WO1998044848A1 - Methodes permettant de diagnostiquer et de corriger des retards d'acquisition de la lecture et dispositif correspondant - Google Patents

Methodes permettant de diagnostiquer et de corriger des retards d'acquisition de la lecture et dispositif correspondant Download PDF

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Publication number
WO1998044848A1
WO1998044848A1 PCT/US1998/006926 US9806926W WO9844848A1 WO 1998044848 A1 WO1998044848 A1 WO 1998044848A1 US 9806926 W US9806926 W US 9806926W WO 9844848 A1 WO9844848 A1 WO 9844848A1
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WIPO (PCT)
Prior art keywords
test pattern
test
background
contrast
spatial frequency
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Application number
PCT/US1998/006926
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English (en)
Inventor
Teri A. Lawton
Original Assignee
Lawton Teri A
Priority date (The priority date is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the date listed.)
Filing date
Publication date
Application filed by Lawton Teri A filed Critical Lawton Teri A
Priority to AU89633/98A priority Critical patent/AU734743B2/en
Priority to IL13222798A priority patent/IL132227A0/xx
Priority to EP98967129A priority patent/EP0986327A4/fr
Priority to CA002289022A priority patent/CA2289022C/fr
Publication of WO1998044848A1 publication Critical patent/WO1998044848A1/fr

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    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61B—DIAGNOSIS; SURGERY; IDENTIFICATION
    • A61B3/00—Apparatus for testing the eyes; Instruments for examining the eyes
    • A61B3/02—Subjective types, i.e. testing apparatus requiring the active assistance of the patient
    • A61B3/022—Subjective types, i.e. testing apparatus requiring the active assistance of the patient for testing contrast sensitivity
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61B—DIAGNOSIS; SURGERY; IDENTIFICATION
    • A61B3/00—Apparatus for testing the eyes; Instruments for examining the eyes
    • A61B3/02—Subjective types, i.e. testing apparatus requiring the active assistance of the patient
    • A61B3/06—Subjective types, i.e. testing apparatus requiring the active assistance of the patient for testing light sensitivity, e.g. adaptation; for testing colour vision
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61H—PHYSICAL THERAPY APPARATUS, e.g. DEVICES FOR LOCATING OR STIMULATING REFLEX POINTS IN THE BODY; ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION; MASSAGE; BATHING DEVICES FOR SPECIAL THERAPEUTIC OR HYGIENIC PURPOSES OR SPECIFIC PARTS OF THE BODY
    • A61H5/00—Exercisers for the eyes
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G16—INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY [ICT] SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATION FIELDS
    • G16H—HEALTHCARE INFORMATICS, i.e. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY [ICT] SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR THE HANDLING OR PROCESSING OF MEDICAL OR HEALTHCARE DATA
    • G16H20/00—ICT specially adapted for therapies or health-improving plans, e.g. for handling prescriptions, for steering therapy or for monitoring patient compliance
    • G16H20/70—ICT specially adapted for therapies or health-improving plans, e.g. for handling prescriptions, for steering therapy or for monitoring patient compliance relating to mental therapies, e.g. psychological therapy or autogenous training
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61B—DIAGNOSIS; SURGERY; IDENTIFICATION
    • A61B3/00—Apparatus for testing the eyes; Instruments for examining the eyes
    • A61B3/02—Subjective types, i.e. testing apparatus requiring the active assistance of the patient
    • A61B3/028—Subjective types, i.e. testing apparatus requiring the active assistance of the patient for testing visual acuity; for determination of refraction, e.g. phoropters
    • A61B3/032—Devices for presenting test symbols or characters, e.g. test chart projectors
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G16—INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY [ICT] SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATION FIELDS
    • G16H—HEALTHCARE INFORMATICS, i.e. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY [ICT] SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR THE HANDLING OR PROCESSING OF MEDICAL OR HEALTHCARE DATA
    • G16H15/00—ICT specially adapted for medical reports, e.g. generation or transmission thereof

Definitions

  • the present invention relates to methodology for diagnosing and treating reading disorders such as dyslexia. More particularly, the present invention relates to methods and apparatus for measuring contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination. The present invention also relates to methods and apparatus for improving contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination. The inventor of the present invention has determined that by improving contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination by practicing the present invention, children who are dyslexic, as well as children with normal reading ability, may improve their reading ability.
  • ganglion cells of the retina send signals out of the eye to a relay nucleus in the thalamus of the brain.
  • Cells of the thalamus in turn send signals to the visual cortex for further processing.
  • There are two major types of retinal ganglion cells which respectively contact two divisions of cells in the relay nucleus of the thalamus: the parvocellular division and the magnocellular division. Cells in the parvocellular division have small receptive fields and are useful for visual tasks requiring a high degree of acuity.
  • Cells in the magnocellular division which are about ten-times less numerous than those of the parvocellular division, have large receptive fields and are useful for visual tasks requiring a high degree of movement detection.
  • Cells of the magnocellular division have coarse acuity and high contrast sensitivity.
  • the vision system of a human may be divided into two visual streams.
  • the first stream is a magnocellular stream which detects the movement of an object. This movement stream has a high sensitivity to low contrast (for example, below 10%), to low luminance, to movement, and has low resolution.
  • the second stream is a parvocellular stream which detects the color, shape, and texture of patterns. This second or acuity steam has low contrast sensitivity and high resolution. The acuity stream is most sensitive to contrasts above about 10%.
  • the parvocellular and magnocellular cells provide the information used by many different visual cortical pathways (or “streams") which are specialized at performing different perceptual tasks.
  • One such specialized pathway is a visual cortical area called Medial Temporal, or "MT,” which is central in the analysis of direction of motion.
  • MT Medial Temporal
  • Most of the signals that drive neurons in area MT derive from neurons in layer 4b of the primary visual cortex, which neurons in turn are primarily supplied by input from the magnocellular cells.
  • the primary visual cortex is the only cortical area that receives signals from the retina via neurons in the thalamic relay nucleus.
  • Direction selectivity is a fundamental characteristic of the magnocellular neurons and is mediated by cells in both layer 4b in the striate cortex and in the MT cortex.
  • magnocellular networks such as direction discrimination and detecting brief patterns
  • the immature magnocellular and inhibitory networks of dyslexics confirm the increasing psychophysical, physiological, and anatomical evidence that dyslexics have anomalies in their magnocellular networks, demonstrated by (1) higher contrast thresholds to detect brief patterns, (2) an impaired ability to discriminate both the direction and the velocity of moving patterns, and (3) unstable binocular control and depth localization when compared to age-matched normals.
  • dyslexics have a disordered posterior parietal cortex and corpus callosum, having immature inhibitory networks that severely limit a child' s ability to both discriminate direction of movement and read.
  • Reading is the most important skill that is learned in the first and second grades. Yet there are no standardized ways to evaluate or to teach reading. A natural assumption is that reading relies on the higher resolution pattern system evaluated by measuring an observer's visual acuity and color discrimination ability. It is generally believed that movement discrimination is involved in reading solely as a means of directing eye movements, coordinating each saccade so that letter recognition can be conveyed by the portion of the vision system which has a higher resolution. It is intriguing that differences between children with reading problems (e.g., those who are dyslexic) and children with normal reading ability were revealed only by tests of the cortical movement system.
