US7683180B2 - Group 8 transition metal carbene complexes as enantionselective olefin metathesis catalysts - Google Patents

Group 8 transition metal carbene complexes as enantionselective olefin metathesis catalysts Download PDF

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US7683180B2
US7683180B2 US10/124,745 US12474502A US7683180B2 US 7683180 B2 US7683180 B2 US 7683180B2 US 12474502 A US12474502 A US 12474502A US 7683180 B2 US7683180 B2 US 7683180B2
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hydrocarbyl
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Robert H. Grubbs
Donald W. Ward
Thomas J. Seiders
Steven D. Goldberg
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California Institute of Technology CalTech
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    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07F—ACYCLIC, CARBOCYCLIC OR HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON, HYDROGEN, HALOGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, SULFUR, SELENIUM OR TELLURIUM
    • C07F15/00—Compounds containing elements of Groups 8, 9, 10 or 18 of the Periodic Table
    • C07F15/0006—Compounds containing elements of Groups 8, 9, 10 or 18 of the Periodic Table compounds of the platinum group
    • C07F15/0046—Ruthenium compounds

Definitions

  • This invention relates generally to method for carrying out an olefin metathesis reaction using a chiral Group 8 transition metal complex as a catalyst. More particularly, the invention relates to methods for carrying out enantioselective reactions using the aforementioned catalyst.
  • M is a Group 8 transition metal such as ruthenium or osmium
  • X and X′ are anionic ligands
  • L and L′ are neutral electron donors
  • R and R′ are specific substituents, e.g., one may be H and the other may be a substituted or unsubstituted hydrocarbyl group such as phenyl or —C ⁇ C(CH 3 ) 2 .
  • metathesis catalysts have been prepared with phosphine ligands, e.g., tricyclohexylphosphine or tricyclopentylphosphine, exemplified by the well-defined, metathesis-active ruthenium alkylidene complexes (II) and (III):
  • Cy is a cycloalkyl group such as cyclohexyl or cyclopentyl. See Grubbs et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,917,071 and Trnka et al., supra.
  • N-heterocyclic carbene ligands offer many advantages, including readily tunable steric bulk, vastly increased electron donor character, and compatibility with a variety of metal species.
  • replacement of one of the phosphine ligands in these complexes significantly improves thermal stability in solution.
  • the vast majority of research on these carbene ligands has focused on their generation and isolation, a feat finally accomplished by Arduengo and coworkers within the last ten years (see, e.g., Arduengo et al., Acc. Chem. Res. 32:913-921 (1999)).
  • Four representative second generation catalysts are the ruthenium complexes (IVA), (IVB), (VA) and (VB):
  • IesH 2 1,3-dimesityl-4,5-dihydroimidazol-2-ylidene:
  • transition metal carbene complexes particularly those containing a ligand having the 4,5-dihydroimidazol-2-ylidene structure such as in IMesH 2
  • transition metal carbene complexes have been found to address a number of previously unsolved problems in olefin metathesis reactions, particularly cross-metathesis reactions.
  • Group 8-catalyzed olefin metathesis such as ring-closing metathesis
  • there has been no general method for controlling the enantioselectivity of the catalytic process there has been no general method for controlling the enantioselectivity of the catalytic process.
  • the molybdenum-based catalysts are limited since these systems lack extensive functional group tolerance and require rigorous exclusion of air and moisture.
  • the chiral N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ruthenium complexes of the invention exhibit high enantioselectivity, for example up to 90% ee in the ring-closing metathesis of achiral trienes. While chiral N-heterocyclic carbene ruthenium complexes have been reported previously (Scholl et al., Org. Lett. 1:953-956 (1999) and Weskamp et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37:2490-2493 (1998)), none report their use in asymmetric metathesis.
  • One aspect of the invention pertains to a Group 8 transition metal carbene complex of the formula (VI) and olefin metathesis reactions carried out with this complex:
  • M is a Group 8 transition metal
  • X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of anionic ligands and polymers, or X 1 and X 2 may be taken together to form a cyclic group;
  • n is an integer from 0-5;
  • R 1 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, silyl, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and carboxyl;
  • R 2 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, silyl, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, or R 1 and R 2 may be taken together to form a cyclic group;
  • Y 1 and Y 2 are heteroatoms independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, and P, with the proviso that when Y 1 or Y 2 is O or S, then R 3 or R 4 is absent;
  • R 3 and R 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, functional groups, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and polymers;
  • R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of polymers, hydrogen, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and functional groups, optionally substituted with one or more moieties selected from the group consisting of C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 alkoxy, aryl, hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, —(CO)—H, halide, and functional groups;
  • L is a neutral electron donor ligand, and may or may not be linked to R 2 , X 1 , and/or X 2 through a spacer moiety;
  • any two or more of X 1 , X 2 , L, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 can be taken together to form a chelating multidentate ligand.
