed which diminished as the water activity was increased. Loss of crispness is well explained by the transition from the glassy to the rubbery state.

Caking is another property that can be related to the glass transition. When a sugar is in solution and is dried, it is in the amorphous glassy state and the powder is free flowing.. At a high enough moisture or temperature, the material can enter the rubbery state. In the rubbery state, dried amorphous sugars tend to crystallize rapidly because of increased diffusion rates above a certain temperature, a condition resulting in undesirable caking, which inhibits free flow. Caking follows characteristic the steps for particles that are wetted by water vapor.

The choice of ingredients and level of plasticizers such as water and other small molecular weight components influences the glass transition temperature of a food product. In general, as the molecular weight of a polymer increases within a homologous series, the glass transition temperature increases. The addition of plasticizers decreases the glass transition temperature.

Effects of Water on Diffusion in Food Systems.

A number of operations in food processing, and the stability of stored foods, are affected by diffusional properties of food systems, which include the foods themselves, their immediate environment within a package, and any barriers (packaging or coating) used with the foods. Water content and "water activity" affect these diffusional properties dramatically, by plasticizing food and/or packaging polymers and affecting glass transition temperatures of components, and in some cases, water may serve as an internal transport medium.

The term "additive," as used herein refers to a substance or a mixture of substances used primarily for purposes other than its nutritive value and added to a food in relatively small amounts to (1) impart or improve desirable properties (2) or suppress undesirable properties, and (3) may become a part of the food or be transitory in nature. (Compare ingredient below which in some instance may be an additive).

The term "basic ingredient," as used herein means a principal constituent (except added water) of a composition considered to be the fundamental part and by which the composition is usually identified. Usually the basic ingredient constitutes the major portion of the composition, e.g., chocolate milk-milk is the basic ingredient. In those instances wherein a plurality of percentages of the ingredients are given that ingredient which constitutes 50 of the total composition (excluding added water) is considered to be the basic ingredient. The 50% may be determined by summing like ingredients, e.g., lactose, whey and butter fat are all lacteal derived. " Carbohydrate" refers to a compound, the monomeric units of which contain at least five carbon atoms, and their reaction products wherein the carbon skeleton of carbohydrate unit is not destroyed. Alcohols and acids corresponding to carbohydrates, such as, sorbitol ascorbic acid, or mannonic acid are not considered as being carbohydrates.

The term "dry" refers to products which are as a complete product free or relatively free from water and under normal ambient conditions involve such characteristics, but not necessarily each and every one, as free flowing, dry to the touch, nontacky or sticky, nonadhesive, granular, powder, tablet, flake, flour, meal, particulate, pellet, finely divided, etc.

The term "ferment" refers to any enzyme or any living organism that is capable of causing or modifying a fermentation.

The term "ingredient" refers to a component part (usually a major one) of mixture that goes to make a food.

Ingredient or additive does not include packaging materials, containers, paper products, etc. or any other material which would not reasonably be regarded as being edible. However, in some instances, additive may be an ingredient.

"Isolated triglyceridic fat or oil" refers to fat or oil (as defined below) that is free of any of the plant or animal tissue from which it is derived.

"Package" refers to a mercantile combination of an edible material fully encased, encompassed, or completely surrounded by a solid material.

"Tissue" means material containing a certain amount of the original animal or plant as against an extract, which is considered to be devoid of original cellular stracture. Included within the term are materials, which are chopped, cut, comminuted, pulverized, milled, slice, etc.

"Triglyceridic fat or oil" refers to esters of glycerol and a higher fatty acid (i.e., a monocarboxylic acid containing an unbroken chain of at least 7 carbon atoms bonded to a carbonyl group) wherein the three available hydroxyl functions of the glycerol are esterified by a same or different fatty monocarboxylic acid. Triglycerides are the chief constituents of the naturally occurring fats and oils.

Included in the invention are foods or edible products which , with a focus on water, could be classified as follows:

Table I - Classification of Food Products According to a Water Content and Type of Appropriate Physico-Chemical Approach

Physical State Product Examples Physico-Chemical Treatment

Dilute solutions/dispersions Drinks, soups Equilibrium thermodynamics, refer to Henry's law

Semi-dilute Purees, jellies Polymer chemistry, chain solution/dispersion (high entanglement, sol-gel moisture content) transformations

Solids (high moisture) Fish, vegetable, meat, ice Biophysical chemistry, colloid cream science

(intermediate moisture) Preserves, sausages Materials science

(low moisture) Dried products, cereals Materials science, glass/rubber transitions

The following discussion sets forth physical-chemical principles used by those skilled in the art of food science for formulating edibles and ingredients.

Colloids and Rheology

Colloids are dispersions of small particles of one phase (the disperse phase) in a second, continuous phase. Colloids occur widely in foods. The study of colloids is essentially the study of the physical interactions between the surface of the particles in the disperse phase and between the continuous phase and the disperse phase. Rheology is the study of materials when deformed.

Many foods are colloidal and complex in nature with the continuous phase being in the form of a true solution and there being more than one disperse phase. Milk has a continuous phase comprising polysaccharides, electrolytes and proteins in aqueous solution and disperse phases comprising both liquid fats and solid protein.

Table - Types of colloid

Emulsions and surface activity.

Emulsions are colloids where both disperse and continuous phases are liquid and are the most common type of food colloid. In the case of foods, they usually involve an oil phase and an aqueous phase and may be of two types:

• oil in water (o/w) emulsions where the disperse phase is the oil

• water in oil (w/o) emulsions where the disperse phase is the oil.