  • dyslexia which may be defined as a difficulty in reading in a child of normal intelligence and an adult-level acuity (i.e., 20/20), is explained as a difficulty in decoding words on a page that are readily seen.
  • One approach used to remediate dyslexia involves training the child to engage in novel, small-scale hand-eye coordination tasks like drawing, painting, and modeling, coupled with word identification, for 5 hours per week over 8 months. This approach improved reading at least one grade level. The mechanism for this improvement is unknown.
  • one of the objectives of the present invention is to provide methods and apparatus for diagnosing and remediating reading disorders by respectively measuring and improving contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination of the subject.
  • Dyslexic children who have practiced the methods of the present invention have increased their reading rates up to 9 times on average. There is also a marked increase in reading rates in children with previously determined normal ability.
  • a background is displayed on a monitor with a contrast and a spatial frequency.
  • a test window is superimposed over the background and includes a test pattern with a contrast and a spatial frequency.
  • the contrasts and the spatial frequencies are within respective ranges which stimulate the visual cortical movement system of the subject.
  • the test pattern is then moved within the test window.
  • the subject provides a signal indicative of the direction the subject believes the test pattern moved.
  • the contrast of the test pattern, the spatial frequency of the background, or the spatial frequency of the test pattern is modified, either by increasing or decreasing its respective value.
  • This process is then repeated a number of times, cycling through predetermined combinations of test patterns and backgrounds.
  • Contrast sensitivity may be measured to determine whether a child is dyslexic. Repeated stimulation by the methods and apparatus of the invention improves contrast sensitivity, thereby remediating dyslexia and improving reading ability.
  • FIG. la and lb are plan views of exemplary visual stimuli displayed in accordance with the present invention, particularly illustrating a test window with a test pattern superimposed over a background;
  • FIG. Ic is a plan view of text filtered in accordance with the present invention
  • FIGS. 2a-2f are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity for direction discrimination with respect to spatial frequencies of the background for various subjects, including dyslexic and normal children, particularly illustrating the relationship at a spatial frequency of 0.5 cycle per degree of the test pattern;
  • FIGS. 3a-3f are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity for direction discrimination with respect to spatial frequencies of the background for various subjects, including dyslexic and normal children, particularly illustrating the relationship at a spatial frequency of 1.0 cycle per degree of the test pattern;
  • FIGS. 4a-4f are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity for direction discrimination with respect to spatial frequencies of the background for various subjects, including dyslexic and normal children, particularly illustrating the relationship at a spatial frequency of 2.0 cycles per degree of the test pattern;
  • FIGS. 5a-5f are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity for direction discrimination with respect to spatial frequencies of the background for various subjects, including dyslexic and normal children, particularly illustrating the relationship at a spatial frequency of 0.25 cycle per degree of the test pattern;
  • FIGS. 6a-6d are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity for orientation discrimination with respect to spatial frequency of the test pattern for various subjects;
  • FIGS. 7a-7c are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between an improvement in contrast sensitivity function for direction discrimination with respect to spatial frequency of the test pattern for various subjects;
  • FIGS. 8a-8c are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity with respect to background spatial frequency for a test-pattern spatial frequency of 0.5 cycle per degree for various subjects in Grade 1 ;
  • FIGS. 9a-9c are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity with respect to background spatial frequency for a test-pattern spatial frequency of 0.5 cycle per degree for various subjects in Grade 2;
  • FIGS. lOa-lOc are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity with respect to background spatial frequency for a test-pattern spatial frequency of 0.5 cycle per degree for various subjects in Grade 3;
  • FIGS, lla-llc are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity with respect to background spatial frequency for a test-pattern spatial frequency of 1.0 cycle per degree for various subjects in Grade 1;
  • FIGS. 12a-12c are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity with respect to background spatial frequency for a test-pattern spatial frequency of 1.0 cycle per degree for various subjects in Grade 2;
  • FIGS. 13a-13c are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between contrast sensitivity with respect to background spatial frequency for a test-pattern spatial frequency of 1.0 cycle per degree for various subjects in Grade 3;
  • FIGS. 14a-14c are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between reading rates with respect to filtered and unfiltered text for various subjects
  • FIGS. 15a-15e are graphical views of data illustrating relationships between proportional improvements in reading rates with respect to filtered and unfiltered test for various subjects
  • FIG. 16 is a flowchart illustrating steps in exemplar methodology for measuring and improving contrast sensitivity of a subject in accordance with the present invention
  • FIG. 17 is a perspective view of a computer system configured in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention for measuring and improving contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination;
  • FIG. 18 is a graphical view of a sinusoid, illustrating principles of contrast
  • FIG. 19 is a schematic view of a subject and a monitor of the computer system of the invention, illustrating principles of visual angle;
  • FIG. 20 is a flowchart of exemplary methodology of the present invention for improving contrast sensitivity for motion (or direction) discrimination;
  • FIG. 21 is a schematic view of visual stimuli, specifically a background and a test pattern, displayed with a contrast and a spatial frequency in accordance with the present invention, particularly illustrating the test pattern in an initial position;
  • FIG. 22a is a schematic view of the background and the test pattern of FIG. 21, particularly illustrating the test pattern in a second position which is to the right of the initial position, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention;
  • FIG. 22b is a schematic view of the background and the test pattern of FIG. 21, particularly illustrating the test pattern in an alternative second position which is to the left of the initial position, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention
  • FIG. 23 is a graphical view illustrating steps in an exemplary method of the present invention for determining a contrast-sensitivity threshold of a subject at predetermined spatial frequencies of the test pattern and the background;
  • FIG. 24 is a graphical view illustrating exemplary contrast sensitivity functions (CSFs) of a normal adult, a normal child, and a dyslexic child.
  • CSFs contrast sensitivity functions
  • exemplary apparatus for measuring and improving the contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination of a subject and configured in accordance with the teachings of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 17 as a computer system 100.
  • Exemplary computer system 100 is configured to measure and also improve the contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination of a subject.
  • Measuring contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination is used to determine whether a subject suffers from a reading disorder, such as dyslexia. Improving contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination results in an improvement in reading ability and a remediation of the reading disorder.
  • the present invention may be used to cure dyslexia.
  • exemplary system 100 includes a computer 102 which is connected to output devices such as a visual output or monitor 104 and an audio output or speaker 106.
  • Computer 102 is also connected to input devices such as a keyboard 108, a mouse 110, and/or a microphone 112.
  • Exemplary methodology of the invention may be implemented on the system in the form of instructions stored as computer-readable code which configures exemplary computer 102 to perform in accordance with the present invention. These instructions may be stored on computer-readable storage media such as a compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM) 114 or a floppy disc 116 for downloading into computer 102 through a CD-ROM drive 118 or a floppy drive 120, respectively.
  • CD-ROM compact disc read-only memory
  • floppy disc 116 for downloading into computer 102 through a CD-ROM drive 118 or a floppy drive 120, respectively.
  • the computer-readable instructions may be downloaded into computer 102 through an Internet connection 122 as known in the art.
  • computer 102 may include a hard disc 124 on which computer-readable instructions may be pre-stored or "bundled" as known in the art.