  • Another aspect of the invention pertains to a ruthenium carbene complex of the formula (VII):
  • X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of anionic ligands and polymers, or X 1 and X 2 may be taken together to form a cyclic group;
  • R 1 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, silyl, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and carboxyl;
  • R 2 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, silyl, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, or R 1 and R 2 may be taken together to form a cyclic group;
  • Y 1 and Y 2 are heteroatoms independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, and P, with the proviso that when Y 1 or Y 2 is O or S, then the appended aryl group is absent;
  • R 5 and R 6 are independently selected from the group consisting of polymers, hydrogen, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, functional groups, optionally substituted with one or more moieties selected from the group consisting of C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryl, hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, —(CO)—H, halo, and functional groups;
  • R 20 and R 21 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C 1-20 alkyl, substituted C 1-20 alkyl, perfluoronated C 1-20 alkyl, C 1-20 heteroalkyl, substituted C 1-20 heteroalkyl, C 1-20 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryl, substituted C 5-20 aryl, heteroaryl, C 5-30 aralkyl, C 5-30 alkaryl, and halo; and
  • L is a neutral electron donor ligand
  • Yet another aspect of the invention pertains to a method of controlling the enantioselectivity of an olefin metathesis reaction comprising catalyzing the reaction with a chiral Group 8 transition metal carbene complex of formula (VI).
  • the present invention is addressed to the aforementioned needs in the art, and provides a novel process for using chiral Group 8 transition metal complexes to catalyze a variety of olefin metathesis reactions, including cross-metathesis reactions.
  • the complexes are metal carbenes comprised of a Group 8 transition metal, particularly ruthenium or osmium.
  • Such complexes are highly active catalysts of olefin metathesis reactions, including the cross-metathesis reactions described in detail herein.
  • the present complexes tolerate a greater diversity of functional groups and are more stable to air and moisture.
  • the present complexes allow an olefinic reactant to be substituted with a functional group without compromising the efficiency or selectivity of a metathesis reaction involving that olefin.
  • the present invention also allows the second reactant, i.e., the olefin metathesis partner, to be substituted with a functional group.
  • the functional group may or may not be a ligand for the metal complex; the present method is not limited in this regard.
  • the enantioselectivity of olefin metathesis can now be controlled.
  • the Group 8 transition metal carbene complexes of the invention find utility in effecting a variety of asymmetric metathesis reactions including, but not limited to, enantioselective ring-closing metathesis, asymmetric desymmetrization of meso-trienes, enantioselective cross-metathesis, enantioselective ring-opening/cross metathesis, enantioselective ring-opening/ring-closing metathesis, and kinetic resolution of racemic mixtures of chiral olefins.
  • the complexes exhibit relatively high functional-group tolerance and relatively high stability in the presence of water, oxygen, ionic liquids, protic solvents, and a variety of common impurities.
  • This functional-group tolerance and enhanced stability allow for the effective transformation of substrates inaccessible with previously reported chiral molybdenum metathesis catalysts.
  • Alicyclic refers to an aliphatic cyclic moiety, which may or may not be bicyclic or polycyclic.
  • Alkenyl refers to a linear, branched or cyclic hydrocarbon group of about 2-20 carbon atoms containing at least one double bond, such as ethenyl, n-propenyl, isopropenyl, n-butenyl, isobutenyl, octenyl, decenyl, tetradecenyl, hexadecenyl, eicosenyl, tetracosenyl, and the like.
  • Preferred alkenyl groups herein contain about 2-12 carbon atoms.
  • lower alkenyl intends an alkenyl group of 2 to 6 carbon atoms
  • specific term “cycloalkenyl” intends a cyclic alkenyl group, preferably having about 5-8 carbon atoms.
  • substituted alkenyl refers to alkenyl substituted with one or more substituent groups
  • heteroatom-containing alkenyl and “heteroalkenyl” refer to alkenyl in which at least one carbon atom is replaced with a heteroatom. If not otherwise indicated, the terms “alkenyl” and “lower alkenyl” include linear, branched, cyclic, unsubstituted, substituted, and/or heteroatom-containing alkenyl and lower alkenyl, respectively.