The phases in a emulsion may be exchanged by a process known as phase inversion. A common example of phase inversion in foods is butter making where cream is converted to butter by a process involving concentration and agitation. Once a sufficient oil concentration has been achieved, the agitation brings about a conversion of the o/w emulsion of cream to the w/o emulsion of butter. In the process, the oil concentration is further increased by the elimination of more aqueous phase as buttermilk. In general terms, the more stable form is determined by concentration.

Emulsifiers and Stabilizers

The process of forming an emulsion usually involves vigorous agitation to break up the oil into small droplets. Emulsion formation is assisted by the addition of emulsifiers, which help the break up process by reducing interfacial tension, thus these are usually surfactants. Common emulsifiers include detergents, glycerol mono stearate and lecithin. Once the emulsion is formed, then it must be maintained which is the role of stabilizers.

Emulsifiers can perform a stabilization role due to the electrostatic interactions between the hydrophilic portion of the molecule. However this may not be enough and stabilizers may also needed. Stabilization may be achieved by the addition or presence of macromolecules in the system. These may have two effects.

They may form a layer on the surface of the oil droplets which prevents the droplets meeting as a result of stearic hindrance. Insoluble proteins, such as casein in milk often perform this function.

They may dissolve in the continuous phase and increase its viscosity. In foods, for example, polysaccharides are often used for this purpose. Polysaccharide gums such as xanthan and carrageenan gums can produce substantial increases in viscosity on addition of small quantities as a consequence.

The breakdown of colloids involves particles coming together under the influence of the attractive forces and forming larger particles. There are various terms for this process depending on the exact nature of the process.

• Flocculation is a loose association of particles which is relatively easily broken up and the phases redispersed • Coagulation is a more strongly bound collection of particles. A Coagulated disperse phase is not readily redispersed as inter-particle attraction is much stronger than in flocculation. • Coalescence is when particles merge to form a single larger particle.

The first two definitions are somewhat loose and the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. In general, flocculation occurs if there is a lowering of the total surface free energy as a consequence.

Coalescence

Coalescence is the combining of two particles to form a single larger particle. The key distinction is that floes and coagulated particles retain a distinct identity, but this is not the case with coalescence. Coalescence is possible with both liquid and solid particles but is most common with liquids. The process involves a thinning of the continuous phase film between the particles until all the continuous phase has been expelled and the two particles merge.

Ostwald Ripening

If the disperse phase has any significant solubility in the continuous phase, the phenomenon called Ostwald ripening may occur. Owing to surface tension effects, small particles are generally more soluble than large particles. As a consequence, large particles tend to grow at the expense of small ones. If the process is sufficiently rapid, the colloid will be unstable. On the other hand control of this process is useful in production of photographic emulsions. In frozen foods, it can lead to deterioration during long term storage as the larger ice crystals will tend to grow at the expense of the smaller ones leading to tissue damage.

Gels

Gels are formed when the interactions between the particles in the disperse phase are strong enough to form a rigid network. In such a case, the colloid behaves as a solid and under moderate shear stresses behaves elastically. In effect, a gel comprises a continuous floe filling the whole system..

In the case of gels based on macromolecules, there are regions of the molecules where there is attraction to other molecules - often in the form of hydrogen bonding, or via some form of ionic stabilization. The result, as in gels based on floes, is a three dimensional network which behaves as if it were a solid.

Swelling of gels

The formation of the 3-D network that comprises a gel results in continuous phase being trapped within the gel. In many cases, the continuous phase is a solution and the floe network acts as a semi-permeable membrane. As a result, osmosis takes place and the gel will swell. The swelling tendency can be counteracted by applying an external pressure, the pressure required being known as the swelling pressure. This can reach quite high values. For example, driving wooden wedges into rock and soaking the wood can cause a sufficient swelling pressure to break the stone. HYDROCOLLOIDS

HydrocoUoids are hydrophilic polymers, of vegetable, animal, microbial or synthetic origin, that generally contain many hydroxyl groups and may be polyelectrolytes. They are naturally present or added to control the functional properties of aqueous foodstuffs. Most important among these properties are viscosity (including thickening and gelling) and water binding but also significant are many others including emulsion stabilization, prevention of ice recrystallization and organoleptic properties.

Foodstuffs are very complex materials and this together with the multifactorial functionality of the hydrocoUoids have resulted in several different hydrocoUoids being required, the most important of which are: alginate, arabinoxyolan, carragenan, carboxymethylcellulose, cellulose, gelatin, beta-glucan, guar gum, gum arabic, locust bean gum, pectin, starch, xanthan gum.

Each of these hydrocoUoids consists of mixtures of similar, but not identical, molecules and different sources, methods of preparation, thermal processing and foodstuff environment (e.g. salt content, pH and temperature) all affect the physical properties they exhibit. Descriptions of hydrocoUoids often present idealized structures but it should be remembered that they are natural products (or derivatives) with structures determined by stochastic enzymic action, not laid down exactly by the genetic code. They are made up of mixtures of molecules with different molecular weights and no one molecule is likely to be conformationally identical or even structurally identical (cellulose excepted) to any other.

Mixtures of hydrocoUoids show such a complexity of non-additive properties that it is only recently that these can be interpreted as a science rather than an art. There is enormous potential in combining the stracture-function knowledge of polysaccharides with that of the structuring of water. The particular parameters of each application must be examined carefully, noting the effects required (e.g. texture, flow, bite, water content, stability, stickiness, cohesiveness, resilience, springiness, extensibility, processing time, process tolerance) and taking due regard of the type, source, grade and structural heterogeneity of the hydrocolloid(s). All hydrocoUoids interact with water₃ reducing its diffusion and stabilizing its presence.