  • Exemplary computer system 100 may be configured as an IPC SPARCstation manufactured by Sun Microsystems, including a high- resolution monitor (e.g., 1,160 pixels by 900 pixels and 256 levels of gray for each of the red, green and blue channels) and a high-speed computer (e.g., 16 million instructions per second).
  • Exemplary computer 102 is configured to display on monitor 104 visual stimuli in the form of a background 130 and a test pattern 132.
  • Test pattern 132 is displayed within a test window 134 which is superimposed over background 130.
  • Both the background 130 and the test pattern 132 are displayed with a contrast and a spatial frequency.
  • exemplary background 130 and test pattern 132 may be displayed as a plurality of light and dark vertical stripes which alternate in a substantially sinusoidal manner.
  • the stripes may be horizontal.
  • Other terminology describing the stripes may be sine-wave gratings.
  • Contrast may be defined as the ratio between the lightest or the darkest portion of the stripes and the mean value of the stripes, compared to the mean value of the stripes. This difference is shown as ⁇ , and the mean value is defined as the gray level of the light and dark stripes. Accordingly, a contrast of 5% indicated that the brightest portion of the light stripes (i.e., the peak) are 5% lighter than the average gray level, and that the darkest portion of the dark stripes (i.e., the troughs) are 5% darker than the average gray level.
  • the respective spatial frequencies at which the background 130 and the test pattern 132 are displayed may be defined as the rates at which the respective stripes repeat.
  • a subject 136 of whom contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination is to be measured is positioned a distance d from monitor 104.
  • the subject 136 is positioned with respect to the monitor 104 such that visual angle ⁇ is defined to be 1 degree for about every 1 centimeter (cm) of arc length ⁇ .
  • the subject 136 is positioned about 57 cm from the monitor 104 (i.e., distance d is about 57 cm).
  • the respective spatial frequencies at which the background 130 and the test pattern 132 are displayed are measured in cycles per degree (of visual angle). For example, if the spatial frequency of the test pattern 132 is 1 cycle per degree (cpd), then there would be one light stripe and one dark stripe for about every 1 cm on the monitor 104 when the subject 136 is positioned about 57 cm away.
  • the background 130 is being displayed at about 2 cpd while the test pattern is being displayed at about 1 cpd.
  • Exemplary background 130 and test pattern 132 have a spatial relationship with respect to each other in that the background is substantially larger than the test pattern, for example, on the order of about 5 times larger.
  • the background 130 may be displayed on monitor 104 to subtend about 20 degrees of visual angle, while the test pattern 132 may be displayed to subtend about 4 degrees of visual angle.
  • the test window 134 is preferably centered within the background 130 and in the form of a familiar shape for children, for example, a fish.
  • exemplary test window 134 is substantially circular.
  • the contrast at which the background 130 is displayed and the contrast at which the test pattern 132 is displayed are selected from a predetermined range of contrasts which stimulate the visual cortical movement system of the subject 136.
  • the visual cortical movement system of humans includes the magnocellular neurons as described above and is selectively stimulated by contrasts which are less than about 10%.
  • exemplary background 130 is displayed with a constant contrast of about 5%, and exemplary test pattern 132 is displayed at a contrast ranging from 0% to about 10%, which will be discussed in more detail below.
  • the spatial frequency at which the background 130 is displayed and the spatial frequency at which the test pattern 132 is displayed are selected from a predetermined range of spatial frequencies which stimulate the visual cortical movement system of the subject 136.
  • the spatial frequency at which exemplary test pattern 132 is displayed is less than about 5 cycles per degree (cpd)
  • the spatial frequency at which exemplary background 130 is displayed is a few octaves higher and a few octaves lower than the spatial frequency of the test pattern; in other words, the background spatial frequency is centered about the test-pattern spatial frequency.
  • the spatial frequency of the test pattern 132 is about 1 cpd
  • the spatial frequency of the background 130 may range from about 1/4 cpd, 0.5 cpd, 1 cpd, 2 cpd, and 4 cpd (see FIGS. 3a-3f);
  • the test-pattern spatial frequency is about 0.25 cpd
  • the background spatial frequency may range from about 0.0625 cpd, 0.125 cpd, 0.25 cpd, 0.5 cpd, and 1 cpd (see FIG. 5a-5f).
  • exemplary computer system 100 is configured to implement an interactive process employing a two-alternative forced choice task.
  • the methodology of the present invention is generally represented by the flowchart of FIG. 20, which includes a preliminary initialization step (block S10) which will be discussed below. Referencing FIG.
  • exemplary computer 102 upon activation, for example, by the subject 136 manipulating the mouse 110, exemplary computer 102 displays on monitor 104 a background 130 with a contrast (e.g., about 5%) and a spatial frequency (e.g., about 0.5 cpd) and a test pattern 132 within test window 134 with a contrast (e.g., about 5%) and a spatial frequency (e.g., about 1 cpd) (block S12).
  • a contrast e.g., about 5%
  • a spatial frequency e.g., about 0.5 cpd
  • test pattern 132 within test window 134 with a contrast (e.g., about 5%) and a spatial frequency (e.g., about 1 cpd)
  • block S12 One of the dark stripes of the background 130 is referenced with numeral 140, and one of the dark stripes of the test pattern 132 is reference with numeral 142.
  • the computer 102 will then move the test pattern 132 within the test
  • test reference stripe which is indicated by numeral 142', is positioned to the right of where it was initially (i.e., as shown in FIG. 21), and in FIG. 22b the test reference stripe, which is indicated by numeral 142", is positioned to the left of where it was initially.
  • Exemplary computer 102 may randomly select to move the test pattern 132 either to the right or the left. Although the test pattern 132 may be moved in any desired degree or length, it is preferable to shift the stripes either left or right a distance substantially equal to about one-half of the width of one of the stripes, which is equal to about 90 degrees of spatial frequency, which can be seen in FIGS. 20 and 22. (For the sake of clarity, the stripes of the background 130 and the test pattern 132 alternate in accordance with a square wave, rather than a sinusoid, in FIGS. 20 and 22.)
  • Both the initial position of the test pattern as shown in FIG. 21 and the moved position of the test pattern as shown in either FIG. 22a or 22b are displayed for a predetermined period.
  • the periods for which the test pattern is displayed in each position is for a length which causes apparent motion of the stripes of the test pattern.
  • Apparent motion of the stripes of the test pattern 132 may be induced in the subject 136 when the test pattern displayed in the initial position (as in FIG. 21) and the test pattern displayed in either of the final positions (as shown in FIGS. 22a and 22b, with apparent motion indicated by arrows R and L, respectively) for less than about 2/10 second, for example.
  • the test pattern 132 is displayed in both the initial and final positions for about 150 milliseconds (0.15 seconds).
  • computer 102 Before displaying the initial position of the test pattern 132 and after displaying the final position of the test pattern (i.e., before and after moving test pattern), computer 102 does not display the background 130 or the test window 134 on monitor 104, in that it may be preferable for the monitor to be blank or to display all the pixels with a gray value.
  • the background 130 may remain displayed on the monitor 104 with only the test window 134 being blank.
  • Exemplary computer 102 may store images of the test pattern 132 in the initial position shown in FIG. 21 and in each of the possible final positions as shown in FIGS. 22 in files in memory. To display the computer 102 may output the image file of the test pattern 132 in the initial position for the predetermined period and then output either of the image files of the test pattern 132 in the final position for the predetermined period. When image files are not output by the computer 102, the monitor 104 does not display any image.