  • Alkoxy intends an alkyl group bound through a single, terminal ether linkage; that is, an “alkoxy” group may be represented as —O-alkyl where alkyl is as defined above.
  • a “lower alkoxy” group intends an alkoxy group containing about 1-6 carbon atoms.
  • alkenyloxy and “lower alkenyloxy” respectively refer to an alkenyl and lower alkenyl group bound through a single, terminal ether linkage
  • alkynyloxy and “lower alkynyloxy” respectively refer to an alkynyl and lower alkynyl group bound through a single, terminal ether linkage.
  • Alkoxycarbonyl refers to the substituent —COOR, where R is an alkyl group as defined herein.
  • Alkyl refers to a linear, branched or cyclic saturated hydrocarbon group typically although not necessarily containing about 1-20 carbon atoms (C 1-20 alkyl), such as methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, t-butyl, octyl, decyl, and the like, as well as cycloalkyl groups such as cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl and the like.
  • alkyl groups herein contain about 1-12 carbon atoms and typically about 1-10 carbon atoms.
  • lower alkyl intends an alkyl group of about 1-6 carbon atoms
  • cycloalkyl intends a cyclic alkyl group, typically having about 4-8, preferably about 5-7, carbon atoms.
  • substituted alkyl refers to alkyl substituted with one or more substituent groups
  • heteroatom-containing alkyl and “heteroalkyl” refer to alkyl in which at least one carbon atom is replaced with a heteroatom. If not otherwise indicated, the terms “alkyl” and “lower alkyl” include linear, branched, cyclic, unsubstituted, substituted, and/or heteroatom-containing alkyl and lower alkyl, respectively.
  • Alkyldiketonate refers to an alkyl group as defined herein, having two ketone carbonyl groups. Typically the alkyl will have from 3-30 carbon atoms.
  • Alkylene refers to a difunctional linear, branched or cyclic alkyl group, where “alkyl” is as defined above.
  • Alkylsulfanyl refers to the group —S—R, where R is an alkyl group.
  • Alkylsulfinyl refers to the group —SO—R, where R is an alkyl group.
  • Alkylsulfonato refers to the group —S(O) 3 —R, where R is an alkyl group.
  • Alkylsulfonyl refers to the group —S(O) 2 —R, where R is an alkyl group.
  • Alkynyl refers to a linear or branched hydrocarbon group of 2 to 20 carbon atoms containing at least one triple bond, such as ethynyl, n-propynyl, and the like. Preferred alkynyl groups herein contain 2 to 12 carbon atoms. The term “lower alkynyl” intends an alkynyl group of 2 to 6 carbon atoms.
  • substituted alkynyl refers to alkynyl substituted with one or more substituent groups
  • heteroatom-containing alkynyl and “heteroalkynyl” refer to alkynyl in which at least one carbon atom is replaced with a heteroatom. If not otherwise indicated, the terms “alkynyl” and “lower alkynyl” include linear, branched, unsubstituted, substituted, and/or heteroatom-containing alkynyl and lower alkynyl, respectively.
  • Amino is used herein to refer to the group —NR′R′′, where each of R′ and R′′ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen and optionally substituted alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, aralkyl, alkaryl and heterocyclic.
  • Alkyl refers to an alkyl group with an aryl substituent
  • aralkylene refers to an alkylene group with an aryl substituent
  • alkaryl refers to an aryl group that has an alkyl substituent
  • alkarylene refers to an arylene group with an alkyl substituent
  • Aryl refers to an aromatic substituent containing a single aromatic ring or multiple aromatic rings that are fused together, directly linked, or indirectly linked (such that the different aromatic rings are bound to a common group such as a methylene or ethylene moiety).
  • Preferred aryl groups contain one aromatic ring or 2 to 4 fused or linked aromatic rings, e.g., phenyl, naphthyl, biphenyl, and the like.
  • Substituted aryl refers to an aryl moiety substituted with one or more substituent groups
  • heteroatom-containing aryl and “heteroaryl” refer to aryl in which at least one carbon atom is replaced with a heteroatom. Typically the heteroaryl will contain 1-2 heteroatoms and 3-19 carbon atoms.
  • aryl and “aromatic” includes heteroaromatic, substituted aromatic, and substituted heteroaromatic species.
  • Aryldiketonate refers to an aryl group, as defined herein, having two ketone carbonyl groups.