Generally neutral hydrocoUoids are less soluble whereas polyelectrolytes are more soluble.

Such water may be held specifically through direct hydrogen-bonding or the structuring of water or within extensive but contained inter- and intra-molecular voids. Interactions between hydrocoUoids and water depend on hydrogen-bonding and therefore on temperature and pressure in the same way as water cluster formation. Similarly, there is a reversible balance between entropy loss and enthalpy gain but the process may be kinetically limited and optimum networks may never be achieved. HydrocoUoids may exhibit a wide range of conformations in solution as the links along the polymeric chains can rotate relatively freely within valleys in the potential energy landscapes. Large, conformationally stiff hydrocoUoids present essentially static surfaces encouraging extensive stracturing in the surrounding water. Water binding affects texture and processing characteristics, prevents syneresis and may have substantial economical benefit. In particular, hydrocoUoids can provide water for increasing the flexibility (plasticizing) of other food components. They can also effect ice crystal formation and growth so exerting a particular influence on the texture of frozen foods. Some hydrocoUoids, such as locust bean gum and xanthan gum, may form stronger gels on freeze-thaw due to kinetically irreversible changes consequent upon forced association as water is removed (as ice) on freezing.

As hydrocoUoids can dramatically affect the flow behavior of many times their own weight of water, most hydrocoUoids are used to increase viscosity (see rheology) . which is used to stabilize foodstuffs by preventing settling, phase separation, foam collapse and crystallization. Viscosity generally changes with concentration, temperature and shear strain rate in a complex manner dependent on the hydrocolloid(s) and other materials present. Mixtures of hydrocoUoids may act synergically to increase viscosity or antagonistically to reduce it.

Many hydrocoUoids also gel, so controlling many textural properties. Gels are liquid- water-containing networks showing solid-like behavior with characteristic strength, dependent on their concentration, and hardness and brittleness dependent on the stracture of the hydrocolloid(s) present. HydrocoUoids display both elastic and viscous behavior where the elasticity occurs when the entangled polymers are unable to disentangle in time to allow flow. Mixtures of hydrocoUoids may act synergistically, associating to precipitate, gel or form incompatible biphasic systems: such phase confinement affecting both viscosity and elasticity. HydrocoUoids are extremely versatile and they are used for many other purposes including (a) production of pseudoplasticity (i.e. fluidity under shear) at high temperatures to ease mixing and processing followed by thickening on cooling, (b) liquefaction on heating followed by gelling on cooling, (c) gelling on heating to hold the stracture together (thermogelling), (d) production and stabilization of multiphase systems including films.

These properties of hydrocoUoids are due to their structural characteristics and the way they interact with water. For example:

• HydrocoUoids gel when intra- or inter-molecular hydrogen-bonding (and sometimes salt formation) is favored over hydrogen bonding (and sometimes ionic interactions) to water to a sufficient extent to overcome the entropic cost. Often the hydrocoUoids exhibit a delicate balance between hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity. Extended hydrocoUoids tend to tangle at higher concentrations and similar molecules may be able to wrap around each (forming helical junction zones) other without loss of hydrogen bonding but reducing conformational heterogeneity and minimizing hydrophobic surface contact with water so releasing it for more energetically favorable use elsewhere. Under such circumstances a minimum number of links may need to be formed (i.e. a junction zone which, if helical, generally requires a complete helix) to overcome the entropy effect and form a stable link. Where junction zones grow slowly with time, the interactions eliminate water and syneresis may occur (as in some jam and jelly).

• Polysaccharide hydrocoUoids stabilize emulsions primarily by increasing the viscosity but may also act as emulsifiers, where their emulsification ability is reported as mainly being due to accompanying (contaminating or intrinsic) protein moieties. In particular, electrostatic interaction between ionic hydrocoUoids and proteins may give rise to marked emulsification ability with considerable stability so long as the appropriate pH and ionic strength regime is continued. Denaturation of the protein is likely to lead to improved emulsification ability and stability. • Mixtures of hydrocoUoids may avoid self-aggregation at high concentration due to structural heterogeneity, which discourages crystallization but encourages solubility. HydrocoUoids may interact with other food components such as aiding the emulsification of fats, stabilizing milk protein micelles or affecting the stickiness of gluten.

• The particle size of hydrocoUoids and its distribution are important parameters concerning the rate of hydration and emulsification ability.

• Negatively charged hydrocoUoids change their structural characteristics with counter-ion type and concentration (including pH and ionic strength effects); e.g. at high acidity the charges disappear and the molecules become less extended.

• Physical characteristics may be controlled by thermodynamics or kinetics (and hence processing history and environment) dependent on concentration. In particular these may change with time in an monotonic or oscillatory manner.

• Different hydrocoUoids prefer low-density or higher density water and other hydrocoUoids show compatibility with both. As more intra-molecular hydrogen- bonds form so the hydrocoUoids become more hydrophobic and this may change the local stracturing of the water. Mixed hydrocoUoids preferring different environments produce 'excluded volume' effects on each others effective concentration and hence rheology.

• In the glassy state, conformational changes are severely inhibited, but the water held by hydrocoUoids may act as plasticizer (allowing molecular motion) greatly reducing the glass transition temperature by breaking inter-molecular hydrogen- bonding.