  • the image files may be in the form of pixel maps (i.e., pixmaps) as known in the art.
  • exemplary computer 102 is configured to receive a signal from the subject 136 indicative of the direction the subject believes the test pattern moved (block S16).
  • the subject 136 may provide the signal through one of the input devices, that is, the keyboard 108, the mouse 110, or the microphone 112.
  • the computer 102 may prompt the subject 136 for a response, for example, with a graphical user interface on the monitor 104 or with an audible through the speaker 106.
  • the subject 136 may have be initially instructed to input the signal when the monitor 104 is blank after the final position of the test pattern 132 is displayed.
  • the subject 136 may use the mouse 110 which has a plurality of input buttons, including a right button 144R and a left button 144L. If the subject 136 believes that he or she saw the test pattern 132 move to the right, then the subject may press right button 144R of the mouse 110 to provide the signal. If the subject 136 believes that he or she saw the test pattern 132 move to the left, then the subject may press the left button 144L to provide the signal.
  • the computer 102 determines whether the subject 136 is correct or not in perceiving the movement of the test pattern 132. If the computer 102 displayed the test pattern 132 in the right final position shown in FIG. 22a and the subject
  • the computer 104 would determine that the subject input a correct signal. Conversely, if the computer 102 displayed the test pattern 132 in the right final position shown in FIG. 22a and the subject 136 pressed the left button 144L, or if the computer displayed the test pattern 132 in the left final position shown in FIG. 22b and the subject pressed the right button 144R, then the computer 104 would determine that the subject inputted an incorrect signal.
  • the computer 102 modifies either the contrast of the test pattern 132 or the spatial frequency of either the background 130 or the test pattern 132 (block SI 8), as discussed below. If the signal input by the subject 136 is correct, then the computer 102 may, for example, decrease the contrast of the test pattern 132, thereby making it more difficult to distinguish the light and dark stripes. After modifying the test pattern contrast, the computer 102 may then redisplay the background 130 (the contrast and the spatial frequency of which has not been modified in this example) and display the test pattern 132 with the same spatial frequency as initially displayed and with the decreased contrast (loop S20 and block S12).
  • the computer 102 moves test pattern 132 with the modified contrast within the test window 134 (block S14), awaits to receive a signal from the subject 136 (block S16), and modifies the contrast of the test pattern 132 again and/or the spatial frequency of either the background 130 or the test pattern (block S18).
  • This process may repeat a plurality of times.
  • the contrast of the test pattern 132 may vary between, for example, 5% and 0.5% at 0.5% increments (i.e., 5%, 4.5%, 4.0%, ... 0.5%), and may include 0.25% and any other desired contrast as well.
  • the computer 102 may modify the spatial frequency of the background (block S18). For example, if the test pattern 132 is being displayed at a spatial frequency of about 1 cycle per degree (cpd), then the computer 102 may modify the spatial frequency of the background from 2 octaves lower or 0.25 cpd, 1 octave lower or 0.5 cpd, the same or 1 cpd, 1 octave higher or 2 cpd, to 2 octaves higher or 4 cpd.
  • the computer 102 may then display the background 130 as modified and the test pattern 132 and move the test pattern within the test window (blocks S12 and SI 6) as described above. At each of these background spatial frequencies, the computer 102 may increase or decrease the contrast of the test pattern 132 a plurality of times in response to correct or incorrect signals.
  • the computer 102 may modify the spatial frequency of the test pattern 132 (block S18). For example, if the test pattern 132 is being displayed with a spatial frequency of about 0.5 cpd, then the computer 102 may increase this frequency 1 octave to 1 cpd. In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the test pattern 132 may be displayed at a spatial frequency selected from a range of predetermined frequencies including 0.25 cpd, 0.5 cpd, 1.0 cpd, and 2.0 cpd.
  • the computer 102 may then display the background 130 and the test pattern 132 as modified and move the modified test pattern within the test window 134 (blocks S12 and S16) as described above. At each of these test pattern spatial frequencies, the computer 102 may increase or decrease the contrast of the test pattern 132 and/or the spatial frequency of the background 130.
  • contrast sensitivity which will be discussed in more detail below, is defined as the inverse of contrast threshold, which is the minimum contrast at which the subject can distinguish sideways movement.
  • the subject 136 may be a child with so-called normal reading ability or any other person — adult or child — who suffers from one form of dyslexia or another. As dyslexia of various degrees and types may afflict as much as 50% of the population as a whole, the benefit to society is essentially boundless. Although it is often preferable to initially measure the contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination of the subject 136, this measurement does not need to be undertaken in order to improve the contrast sensitivity.
  • schools may make the present invention available to first and second graders for practice.
  • the present invention may be configured as a "fish game" in which the object of the game is being able to answer correctly the question, "Which way did the fish stripes move?"
  • the children improve their contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination and thereby improve their ability to read. If the child is dyslexic, the improvement will be great; whereas if the child is of normal vision or reading ability, the improvement will be less marked.
  • all the children of a grade-school class play the game, it is not necessary to determine which children are dyslexic as all children improve.
  • the inventor has determined that playing the fish game for as little as about 5 minutes to 10 minutes a week for about 8 weeks significantly improves contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination.
  • the computer-readable instructions for configuring computers to operate in accordance with the present invention may be readily provided via conventional storage media (e.g., CD-ROM 114 or floppy disc 116) or via an Internet connection 122, and as the present invention uses visual exercises (e.g., the left-right movement of vertical stripes) rather than language to improve reading rates, schools and organizations all over the world may implement the fish game to improve the reading rates of children regardless of educational or ethnic backgrounds.
  • the methodology of the present invention has been described thus far in a general sense in that the test pattern 132 is moved with respect to the background 130, a signal is received from the subject, and the contrast and/or the spatial frequency of the test pattern 132 or of the background 130 is modified, with the process being repeated a plurality of times to improve contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination.
  • FIG. 16 A more specific and preferred embodiment of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 16 which, in addition to improving contrast sensitivity, measures contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination and determines the contrast sensitivity function (CSF) for motion discrimination for the subject 136.
  • CSF contrast sensitivity function
  • a staircase procedure is implemented to determine a contrast-sensitivity threshold for each spatial frequency of the test pattern 132 at each spatial frequency of the background 130.
  • Exemplary methodology for measuring contrast sensitivity as illustrated in FIG. 16 may include a plurality of preliminary initialization steps.
  • data on the observer or subject 136 may be input into the system 100 (block S20), including name, date of birth, visual acuity (i.e., 20/20, etc.), viewing distance d, and so on.
  • Parameters of the monitor 104 may also be entered into the system 100 (block S22), such as color and gamma functions.
  • Contrast sensitivity function (CSF) parameters may also be initialized (block S24), which may include the generation of the visual stimulus patterns for the spatial frequencies of the background 130 and the test pattern 132.
  • CSF contrast sensitivity function
  • the computer 102 may then generate image files for the background 130 and the test pattern 132 in the form of pixel maps or pixmaps (block S26).
  • the pixmaps may include the test pattern 132 in the initial position (see FIG. 21), in a right position (see FIG. 22a), and in a left position (see FIG. 22b), as well as a pixmap for the background 130.