  • Aryloxy refers to an aryl group bound through a single, terminal ether linkage.
  • An “aryloxy” group may be represented as —O-aryl, where aryl is as defined herein.
  • Arylsulfonato refers to the group the group —S(O) 3 -aryl, where aryl is as defined herein.
  • Carboxy refers to the group —COOH.
  • Carboxylato is intended to mean the group —COO ⁇ .
  • cyclic group is intended to refer to any aliphatic or aromatic structure, and may contain substituents and/or heteroatoms. Typically although not necessarily a cyclic group is a 4-2 membered ring, preferably a 5- to 8-membered ring.
  • “Functional groups” (also referred to as “Fn”) refer to groups such as halo, phosphonato, phosphoryl, phosphanyl, phosphino, sulfonato, sulfinyl, C 1-20 alkylsulfanyl, C 5-20 arylsulfanyl, C 1-20 alkylsulfonyl, C 5-20 arylsulfonyl, C 1-20 alkylsulfinyl, C 5-20 arylsulfinyl, sulfonamido, amino, amido, imino, nitro, nitroso, hydroxyl, C 1-20 alkoxy, C 2-20 alkenyloxy, C 2-20 alkynyloxy, C 5-20 aryloxy, C 1-20 carboxylato, C 2-20 alkylcarboxylato, C 5-20 arylcarboxylato, C 2-20 alkoxycarbonyl, C 5-20 aryloxy
  • Functional groups can also be substituted with one or more moieties selected from the group consisting of C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 alkoxy, aryl, hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, —(CO)—H, halo, as well as other functional groups.
  • the term “functional group” is intended to include the functional group per se, as well as any linker group.
  • Halo and halogen are used in the conventional sense to refer to a chloro, bromo, fluoro or iodo substituent.
  • haloalkyl refers to an alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl group, respectively, in which at least one of the hydrogen atoms in the group has been replaced with a halogen atom.
  • Heteroatom-containing as in a “heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl group” refers to a hydrocarbon molecule or a hydrocarbyl molecular fragment in which one or more carbon atoms is replaced with an atom other than carbon, e.g., nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus or silicon, typically nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur.
  • heteroalkyl refers to an alkyl substituent that is heteroatom-containing
  • heterocyclic refers to a cyclic substituent that is heteroatom-containing
  • the terms “heteroaryl” and heteroaromatic” respectively refer to “aryl” and “aromatic” substituents that are heteroatom-containing, and the like.
  • a “heterocyclic” group or compound may or may not be aromatic, and further that “heterocycles” may be monocyclic, bicyclic, or polycyclic as described above with respect to the term “aryl.”
  • Hydrocarbyl refers to univalent hydrocarbyl radicals containing about 1-30 carbon atoms, preferably about 1-20 carbon atoms, most preferably about 1-12 carbon atoms, including linear, branched, cyclic, saturated and unsaturated species, such as alkyl groups, alkenyl groups, alkynyl groups, alicyclic groups, aryl groups, aralkyl groups, alkaryl groups, and the like.
  • lower hydrocarbyl intends a hydrocarbyl group of about 1-6 carbon atoms
  • hydrocarbylene intends a divalent hydrocarbyl moiety containing about 1-30 carbon atoms, preferably about 1-20 carbon atoms, most preferably about 1-12 carbon atoms, including linear, branched, cyclic, saturated and unsaturated species.
  • lower hydrocarbylene intends a hydrocarbylene group of about 1-6 carbon atoms.
  • Substituted hydrocarbyl refers to hydrocarbyl substituted with one or more substituent groups
  • heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl and heterohydrocarbyl refer to hydrocarbyl in which at least one carbon atom is replaced with a heteroatom
  • substituted hydrocarbylene refers to hydrocarbylene substituted with one or more substituent groups
  • heteroatom-containing hydrocarbylene and heterohydrocarbylene refer to hydrocarbylene in which at least one carbon atom is replaced with a heteroatom.
  • Optional or “optionally” means that the subsequently described circumstance may or may not occur, so that the description includes instances where the circumstance occurs and instances where it does not.
  • the phrase “optionally substituted” means that a non-hydrogen substituent may or may not be present on a given atom, and, thus, the description includes structures wherein a non-hydrogen substituent is present and structures wherein a non-hydrogen substituent is not present.
  • silyl is intended to mean a silyl group (—SiH 3 ) or derivative thereof.
  • the term silyl can thus be represented by the formula —SiR 3 , where each R group is independently H, alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloheteroalkyl, aryl or heteroaryl.