Gums and Starches: Controlling Moisture Behavior

Understanding the mechanics of water's interactions within foods and how to apply polysaccharides such as gums and starches to control these interactions allows designers to take steps to improve product quality and extend shelf life. A classic example of this is dough for baked products. Here, water not only is the solvent that activates chemical and/or yeast leaveners, but is a processing aid allowing the gluten development that leads to the formation of a mixable, cohesive mass (dough) that subsequently can be formed and baked. The starches and gums themselves are polymeric ingredients that require activation by water as a plasticizer.

Gums and starches are polysaccharides consisting of a straight molecular chain. Gums have a functional group on one end of this chain and starches have various branches on the chain. The exact configuration varies depending on the material's source

In unmodified forms, both absorb water, swell in solution and act as mild viscosifiers. When activated by heat and/or mechanical action, gum and starch particles both reorganize. Here is where the two begin to behave differently. Hydrated gums molecules have an affinity for one another and will gel. Starches, on the other hand, continue to act as individual molecules with an increased thickening capability. Various gums and starches behave in different ways and modifications of the basic material make even more variations possible (i.e. pregelatinized starch and cold-swelling gums.)

Flavor Components. Water activity represents an important variable that influences the rate of many chemical reactions of flavor compounds. In complex aqueous systems, the way a food matrix is stractured is of great importance to flavor release and flavor perception.

In aqueous food systems polysaccharides and proteins are generally the major components determining the stracture of food products. Hydration of these macromolecular components is of primary importance in order to follow up the consequences when other smaller molecules, such as aroma compounds, are present. The way these volatile compounds are trapped in food systems will determine flavor release and thus, flavor perception and the appearance of a product to the consumer.

Physico-chemical reactions involving flavor components — whether between flavors, or between flavors and nonflavor components of food and the environment ~ are loosely termed "flavor interactions." These interactions influence the quality, quantity, stability and the ultimate perception of flavor in food. Flavor is primarily a combination of taste and odor, and along with appearance and texture, comprises the criteria for sensory acceptance of foods.

The term "artificial flavors" refers to those flavors that are added to foods, or consisting of compounds not existing in nature. Naturally occurring flavors, or those formed by heating, aging or fermentation, are considered "natural flavors." Naturally occurring flavors that are synthesized for addition to foods take on the label "nature-identical" flavors.

Fruit flavors are formulated and compounded for specific applications. The goal of the product designer is to select flavors that perform optimally within the context of a chemically reactive food product. Successfully achieving this goal requires knowledge of flavor interactions.

Physical and chemical flavor interactions occur continuously during food growing, harvesting, processing, storage and consumption. Interactions can be attributed to various types of chemical bonding: covalent bonding, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic bonding, and the formation of inclusion complexes. The most commonly measured physical aspects of flavor interactions are binding, partitioning and release. Binding refers to the absorption of volatile and nonvolatile components of flavor onto the constituents of the food matrix. Partitioning describes the distribution of flavors in the aqueous, lipid or gas phases associated with the foodstuff and the package. The point at which flavor is made available to human sensory receptors is termed "release." Optimizing the time for flavor release is product-dependent, since longer times are needed for foods that are well-chewed than for drinks that spend only a few seconds in the mouth.

Flavors partition themselves between the oil and water phases differentially, based on the chemical stracture of the flavor and the chain length of the fatty acids present. In foods in which fat has been reduced, the flavor release is affected by this partitioning, since flavorants in aqueous systems possess a higher equilibrium vapor pressure than lipid systems. Volatiles release more quickly from aqueous systems, and dissipate, resulting in less of a flavor impression on the human sensory organs.

Proteins possess little flavor of their own, but they bind several volatile flavor components particularly well in the presence of heat denaturation. Binding, due to hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen-bonding, is reversible, as in the case of ketones, hydrocarbons and alcohol-based flavors. Covalent binding, such as Schiff base formation (aldehydes and amino groups), often is irreversible. Some of the factors influencing protein binding to volatiles are: temperature, pH, concentration and water presence. Proteins may bind more or less of a flavor component, depending on length and extent of heat treatment. In dairy proteins, several flavor components, such as a vanillin, benzaldehyde and d-limonene, were reduced by as much as 50% in solutions containing whey proteins or sodium casemate. Protein-flavor binding can reduce the impact of desirable flavors and carry undesirable flavors to sensory receptors. The most widely studied, documented protein- flavor interaction is the binding of off-flavors to soy proteins.

Carbohydrates serve several important flavor-enhancement functions. Ranging in size from small to large, they function as sweeteners; browning-reaction participants; fat replacers; viscosity builders; and flavor encapsulators. Sugars serve as carriers for flavors by physical interaction in aqueous systems, and by chemical-binding in dry ingredients. Structures of larger carbohydrate molecules, such as starch and cyclodextrins, can form hydrophobic regions that serve as inclusion mechanisms for flavor compounds of a like, hydrophobic chemistry. The flavor molecules that fit into these hydrophobic regions are called "guest molecules." These interactions are highly reversible, since no other chemical reaction takes place between the starch and the guest, other than the hydrophobic attraction. This interaction forms the basis for the molecular encapsulation of flavors.

Polysaccharides, particularly hydrocoUoids and gelling agents, bind flavor components to varying degrees. When the concentration of flavors is held constant ~ and the level of polysaccharides increases — perception of aroma and taste decreases, as a result of viscosity. The sweetness of sucrose, for example, is decreased when the viscosity of a solution of guar gum or carboxymethylcellulose is increased.