  • the present invention measures and improves contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination, which specifically includes direction (i.e., left-right) discrimination and orientation (i.e., vertical-horizontal) discrimination.
  • the pixmaps may also include the test pattern 132 in a vertical position and in a horizontal position (see FIG. lb).
  • the pixmaps may then be copied to the monitor 104 (block S28) as described above.
  • the pixmap for the background 130 may be displayed at a preferred contrast of, e.g., 5% and a specified spatial frequency.
  • the test pattern 132 is displayed at a specified contrast and spatial frequency.
  • the spatial frequencies at which the test pattern 132 and the background 130 are displayed are held constant, while the contrast at which the test pattern is displayed is varied, as shown on the vertical axis. For example, if the subject 136 indicates a wrong direction (block S30), the contrast of the test pattern 132 is increased (block S32) one step, e.g., from 3.5% to 4% (while holding the spatial frequency constant), until the subject 136 indicates the direction correctly.
  • f ⁇ e.g. 0.25 cpd, 0.5 cpd, 1 cpd, and 2 cpd
  • the subject 136 is on the staircase (block S34). This is determined when the subject 136 incorrectly indicates the direction the test pattern 132 moves. For example, as shown in FIG. 23, the subject 136 correctly indicated the direction of the test pattern 132 when displayed with contrasts of 5%, 4.5%, and 4%, as indicated by a "Y" for trial Nos. 1, 2, and 3. When the subject 136 incorrectly indicates the direction, as shown by the "N" at trial No. 4, the subject is on the staircase, and the contrast of the test pattern 132 is increased one step (block S32), for example, from 3.5% to 4%. The pixmap with the test pattern 132 with a 4% contrast is then copied to the monitor 104 for display (block S28).
  • the computer 102 determines whether a predetermined number of correct responses have been made, for example, three (block S36). If not, then the computer 102 will redisplay the test pattern with the same contrast (e.g., 4%) until the subject 136 indicates the direction correctly for the predetermined number of times, such as three indicated by the "Ys" at trial Nos. 5, 6, and 7.
  • test-pattern contrast is decreased another step (block S38), for example, from 4% to 3.5%. If the subject 136 incorrectly indicates the direction at this new test-pattern contrast, then the contrast remains the same (blocks S30, S36, and S28), for example, at 3.5%. If the subject indicates the direction incorrectly at this contrast, as indicated by the "N" at trial No. 9 in FIG. 23, then the contrast of the test pattern increases one step.
  • This switching from a higher contrast to a lower contrast and from a lower contrast to the higher contrast is defined as an inversion.
  • a run is initiated and terminated at an inversion.
  • the computer 102 monitors the number of runs which occur in determining the threshold of the subject 136 for the particular spatial frequencies of the test pattern and the background, with the threshold being defined as the lower contrast of the run.
  • the predetermined number of runs in the example shown in FIG. 23 is six, with each inversion indicated by trial Nos. ⁇ - , 4-7, 7-9, 9-12, 12-13, and 13-16. Accordingly, for the example illustrated in the drawings, the contrast-sensitivity threshold for the subject 136 at a test-pattern spatial frequency f ⁇ and a background spatial frequency f B is 3.5%.
  • the data (such as those graphically illustrated in FIG. 23) are analyzed (block S42) to determine the contrast-sensitivity threshold at the specified spatial frequencies. If the subject 136 has not yet completed testing at all of the predetermined spatial frequencies of the background 130, that is, two octaves higher and two octaves lower than, as well as equal to, the test- pattern spatial frequency as described above (block S44), then the computer 102 may add a stimulus (block S46), for example, an audible signal, indicating that the subject 136 has completed one specified test-pattern spatial frequency at one background spatial frequency, and will begin, for example, testing at another background spatial frequency for the same test- pattern spatial frequency.
  • a stimulus for example, an audible signal
  • the CSF for the new frequencies may then be initialized (block S24). This process is repeated until the subject 136 has been tested for all of the predetermined background spatial frequencies for the specified test-pattern spatial frequency (block S44).
  • the data for the specified test-pattern spatial frequency may then be stored (block S50) to generate a contrast sensitivity function (CSF) for the specified test-pattern spatial frequency, as illustrated in FIG. 24.
  • Contrast sensitivity (the vertical axis) is the inverse of contrast-sensitivity threshold. For example, in the example shown in FIG. 23, a contrast-sensitivity threshold of 4% (i.e., 0.04) yields a contrast sensitivity of 25.
  • the dyslexic child has lower contrast sensitivities than the normal child, especially when the background spatial frequency f B equals the test-pattern spatial frequency f ⁇ , which will be discussed in more detail below.
  • the test-pattern spatial frequency is modified (e.g., increased or decreased within the preferred predetermined range of 0.25 cpd, 0.5 cpd, 1 cpd, and 2 cpd) (block S54), and the process returns to block S24.
  • the preferred methodology described thus far measures the CSFs of the subject 136.
  • the CSFs of the subject improve.
  • the process of being tested i.e., playing the fish game
  • the process of being tested improves the contrast sensitivities of the dyslexic child.
  • the inventor has discovered that by repeating the test in the future (block S56), for example, once or twice a week for up to eight weeks, significantly improves the CSFs of all children, but especially in dyslexic children, so that the CSF of a dyslexic child will be reshaped to look like the CSF of a normal child (see FIG. 23).
  • the testing process may be repeated for a plurality of subjects (block S58).
  • the above-described apparatus and methodology of the invention is capable of being alternatively configured for many applications.
  • the background 130 may be displayed with a plurality of spatial frequencies, e.g., as a natural scene. This is particularly beneficial in testing children in that the fish game may be implemented more realistically with the fish-shaped test window 134 "swimming" through a natural aquatic background 130.
  • the present invention has been described in relation to the contrast sensitivity for direction discrimination, the principles of the present invention may be readily applied to measuring and improving contrast sensitivities for all motion discrimination of the visual cortical movement system.
  • the CSFs for the normal adult in both CSF tasks were the average of a male and a female both 43 to 44 years old, with 20/20 acuity and normal intelligence. All observers sat at a viewing distance of 57 cm from the screen for all tasks in this study, enabling high spatial frequencies up to 8 cyc/deg to be displayed. During the first session, the student's visual acuity was measured with a hand-held eye chart.
  • the TDS was administered to determine the child's reading grade level and whether the child exhibited reading problems.
  • the observer's CSF to discriminate between orthogonally oriented brief 150 msec patterns was measured. It took two to three sessions to measure each child's orientation discrimination CSF. This CSF was then used to generate individualized filtered text that was stored on the hard disk.
  • Reading rates for equal size filtered and unfiltered text were measured in a subsequent session. Reading rates were used to evaluate a child's reading performance, since this task relies on a child's ability to decode words, and cues such as context affect performance. Text was chosen that was entertaining, and easy to read, so that the difficulty of the text did not limit reading performance.
  • the direction discrimination CSFs were measured, following the reading rate session, once a week for the next 8 weeks, each week the CSF for a new test frequency was mapped out for a 4-octave range of background frequencies. Therefore, each replication for a particular set of test and background patterns was spaced about one month apart.