  • Stepselective refers to a chemical reaction that preferentially results in one stereoisomer relative to a second stereoisomer, i.e., gives rise to a product in which the ratio of a desired stereoisomer to a less desired stereoisomer is greater than 1:1.
  • “Substituted” as in “substituted hydrocarbyl,” “substituted alkyl,” “substituted aryl,” and the like, as alluded to in some of the aforementioned definitions, is meant that in the hydrocarbyl, alkyl, aryl, or other moiety at least one hydrogen atom bound to a carbon atom is replaced with one or more non-hydrogen substituents.
  • substituents include, without limitation functional groups (“Fn”) as defined above; and hydrocarbyl moieties such as C 1-20 alkyl, C 2-20 alkenyl, C 2-20 alkynyl, C 5-20 aryl, C 5-30 aralkyl, and C 5-30 alkaryl.
  • the aforementioned functional groups and hydrocarbyl moieties may, if a particular group permits, be further substituted with one or more additional functional groups or with one or more hydrocarbyl moieties such as those specifically enumerated above.
  • substituted appears prior to a list of possible substituted groups, it is intended that the term apply to every member of that group.
  • substituted alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl is to be interpreted as “substituted alkyl, substituted alkenyl and substituted alkynyl.”
  • optionally substituted alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl is to be interpreted as “optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl and optionally substituted alkynyl.”
  • the Group 8 transition metal carbene complexes of the invention have the formula (VI):
  • M is a transition metal from Group 8 (iron, ruthenium, osmium) of the Periodic Table of the Elements, and serves as the transition metal center in the +2 oxidation state.
  • Particularly suitable Group 8 transition metals are ruthenium or osmium.
  • M is ruthenium.
  • X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of anionic ligands and polymers, or X 1 and X 2 may be taken together to form a cyclic group, typically although not necessarily a 5- to 8-membered ring.
  • X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halo, C 1-20 alkyl, C 5-20 aryl, C 1-20 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryloxy, C 3-20 alkyldiketonate, C 5-20 aryldiketonate, C 2-20 alkoxycarbonyl, C 5-20 aryloxycarbonyl, C 2-20 acyl, C 1-20 alkylsulfonato, C 5-20 arylsulfonato, C 1-20 alkylsulfanyl, C 5-20 arylsulfanyl, C 1-20 alkylsulfinyl, and C 5-20 arylsulfinyl.
  • X 1 and X 2 are substituted with one or more moieties selected from the group consisting of C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 alkoxy, aryl, and halo, which may, in turn, with the exception of halo, be further substituted with one or more groups selected from halo, C 1-6 alkyl C 1-6 alkoxy, and phenyl.
  • X 1 and X 2 are halo, benzoate, C 2-6 acyl, C 2-6 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1-6 alkyl, phenoxy, C 1-6 alkoxy, C 1-6 alkylsulfanyl, aryl, and C 1-6 alkylsulfonyl.
  • X 1 and X 2 are each halo, CF 3 CO 2 , CH 3 CO 2 , CFH 2 CO 2 , (CH 3 ) 3 CO, (CF 3 ) 2 (CH 3 )CO, (CF 3 )(CH 3 ). 2 CO, PhO, MeO, EtO, tosylate, mesylate, or trifluoromethanesulfonate.
  • X 1 and X 2 are each halo, preferably chloro.
  • the complex may also comprise (i.e., be bound to) a solid support, such as a polymeric substrate, i.e., at least one of X 1 and X 2 can be a polymer.
  • a polymeric substrate i.e., at least one of X 1 and X 2 can be a polymer.
  • Such a polymer will also comprise an appropriate linker, by which attachment to the remainder of the complex may be effected.
  • the polymer is at one of the R 3 or R 4 positions or one of the R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 positions.
  • R 1 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, silyl, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and carboxy. In a preferred embodiment, R 1 is hydrogen or C 5-20 aryl.
  • R 2 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, silyl, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, or R 1 and R 2 may be taken together to form a cyclic group.
  • the R 2 substituent is selected from the group consisting of C 1-20 alkyl, C 2-20 alkenyl, and C 5-20 aryl. More preferably, R 2 is phenyl, vinyl, methyl, isopropyl, or t-butyl, optionally substituted with one or more moieties selected from the group consisting of C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 alkoxy, phenyl, and a functional group Fn.