Carbohydrates also alter the volatility of aroma compounds. When compared to flavor compounds in a water solution, the addition of mono- and disaccharides increases volatility, and the addition of polysaccharides decreases volatility. The effect of carbohydrates on volatility is particularly important in food systems that use fat replacers, since volatiles are released at a faster rate when lipid content is low, due to the weaker interactions of carbohydrates with hydrophobic flavor compounds. Food matrices often are composed of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, so interactions with flavors often occur between two or more components. The Maillard reaction (also known as nonenzymatic browning), in which reducing sugars react with amino acids to produce aromatic volatiles and browning products, is responsible for the flavors formed during thermal treatment of foods, such as chocolate, coffee, roasted meats, bakery items and caramel. The number and type of flavors produced by these reactions depends on the quantity and type of amino acids available to participate in the reaction mixture. In combination with lipid oxidation reactions, the Maillard reaction generates flavor compounds when carbonyl compounds (from degradation of sugar or lipids) react with amines or thiols during heating. Flavor reactions within a complex food matrix seldom occur in isolation, and are affected by the reactants, the intermediates and the products of other reactions.

Flavors and packaging interact as a result of three factors: migration of packaging or food components; permeation of the package by gas, water and organic vapors; and exposure to light.

Protecting flavors from interactions that diminish or degrade them involves minimizing processing influences (heat, pH); environmental factors (evaporation, oxygen); and chemical interactions with the food matrix.

Flavor perception is related to the way aroma is released (or inversely retained) from food systems. Flavor release depends on the nature and concentration of flavor compounds present in the food, as well as on their availability for perception as a result of interactions between the major components and the flavor compounds in the food. Food compositional and structural factors, e.g. as a result of the presence of macromolecules, and eating behaviour determine perception and the extent of flavor release. Knowledge of binding behaviour of flavor compounds in relation to the major food components, their rates of partitioning between different phases, and the structural organization of food matrices is of great practical importance for the flavoring of foods, in determining the relative retention of flavors during processing or the selective release of specific compounds during processing, storage and mastication. The major mechanisms likely to occur in flavor release, are (i) specific binding of aroma molecules and (ii) entrapment of these molecules within a matrix. Specific binding can occur for some aroma molecules with proteins or with amylose. Additionally, proteins and polysaccharides affect the kinetics of aroma release as they influence the transport of aroma through the food into the air phase. Therefore, in complex aqueous systems, the way a food matrix is structured is of great importance to flavor release and flavor perception.

Different mechanisms controlling flavor release are likely to occur in food systems. Diffusion phenomena influenced by the viscosity of the system, unspecific binding or specific bindings to one of the macromolecular components are possibilities for the interactions of flavor molecules within the food matrix.

OVERVIEW OF FOOD PROCESSING Food processing is an umbrella term, which describes all the activities of manufacturing food and beverages for human consumption, as well as prepared feeds for animals. The industry is defined as food and kindred products by Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) 20.

Food processing tends to break down the inherent structures within food materials or ingredients to a varying extent, and is therefore concerned with all aspects of food — the chemical and physical properties of food and its constituents, the processing and production of food, and the packaging and marketing of food, which represent components of a food processing system. Food quality - texture, flavor release, nutrient availability, moisture migration, and microbial growth — are influenced and determined by the formation, stability and breakdown of structures within foods.

Food processing involves conversion of raw materials and ingredients into a consumer food or edible product. Food processing includes any action that changes or converts raw plant or animal materials into safe, edible, and more palatable foodstuffs. Improvement of storage or shelf life is another goal of food processing. The purpose of food processing is to produce foods that between them provide constituents of a balanced diet, are free from contamination, are appealing in color, taste and texture.

Food processing also drives an array of flavor chemistry reactions and the perception of flavor also depends on how the flavorful compounds are released during eating. The relationships between the structural, mechanical and physicochemical properties of the food and the perception of flavor and the formation of flavor compounds during processing is dependent in part upon water hydration.

Food processing operations involve one or more of ambient temperature processing, mechanical processing, high temperature processing, low temperature processing, fermentation processing, and various post processing steps.

Ambient temperature processes include cleaning and sorting, peeling; shredding, chopping and milling; mixing, blending and forming. These often are preparation for subsequent operations.

Physical Separations include filtration, centrifuging; expression and extraction; membrane separations. These often involve recovering a particular component from a raw material.

High temperature processes have two major purposes: Safety through pasteurization and sterilization; cooking, which modifies flavor, texture, nutritional qualities. A single process may serve both functions simultaneously. High temperature processes include sterilization and pasteurization; blanching; baking and roasting; frying; microwave and infra-red heating.

The purpose of blanching is as a pretreatment for dehydration, sterilization, freezing. Heat is sufficient to inactivate enzymes but not to cook but under processing is as bad as over processing.

Baking and Roasting are essentially the same process involving dry heating in hot air. Baking usually refers to dough products. Roasting usually refers to meat, nuts and vegetables. The surface of the treated substance undergoes chemical changes developing color and flavor. The heat has nutritional effects in that the food easier to eat and digest, but there may be a loss of vitamins.

Frying is cooking in hot oil. Its purpose is to improve eating quality of the food (flavor, texture). Effects of frying are similar to those of baking. Because of direct contact between hot oil and food, frying is generally quicker than roasting or baking.

Microwave and infra red heating use electromagnetic radiation for heating. Microwave heating involves short wavelength radiation. The frequency of the waves coincides with the natural vibration frequency of water molecules. Infra red is radiation just beyond the visible light region of the spectrum. The energy is dependant on temperature, surface properties, shape of the bodies.