  • CSFs Direction-discrimination contrast sensitivity functions
  • 2AFC temporal two alternative forced choice
  • a test pattern of a vertical sine- wave grating was presented in the form of a fish, as shown in FIG. la, with the fish-shaped test pattern subtending 4 degrees of visual angle at a viewing distance of 57 cm.
  • the edges of the test pattern provided the outline of the fish that was surrounded by a circular background of a vertical sine- wave grating.
  • the test patterns and backgrounds were presented abruptly for 150 milliseconds (msec) using simultaneous metacontrast.
  • the vertical stripes covering the fish were moved by phase shifting each stripe by 90 degrees either to the left or the right from one 150-msec interval to the next.
  • test and background spatial frequencies were presented at a 5% contrast.
  • the subject initiated the practice session by pushing the middle mouse button.
  • the contrast of the fish pattern was increased one step on each incorrect response; otherwise the contrast remained constant.
  • the middle mouse button was pushed again to begin the test session. The only difference between the test and the practice session was that each time the subject chose the direction of movement correctly, the contrast of the test pattern was reduced one step until the first incorrect response.
  • a 2AFC double-staircase psychophysical procedure as known in the art was then initiated to measure the contrast threshold needed to detect the left- right movement correctly at least 79% of the time.
  • This 2AFC psychophysical task enabled measuring the most sensitive, repeatable contrast thresholds possible.
  • the subject was instructed when to progress from the practice session to the test session. About three practice trials were completed before moving to the test session. Each threshold consisted of approximately 20 to 30 trials.
  • Sine-wave gratings of 0.25 cycle per degree (cpd), 0.5 cpd, 1.0 cpd, and 2 cpd were used to characterize the fish-shaped test pattern.
  • Each of the sine- wave gratings was surrounded by one of five different sine- wave backgrounds.
  • the spatial frequency of the background may be equal to the spatial frequency of the test pattern, or may be one or two octaves higher or lower than the spatial frequency of the test pattern.
  • Subjects were given auditory feedback, one short beep or three short beeps, indicating whether the direction of the motion had been correctly identified. This auditory feedback was used to train the subject to discriminate left and right movement at low contrasts.
  • Orientation discrimination CSFs were measured to map the CSF for a 5-octave range of spatial frequencies, from 0.25 cpd to 8.0 cpd, so that the CSF for high spatial frequencies could be used to generate filtered text.
  • the test pattern was a circular fish which subtended a visual angle of 8 degrees at a viewing distance of 57 cm as shown in FIG. lb.
  • the subject's task was to push a key indicating whether the abruptly presented (e.g., 150 msec) test pattern was vertical (i.e., up or down) or horizontal (i.e., sideways) in orientation. Auditory feedback was given after each pattern to indicate whether the subject chose the orientation of the pattern correctly.
  • a 2 AFC staircase procedure was used to measure the contrast threshold function of each subject. Following a short practice session that set the initial contrast of the test pattern, the test run was initiated. At the beginning of the test run, the contrast of the test pattern was decreased one step of 0.5%, each time the observer correctly identified the orientation of the test pattern. Following the first incorrect response, the staircase procedure was used. In the staircase, the subject had to correctly identify the orientation of the test pattern three times in a row before the contrast was decreased one step. The contrast was increased one step each time the orientation of the test pattern was identified incorrectly. Each threshold consisted of approximately 20 to 30 trials.
  • the present invention evaluates the movement system by measuring the contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination of a subject.
  • dyslexia which may be defined as a difficulty in reading in a child of normal intelligence and an adult-level acuity (i.e., 20/20) but with low contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination, is explained as a difficulty in visually perceiving words on a page that could be readily decoded otherwise.
  • Tests of the acuity system such as visual acuity using long-duration patterns, reveal no differences between children with normal reading and children with reading problems. In contrast, differences between children with normal reading and children with reading problems are revealed only by tests of the visual cortical movement system.
  • Reading rates were measured for continuously scrolled text both before and after measuring Contrast Sensitivity Functions (CSFs) to discriminate left-right movement for 35 normal children aged 5 to 8 years old.
  • CSFs Contrast Sensitivity Functions
  • the direction-discrimination CSFs were 3 to 4 times lower for dyslexics and resembled the CSFs of 5-year-old children.
  • the CSFs of normal and dyslexic children revealed a different pattern of results when test and background frequencies were equal, thereby enabling rapid screening for dyslexia at 6 and 7 years old.
  • Perceptual learning which refers to the ability of experience to alter the sensitivity or timing of one's perceptual machinery, is a form of memory that resides within the circuits in the brain that process sensory information.
  • Experience dependent changes in the numbers of neurons and synaptic connections have been observed in the visual cortex even as early as primary visual cortex.
  • Experience may have particularly strong and rapid affects on the developing visual cortex and is also capable of affecting the mature nervous system.
  • the circuits that underlie motion discrimination are plastic and can be rewired by experience. Accordingly, practicing the task used to measure contrast sensitivity for motion discrimination increases the subject's contrast sensitivities. To rapidly remediate reading disorders, a subject repeats the above-described method for about 5 minutes to 10 minutes per week for about eight weeks. By using feedback and practice, the subject will significantly improve motion discrimination CSFs up to 8 fold on average and reading rates up to 9 fold on average.
  • the evidence that is presented below support the concept that networks in magnocellular streams play a major role in reading and are maturing in all 5- to 8-year-old children. Since rapid remediation was found using a direction discrimination task, the most rapid remediation occurring for 6- to 7-year-old children, which indicates that these children are transitioning through a critical period for movement discrimination at that age.
  • Dyslexics have anomalies in their magnocellular networks, demonstrated by: (1) higher contrast thresholds to detect brief patterns, (2) an impaired ability to discriminate both the direction and the velocity of moving patterns, and (3) unstable binocular control and depth localization when compared to age-matched normals.
  • Dyslexics had selective deficits in the magnocellular layers of both the visual (lateral geniculate nucleus) and auditory (medial geniculate nucleus) regions of the thalamus. However, there were no deficits in the parvocellular regions of the thalamus. Losses in the responsiveness of the magnocellular neurons found in the lateral geniculate nucleus of dyslexics will affect all subsequent levels of processing that receive input from these magnocellular neurons.
  • fMRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging
  • Reading rates were measured for continuous scrolled text both before and after the measurement of contrast sensitivity functions (CSFs) to discriminate left-right movement and were measured for 35 normal children aged 5 to 8 years old.
  • CSFs contrast sensitivity functions
  • the direction discrimination CSFs were 3 to 4 fold lower for dyslexics, with the CSFs of dyslexics resembling the CSFs of 5-year-old children.
  • the direction discrimination CSFs illustrated in FIGS. 2 to 5 show that movement discrimination is developing in all normal children.
  • the direction discrimination CSFs of normal children were 2 to 8 fold lower than a normal adult's CSF, whereas the CSFs of dyslexic children were 8 to 17 fold lower than a normal adult's CSF seen by comparing original CSFs (orig.) with the CSFs of the practiced observer after 1 practice (lprac.) and 2 or more practice (2prac.) contrast thresholds.
  • the direction discrimination CSFs for patterns having a test frequency of 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 2 cpd are ideal to use for dyslexia screening because (1) normal children had the highest CSF, whereas dyslexic children had the lowest CSF, when test and background frequencies were equal, and (2) as the test frequency was increased, the 3-fold differences in the CSFs between dyslexic and normal children increased, as shown in FIG. 7a.