Processing at low temperatures involves slowing the rate of microbial growth, but does not kill microbes. Up to a point, the lower the temperature, the longer the shelf life. Below - 10 oC, all microbial growth stops, but some residual enzyme activity may remain. The main function of chilling and freezing, therefore, is for storage and prolonged shelf life.

Fermentation serves a number of purposes, including preservation, improving nutritional quality, improving digestibility, health benefits. There is a wide variety of fermented foods including dairy products, fermented meat and vegetables, beverages, bread, etc.

Post processing operations include packaging and storage. The purposes of these operations include protection, display, increase storage life. Increasingly modified atmospheres are being used to increase shelf life, often by reducing oxygen and increasing nitrogen content.

Packaging Materials

Main packaging materials include metals, paper and board, glass, and polymers. The metals most widely used with foods are steel (usually found in the form of tinplate involved in canning), and aluminum used for three major food applications, e.g. beverage cans, foil containers, aerosol cans. Can manufacture

Cans are produced in two major forms. Three piece with rolled and soldered side seams and two separate end enclosures. Two piece in which sides and one end are formed from flat sheet and are seamless. The ends are sealed by a double seal which is purely mechanical. The interior of cans is usually coated with a suitable "enamel" to protect against tainting the food.

Paper and board paper

Various grades of paper are used. Kraft paper is a strong paper often used for paper sacks. Vegetable parchment is a paper specially treated with acid to give it a closer, smoother texture. Sulphite paper is a lighter, weaker paper than kraft paper - often used as paper bags and sweet wrappers. Greaseproof paper is produced from sulphite pulp where the paper fibers are more thoroughly beaten to give a closer texture. It is resistant to oil and grease. Tissue is a soft resilient paper used for protection.

Aseptic packaging

Aseptic packaging is a process where the food is sterilized then filled into sterile containers under sterilized conditions which will prevent recontamination. It differs from in-pack sterilization in that the containers and food are sterilized separately.

Aseptic processing

The shorter processing times possible mean the food is less processed leading to less destruction of vitamins and loss processed of flavors. Because the packaging does not have to be heated, a wider range of packaging is available. However, care must be taken to ensure sterility during the packaging operation packaging. Aseptic processing permits longer shelf life at normal temperatures with higher quality products.

Polymers for food packaging

Polymers are macromolecules based on a repeating unit derived from a small molecule. They may be natural - e.g. polysaccharides or synthetic. They possess a variety of properties useful to food packaging. Examples of polymers include polyethylene, LDPE, HDPE, polypropylene, polystyrene, olyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene, terephthallate (PET), polycarbonate, polyamide (nylon), cellulose (cellulose acetate, cellophane). Polymers may be classified as thermoplastic, which melts on heating; or thermosetting, which decomposes on heating.

UNIT OPERATIONS IN FOOD Evaporation

Evaporation is a process of concentrating a liquid by heating to evaporate the water. Evaporation may be used in foods for a number of purposes:

■ To pre-concentrate the food prior to some other process, usually drying or to reduce transport costs

■ To improve the preservation qualities by reducing water activity eg. jam- making.

■ To produce a product in its own right e.g. evaporated milk, fruit drinks.

Heat for evaporation is usually provided by condensing steam. Hence the process involves transferring latent heat from the steam to the evaporated water. It is usual in food evaporation, to carry out the evaporation under vacuum. This reduces the boiling temperature of the liquid and hence reduces thermal damage to the food. For this reason, short residence times in the evaporator are desirable. The most common types of evaporator are the thin film type where the liquid is spread in a thin film over the inner surface of a set of tubes, the steam being supplied to the outside of the tubes. There are two types of thin film evaporator, climbing film and falling film. Where a high degree of concentration is required, then multiple effect evaporation is employed. This involves carrying out the evaporation in a series of stages with the vapor generated in one stage being used as the heating steam for the next stage. This results in a considerable degree of steam economy.

Drying

Drying or dehydration of foods involves removing the water from a food to reduce the moisture content to a very low level (usually below 5% wt). The purpose of drying foods is to extend the storage life by reducing the water activity to practically zero, thus inhibiting microbial growth and enzyme activity. The normal processes of drying involve applying heat to the food and the drying process often results in irreversible changes to the food, such as non-enzymic browning and, vitamin degradation protein denaturation. Unless carried out under carefully controlled conditions, drying can have a significant negative impact on the nutritional value of the food.

The drying process Drying is normally carried out by heating the solid in air so that the water evaporates into the air. The drying process may be followed via a graph of moisture content vs time. The moisture content will eventually fall to a constant value. This is known as the equilibrium moisture content.

Drying mechanisms

Constant rate drying occurs when the solid material is completely covered with a layer of water.

Drying occurs by evaporation from the surface of the water layer and the rate is governed purely by the temperature and moisture content of the drying air. When sufficient water has evaporated so that a layer of water no longer covers the surface of the solid, water has to migrate from the interior of the solid by diffusion before it can evaporate from the surface of the solid. Under these circumstances, as the water content of the interior falls, the rate of diffusion to the surface falls and, hence the rate of evaporation falls.

Drying rates and times

In the constant rate period, the drying rate is governed by surface evaporation which is effectively a function of the rate of heat transfer to the surface of the wet solid.

Extraction Solid-liquid extraction or leaching is a process of separating two solids by contacting the solid mixture with a solvent in which one solid is soluble and the other is insoluble. This process is widely used for recovering vegetable oils and also for instant tea and coffee and decaffeination of coffee. Extraction may be carried out batchwise or continuously. The most common way is using continuous countercurrent extraction in a manner similar to solvent extraction and adsorption.

FOOD ADDITIVES AND FOOD STRUCTURE

Important in making the food palatable and even attractive, these "minor" additive constituents of food often have little nutritional value. While they may be present naturally in food, they are often added to the food to ensure control and consistency of properties. Additives affect foods' rheology and texture, colloidal properties, colors, including browning of foods, and flavorings

Food additives are often considered to be any substance not normally consumed as a food by itself and not normally consumed as a typical ingredient of a food. Additives are incorporated into foods so as to modify the properties (including the processing properties) of the food in some way. A distinction should be made between food additives and food contaminants.

A contaminant is an undesirable substance present in the food, which it is not feasible to completely remove (either for technical or economic reasons). An additive, on the other hand, is a substance, which is added deliberately for some specific purpose.

Food additives serve the following purposes:

1. Maintenance of the nutritional quality of food.

2. Enhancement of the keeping quality or stability of foods leading in a reduction of losses.

3. Making foods attractive to the consumer in a way that does not lead to deception.

4. Providing essential aids in food processing.

It is also known in the art to use additives unethically to deceive the consumer and to disguise the use of poor ingredients or faulty processing and handling techniques.

The major categories of food additives include

Natural and Synthetic Additives

An additive can be called natural if it is actually isolated from a plant or animal source (using those terms broadly) or occurs in a plant or animal extract. If an additive is identical chemically to a compound occurring in nature but has actually been chemically synthesized, it referred to as nature identical. A synthetic additive is one which does not occur in nature and must be produced synthetically, such as a fermentation process or by other biotechnological methods.

The invention includes the following subject matter, described in United States Class 426 of the Manual of Patent Classification. The categories, definitions, and examples set forth therein are to be interpreted according to the class definitions (and lines with related compound, process, and product classes) and patentable subject matter classified therein as set forth in United States Class 426 of the Manual of Patent Classification, which is hereby incorporated by reference.

A. Stmctured (Microclustered) Edible Products Or Compositions

1. Products or compositions which historically have been considered to be a food, and products or compositions which contain a naturally occurring material (i.e., plant or animal tissue) which has been historically regarded as a food; e.g., milk, cheese, apples, bread, dough, bacon, whiskey, etc.).

2. Products or compositions which are known to have or are disclosed as having nutritional effect.

3. Products or compositions which are closed or claimed as being edible or which; perfect, modify, treat, or are used in conjunction with an edible such as (1) or (2) above or with another edible, so as to become part of the edible composition or product, or which converts a nonedible to an edible form.

4. Mixtures of enzymes which are edible, per se, or which are used in preparing a product or composition proper for food or edible material. 5. Products or compositions involved in foods or in compositions for making foods which contain a live micro-organism which enhances or perfects the digestive action of the intestinal tract, e.g., Bacillus acidophilus milk, etc.

6. Edible products or compositions which have structural characteristics.

7. Plural inorganic elements or minerals for fortification.

8. Edible bait.

B. Edible Food Products In Combination With Nonfood Materials Which Are Generally:

1. Products or compositions of A above in combination with a package stracture, inedible casing, a liner or base, an infusion bag, etc.

2. Compounds which have the same function as in (A. 1-3) in combination with an inedible material.

3. Potable water in a package.

4. Chewing gum and chewing gum bases, per se.

C. Flavoring And Sweetening Compositions

1. Flavoring compositions wherein at least one of the ingredients is not a carbohydrate type material.

2. Sweetening compositions wherein at least one of the ingredients is a noncarbohydrate type material.

D. Processes Of Administering The Products Or Composition Of A-C Above To An Animal Via The Oral Cavity.

F. Processes Of Administering A Compound Having The Same Function As The Compositions Or Products Of A-C Above To An Animal Via The Oral Cavity. G. Processes Of Treating Live Animals With A Product. Compound. Or Ferment That Perfects The Food Made From Said Animal In Combination With A Butchering Operation. Or Processes Of Removing A Food Product From A Live Animal Followed By A Treatment Of The Removed Food. Or A Butchering Operation Followed By An Operation.

H. Processes Of Preparing Treating Or Perfecting The Products Or Compositions Of A-C.

I. Single Use Infusion Containers Or Receptacles Which Are Specific For Preparing A Food And Which Are Devoid Of Stracture Which Specifically Cooperates With A Food Apparatus.

J. Compositions And Methods Of Use For Treating Or Perfecting A Food Material.

Readers of skill in the art to which this invention pertains will understand that the foregoing description of the details of preferred embodiments is not to be construed in any manner as to limit the invention. Such readers will understand that other embodiments may be made which fall within the scope of the invention, which is defined by the following claims and their legal equivalents.

Claims

What is claimed is:

1. A culture medium comprising micro-clustered water.

2. A medium comprising micro-clustered water.

3. A culture comprising micro-clustered water.

4. A method of preparing culture medium comprising the step of dissolving or mixing nutrients with micro-clustered water.

5. A method of preparing medium comprising the step of dissolving or mixing one or more of the group of medium ingredients selected from inorganic salts, minerals, carbohydrates, amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids and lipids, proteins and peptides, and serum.