  • the CSFs of normal and dyslexic children reveal a different pattern of results when test and background frequencies were equal, thereby enabling rapid screening for dyslexia at 6 to 7 years old.
  • the spatial frequency combinations that revealed the largest differences between both children and adults and between children with normal reading and children with reading problems were when background frequencies were equal to or greater than the test frequency.
  • the direction discrimination CSFs revealed a more reliable means to screen for dyslexia. Not only were CSFs for children with reading problems 3 to 4 times lower than age- matched children with normal reading, a different pattern of results for these two groups was found.
  • the Dyslexia Screener was used to assess a child's reading ability, since it can be administered in less than 5 minutes and shows high validity (over 85%) for classifying dyslexic children into one of three categories: dyseidetic (spelling problems), dysphonetic (pronunciation problems), and mixed.
  • the TDS cannot be administered until the child is in the second grade, as it relies on the child's ability to decode words (identify by naming) and encode words (spell eidetically and phonetically).
  • the TDS also measures the child's reading grade level.
  • Exemplary test window 134 was configured as a fish, and the computer 102 was configured to present a "fish game" to children in which the repeated asking of whether the fish moved to the right or to the left was carried out.
  • Repetition of displaying the background and the test pattern at different contrasts and spatial frequencies to children causes CSFs for direction discrimination to rise in all children, including those who read normally and those with reading difficulty. Children of different ages require different amounts of practice.
  • test frequency was 0.5 cpd as shown in FIGS. 2a-e, 8a-d, 9a-g, and lOa-e, then: (1) following one practice threshold (shown in FIG. 2e), there was a progressive increase in the child's direction discrimination CSFs as the child advanced from grade 1 to grade 3;
  • FIGS. 11 to 13 The individual graphs when discriminating the direction 1-cpd test gratings moved are presented in FIGS. 11 to 13. It can be seen that both dyslexic and normal third graders showed less improvement overall (shown in FIGS. 13a-e) when discriminating left-right movement of 1-cpd test gratings, as opposed to a 0.5-cpd test pattern (shown in FIGS. lOa-e). The smaller effects of remediation at 1 cpd across grade levels is shown in FIG. 7a. Moreover, both dyslexic (shown in FIGS, lib and d) and normal (shown in FIG. lie and d) first graders have much higher CSFs following two practice thresholds than do third graders (shown in FIG. 3f).
  • the CSFs of 7-year-old students following two practice thresholds are lower than the CSFs of 6 year olds and higher than the CSFs of 8 year olds. These data provide more support that remediation is most rapid when the child is 6 to 7 years old, demonstrating that the neural channels are more able to be modified by visual experience at 6 to 7 years old.
  • the methodology of the present invention may be implemented in software and method for determining the lowest or "threshold" contrast required by a subject to discriminate the direction of motion, left versus right, of a vertical sine- wave grating of one spatial frequency (0.25, 0.50, 1.0, or 2.0 cycles per degree of visual field) in a small test window on a background containing a vertical sine-wave grating of a spatial frequency 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2, and 4 times the test spatial frequency.
  • the thresholds are determined objectively and rapidly by use of a two- alternative-forced-choice psychophysical method that is embedded in the fish game.
  • Contrast sensitivity is the reciprocal of contrast threshold.
  • the contrast sensitivity function (CSF) for each test-pattern spatial frequency is the family of contrast sensitivities for that test-pattern spatial frequency over all of the predetermined background frequencies. Normal adult readers have high contrast sensitivities; moreover, the pattern of their CSFs show highest contrast sensitivity when the spatial frequency in the test window is matched by the spatial frequency in the background. Normal children without reading difficulty have somewhat lower CSFs but the normal pattern. Dyslexic subjects, both children and adults, have substantially lower CSFs and an inverted pattern in the CSFs; that is, their CSFs show lowest contrast sensitivity when the spatial frequency in the test window is matched by the spatial frequency in the background.
  • the text was extended from 80 sentences in the original text to 230 five word sentences, so that text that never repeated was used to measure reading rates for filtered and unfiltered text. Reading rates at the end of the study were measured using only the novel text, so that memorization could not contribute to measuring faster reading rates. Subsequent portions of the same text were used to test reading rates for both filtered and unfiltered words, so that the reading of sentences in the text was continuous, yet never repetitive. Therefore, text of equal difficulty was used throughout the reading rate task to measure grayscale and colored text that was either filtered or unfiltered. Since most of the text was novel, being written by the author, in conjunction with the school's reading specialist and a 6-year-old child, unfamiliar reading materials were used, for the most part, to measure reading rates.
  • Words were first magnified and then filtered, since reading performance is based on retinal based angular frequencies, and not object-based spatial frequencies. Words were filtered as a unit, and the filtered words, having a border equal to one letter width, were strung together in texts. There were often borders between the filtered word images, due to the scaling mentioned above. All children reported, however, that these borders were blurred and did not help segment the text string into words. The space between each word was the more salient cue that was used to segment the text string.
  • the number of words per minute was increased on each step by increasing the distance in pixels that the image moves between frames.
  • the number of pixels the image moved before beginning each frame was adjusted so that the image moved over to the right a larger number of pixels at higher reading rates.
  • the step size for increasing reading rates increased gradually using a 12 words/min step size at low reading rates, and up to a 30 words/min step size at high reading rates.
  • the reading speeds were measured with a digital stopwatch.
  • the updating of the text images (scrolling) occurred at regular intervals, enabling Xwindow primitives to generate smooth scrolling of text at all speeds.
  • Reading rates defined as the fastest speed that can be used to read filtered or unfiltered text scrolled across the screen, were measured after the CSFs were determined. Reading rates were only measured for children in grades 1 to 3. Filtered or unfiltered text was displayed at increasing speeds, from 10 words/minute up to 700 words/minute, until the child could no longer correctly identify the text. Reading rates were measured after one complete sentence had been presented to the child who read the sentence out loud, either during or after the sentence was displayed. The next sentence was displayed as soon as the child finished reading the sentence. Following the first incorrect response, a forced-choice double-staircase procedure, determining the speed for 79% correct responses, was used to determine reading rate thresholds by increasing or decreasing the speed used to scroll each sentence across the screen.
  • a child's ability to read is developing as the child advanced in age from 6 to 8 years old.
  • the mean reading rates for unfiltered text were significantly faster (p ⁇ 0.0001) as the normal child advanced from first to third grade, when analyzed using a test for paired comparisons. This was found at the beginning of this study (shown in FIG. 14a), following practice (shown in FIG. 14b), and following practice at the low mean luminance, e.g., 8 cd/m (shown in FIG. 14c), used to evaluate the effects of colored filters on reading rates.
  • Filtered text was always read at least 2 fold faster, on average, than unfiltered text, as illustrated in FIGS. 15a-d.
  • filtered text enabled the child to read significantly faster (p ⁇ .0001). All children reported that the filtered text improved their ability to see individual letters in each word. Filtered text improved reading rates about 3 fold for 6 to 7 year olds and 2 fold for 8 year olds before practice, and about 2 fold after practice, as shown FIGS. 14a-c. As the child's sensitivity more closely approached the CSF of an adult, the less the filtered text proportionately improved reading rates.