6. A method of preparing a culture comprising the step of contacting cells, tissues, organs, subcellular parts, viruses, bacteriophage, or vectors with a culture medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

7. Use in cell culture of a culture medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

8. Use in cell culture of a medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

9. Use in cell culture of a culture comprising micro-clustered water.

10. Use in microbial biotechnology of one or more of a culture medium which comprises micro-clustered water, a culture which comprises micro-clustered water, and a medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

11. A method of enhancing a cell's viability comprising the step of culturing said cell in one or more of a culture medium which comprises micro-clustered water, a culture which comprises micro-clustered water, and a medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

12. A method of enhancing survivability of a cell, tissue, or organ comprising the step of culturing said cell, tissue, or organ one with one or more of a culture medium which comprises micro-clustered water, a culture which comprises micro-clustered water, and a medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

13. Use in organ, tissue, or cell transplantation of one or more of a culture medium which comprises micro-clustered water, a culture which comprises micro-clustered water, and a medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

14. Use in transfection of one or more of a culture medium which comprises micro- clustered water, a culture which comprises micro-clustered water, and a medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

15. Use in harvesting stem cells of one or more of a culture medium which comprises micro-clustered water, a culture which comprises micro-clustered water, and a medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

16. Use in stem cell biology or cloning of one or more of a culture medium which comprises micro-clustered water, a culture which comprises micro-clustered water, and a medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

17. A kit comprising one or more of a culture medium which comprises micro- clustered water, a culture which comprises micro-clustered water, and a medium which comprises micro-clustered water.

18. A method of inhibiting the frequency of mutation of genetic material, said method comprising the step of culturing said genetic material with a medium which comprises micro-clustered water, wherein said genetic material is situated in a biological entity.

19. A micro-clustered water which comprises one or more agents selected from one or more of the group consisting of bio-affecting agents, body-treating agents, and adjuvant or carrier compositions.

20. The composition of claim 19 wherein said bio-affecting agent is selected from the group of agents which possess biological properties selected from the group consisting of: a. preventing, alleviating, treating or curing abnormal and pathological conditions of the living body; b. maintaining, increasing, decreasing, limiting or destroying a physiologic body function; c. diagnosing a physiological condition or state by an in vivo test; d. controlling or protecting an environment or living body by attracting, disabling, inhibiting, killing, modifying, repelling or retarding an animal or micro-organism.

21. The composition of claim 19 wherein said body treating agent is selected from the group of agents intended for deodorizing, protecting, adorning or grooming a body.

22. The composition of claim 19 wherein said bio-affecting agent or said body-treating agent is selected from the group consisting of fermentates, plant and animal extracts, body fluids or material containing plant or animal cellular stracture.

23. The composition of claim 19 having a dosage form selected from the group of consisting of liquid, ointments, creams, gels, dispersions, powders, granules, capsules, tablets, and transdermal drag delivery devices.

24. The composition of claim 19 which is a pharmaceutical composition.

25. The composition of claim 19 wherein said bio-affecting agent or body-treating agent is selected from the group consisting of: drags acting at synaptic and neuroeffector junctional sites: drags acting on the central nervous system: autacoids or drugs for treating inflammation; drugs affecting renal and cardiovascular function: drags affecting gastrointestinal function: chemotherapeutic drags for parasitic infections: chemotherapeutic drags for microbial diseases; chemotherapeutic drags for neoplastic diseases; drugs used for immunomodulation: drags acting on the blood and the blood- forming organs; hormones and hormone antagonists: vitamins; agents for treating dermatological disorders; and agents for ophthamological treatment.

26. The composition of claim 19 further comprising a drag delivery system.

27. A method of using a composition of claim 19 comprising the step of administering said composition to a living body or ex vivo to cell, tissue or organ.

28. The method of claim 27 in which the step of administering involves the use of a drag delivery system.

29. The method of claim 27 in which said method is a diagnostic method.

30. A method of preparing a composition of claim 19which comprises the step of combining micro-clustered water with one or more agents selected from one or more of the group consisting of bio-affecting agents, body-treating agents, and adjuvant or carrier compositions.

31. A method of hydrating at least one of an ingredient and product of a food processing system, said method comprising the step of contacting for a sufficient period a sufficient aliquot of microclustered water with at least one of said ingredient and product, thereby forming at least one of a microclustered ingredient and microclustered product.

32. The method of claim 31 wherein said product is selected from the group consisting of

(a) an edible product or composition,

(b) an edible food product which comprises micro-clustered water in combination with nonfood material,

(c) a flavoring composition, and

(d) a sweetening composition.

33. The method of claim 31 wherein said ingredient includes one or more ingredients selected from one or more of the group consisting of amino acids, peptides, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, aroma substances, vitamins, minerals, and food additives.

34. The method of claim 32 wherein said edible product is food made from a live animal subjected to a step of treatment with microclustered ingredient and/or microclustered product, said step of treatment combined further with a step selected from the group of steps consisting of: a. a butchering operation b. removing a food product from a live animal followed by a treatment of the removed food, and c. a butchering operation followed by a treatment of butchered product.

35. An edible product or composition which comprises micro-clustered water.

36. The edible product or composition of claim 35 which further comprises nonfood material.

37. A flavoring composition which comprises micro-clustered water.

38. A sweetening composition which comprises micro-clustered water.

39. A method of administering via the oral cavity a micro-clustered food product or composition to an animal or human, said method comprising the step of feeding to the human or animal food products or compositions which comprise microclustered water.

40. The method of claim 39 wherein said microclustered product or composition is selected from the group consisting of

(a) edible product or composition which comprises micro-clustered water,

(b) edible food product which comprises micro-clustered water in combination with nonfood material,

(c) flavoring composition which comprises micro-clustered water, and

(d) sweetening composition which comprises micro-clustered water.