  • Filtered text can be used not only to improve reading performance, but also to provide a second type of text to test the relative improvement in a child's reading ability following various types of remediation.
  • finding that reading rates increased from 3 to 14 fold, when CSF losses were compensated for by these image enhancement filters and the child practiced discriminating left-right movement shows that children's CSFs to discriminate between orthogonally orientated brief patterns and discriminate the direction of movement are closely related to their reading performance.
  • reading rates for filtered text approximately doubled again from the reading rates for filtered text measured initially.
  • Filtered text can be used not only to improve reading performance, but also to provide a second type of text to test the relative improvement in a child's reading ability following various types of remediation.
  • finding that reading rates increased from 3 to 14 fold, when CSF losses were compensated for by these image enhancement filters and the child practiced discriminating left-right movement shows that children's CSFs to discriminate between orthogonally orientated brief patterns and discriminate the direction of movement are closely related to their reading performance.
  • This example shows that spatial filtering is a powerful tool for improving the reading performance of ARMD observers.
  • the transfer function of the filter is designed to enhance images that have been degraded by noisy detectors, when the degrading optical transfer function, like the NCSF as used in this study, is known.
  • the reseating does not change the relative contrast of the Fourier components in the image, since both linear interpolation and Fourier analysis are linear operations. It does, however, modify the mean luminance level of text and background, compressing the contrast range of the filtered text (shown in FIG. Ic).
  • the background goes from black to gray to make room for the dark outline the filter places around each letter.
  • the filtered text was stored off-line to be used in the next session for testing the observer's reading rates.
  • the transfer function chosen for the image-enhancement filter in accordance with the invention is:
  • H(f ) NCSF0) ⁇ [NCSF 2 ( ) + (2MaxGain) "2 ] (1)
  • NCSF( ) Child's CSF( ) ⁇ Normal Adult's CSF( ) (3)
  • the transfer function is designed to enhance noisy images that have been degraded by a known optical transfer function.
  • the maximum amount of enhancement in the spatial frequency domain using this transfer function is set by the factor MaxGain. It is important that the MaxGain value that maximizes reading rates be determined for the display being used to present filtered text. Otherwise, the filtered text will not improve reading rates over unfiltered text. Thus, empirically we discovered that the optimal value for MaxGain is dependent on the display's pixel density, such that a higher MaxGain, i.e. more enhancement, is needed when the screen has a lower pixel density. MaxGain was set to 4.5 for this study, since this value was optimal for all observers tested. Moreover, it is important that the transfer function be anchored at zero spatial frequency to no enhancement to ensure that the same range of contrasts are being compared when reading filtered and unfiltered text.
  • the angular pixel spacing at the observer's eye, using the small angle approximation, is: arctan [ ⁇ x/d ] » ⁇ x/d (4) in radians, where d is the viewing distance in cm, or:
  • the constant 180/ ⁇ converts from radians to degrees. This is 0.025 degrees at a 57 cm viewing distance.
  • DFT Discrete Fourier Transform
  • Nyquist folding frequency
  • Each enhancement filter was designed not only for a specific subject, but for a specific viewing distance as well, since the Nyquist frequency [Eq. (6)] is distance dependent.
  • the inverse DFT was used to compute a 15 -by- 15 convolution kernel to be used for enhancement.
  • the computed convolution kernel was circularly symmetric about the origin as well. Also, since each observer's CSF was expressed in angular frequency, differences in viewing distance were accounted for intrinsically.
  • Words were filtered in the spatial domain by the process of convolution, that is, by summing the products of the 15-by-15 coefficient weights of the convolution kernel times the gray level of each center pixel and its surrounding 224 pixels.
  • the filtered pixel intensity Sum (15x15 spatial filter * unfiltered pixel value).
  • the elements of the spatial filter kernel matrix, computed by the DFT, were ordered to be symmetrical about the center of the filter. The largest weights were in the center of the filter.
  • measuring reading rates to continuous, non-repetitive, easy-to-read, scrolled text provides an objective measure of reading performance that can be made before and after practice discriminating left-right movement to evaluate improvements in reading, instead of measuring reading performance by relying on subjective teacher evaluations, as is currently done.
  • definitive evidence that magnocellular, and not parvocellular networks, play a major role in reading was obtained by comparing reading rates for grayscale and colored text equated in luminance and contrast.

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Abstract

On diagnostique des retards d'acquisition de la lecture chez un sujet en mesurant la sensibilité au contraste en rapport avec la discrimination du mouvement, retards que l'on corrige en améliorant cette sensibilité. On affiche, à cet effet, un arrière-plan (130) sur un écran de visualisation, cet arrière-plan étant contrasté et doté d'une fréquence spatiale. On superpose à l'arrière-plan (130) une fenêtre de test (134) comportant un motif de test (132) contrasté et doté d'une fréquence spatiale. Les contrastes et la fréquence spatiale se trouvent compris dans des plages respectives simulant l'aire corticale de perception visuelle des mouvements du sujet. Le motif de test (132) est alors déplacé dans la fenêtre de test (134) et le sujet émet un signal représentatif de la direction qu'il pense être celle du déplacement. En réponse à ce signal, la fréquence spatiale de l'arrière-plan (130), celle du motif de test (132) ou le contraste du motif de test (132) se trouvent modifiés, que ce soit par augmentation ou abaissement de leur valeur respective. On répète le processus un certain nombre de fois, en établissant des cycles au moyen de combinaisons prédéfinies de motifs de test (132) et d'arrière-plans (130). Il est, de ce fait, possible de mesurer la sensibilité au contraste et ce, afin d'établir si l'enfant est ou non dyslexique. Cette réitération des stimulations, effectuée au titre des méthodes de l'invention ainsi qu'à l'aide du dispositif de l'invention, débouche sur une amélioration de la sensibilité au contraste, ce qui permet de corriger la dyslexie et, partant, d'améliorer l'aptitude à la lecture.
PCT/US1998/006926 1997-04-07 1998-04-07 Methodes permettant de diagnostiquer et de corriger des retards d'acquisition de la lecture et dispositif correspondant WO1998044848A1 (fr)

Priority Applications (4)

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AU89633/98A AU734743B2 (en) 1997-04-07 1998-04-07 Methods and apparatus for diagnosing and remediating reading disorders
IL13222798A IL132227A0 (en) 1997-04-07 1998-04-07 Methods and apparatus for diagnosing and remediating reading disorders
EP98967129A EP0986327A4 (fr) 1997-04-07 1998-04-07 Methodes permettant de diagnostiquer et de corriger des retards d'acquisition de la lecture et dispositif correspondant
CA002289022A CA2289022C (fr) 1997-04-07 1998-04-07 Methodes permettant de diagnostiquer et de corriger des retards d'acquisition de la lecture et dispositif correspondant

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EP2095759A1 (fr) * 2008-02-29 2009-09-02 Essilor International (Compagnie Générale D'Optique) Évaluation et amélioration de la perception visuelle dynamique
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AU8963398A (en) 1998-10-30
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US6045515A (en) 2000-04-04
IL132227A0 (en) 2001-03-19
AU734743B2 (en) 2001-06-21
EP0986327A1 (fr) 2000-03-22
CA2289022C (fr) 2009-03-31
CA2289022A1 (fr) 1998-10-15

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