  • R 2 is phenyl or vinyl substituted with one or more moieties selected from the group consisting of methyl, ethyl, chloro, bromo, iodo, fluoro, nitro, dimethylamino, methoxy, and phenyl.
  • the R 2 substituent is phenyl or —C ⁇ C(CH 3 ) 2 .
  • R 1 and R 2 are taken together to form a cyclic group, which may be aliphatic or aromatic, and may contain substituents and/or heteroatoms. Generally, such a cyclic group will contain 4 to 12, preferably 5 to 8, ring atoms.
  • Y 1 and Y 2 are heteroatoms independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, and P. In a preferred embodiment, Y 1 and Y 2 are the same. In another preferred embodiment Y 1 and Y 2 are nitrogen.
  • the O and S heteroatoms are divalent, and therefore, it is understood that when either Y 1 or Y 2 is O or S, then R 3 or R 4 , respectively, is absent.
  • R 3 and R 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, functional groups, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and polymers.
  • R 3 and R 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of C 5-20 aryl, hydrocarbyl-substituted C 5-20 aryl, and hydrocarbyl-substituted heteroaryl.
  • at least one of R 3 and R 4 are functional groups connected directly to the N-heterocyclic carbene nitrogen, and are most preferably acyl.
  • R 3 and R 4 are alicyclic or aromatic structures having 1-5 rings, and optionally containing one or more heteroatoms and/or substituents.
  • R 3 and R 4 are C 5-20 aryl, substituted C 5-20 aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, alicyclic, or substituted alicyclic, comprising about 1-5 rings.
  • a preferred heteroaryl is a nitrogen-containing heterocycle such as pyrrole.
  • R 3 and R 4 are C 5-20 aryl, they typically although not necessarily have one or two aromatic rings, which may or may not be substituted, e.g., R 3 and R 4 may be phenyl, substituted phenyl, biphenyl, substituted biphenyl, or the like. In one preferred embodiment, R 3 and R 4 are the same and each have the structure:
  • R 20 , R 21 , and R 22 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C 1-20 alkyl, substituted C 1-20 alkyl, perfluoronated C 1-20 alkyl (an alkyl chain that is saturated with fluorine atoms instead of hydrogen atoms), C 1-20 heteroalkyl, substituted C 1-20 heteroalkyl, C 1-20 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryl, substituted C 5-20 aryl, heteroaryl, C 5 -30 aralkyl, C 5-30 alkaryl, and halo.
  • R 20 , R 21 , and R 22 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, hydroxyl, halo, phenyl, and lower alkyl-substituted phenyl (e.g., dimethylphenyl).
  • R 20 , R 21 , and R 22 are each methyl.
  • the phenyl group shown above is substituted with a single ortho substituent, wherein the ortho substituent, in each of R 3 and R 4 , is anti to the R 5 or R 6 substituent on the carbene, respectively.
  • the phenyl group is substituted with an ortho substituent and with an opposing meta substituent (such that the phenyl substituent is 2-substituted or 2,5-disubstituted).
  • Such carbene ligands provide for complexes that are highly enantioselective metathesis catalysts.
  • R 3 and R 3 are alicyclic and are comprised of a C 7-20 , preferably a C 7-12 , alicyclic structure, such as diisopinocamphenyl, as discussed in further detail infra.
  • the complex may also comprise a solid support, such as a polymeric substrate, i.e., at least one of R 3 and R 4 can be a polymer.
  • a polymeric substrate i.e., at least one of R 3 and R 4 can be a polymer.
  • Such a polymer will also comprise an appropriate linker, by which attachment to the remainder of the complex may be effected.
  • R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of polymers, hydrogen, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and functional groups, optionally substituted with one or more moieties selected from the group consisting of C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryl, hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, —(CO)—H, halide, and functional groups.
  • R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C 1-10 alkyl (e.g., t-butyl), C 5-20 aryl, cyclohexyl, mesityl, and lower alkyl substituted phenyl.
  • C 1-10 alkyl e.g., t-butyl
  • C 5-20 aryl e.g., C 5-20 aryl
  • cyclohexyl e.g., mesityl
  • lower alkyl substituted phenyl e.g., exemplary R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 substituents are shown below:
  • R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 may be linked together to form a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated or unsaturated ring structure, e.g., a C 4-12 alicyclic group or a C 5-6 aryl group, which may itself be substituted, e.g., with linked or fused alicyclic or aromatic groups, or with other substituents.
  • a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated or unsaturated ring structure e.g., a C 4-12 alicyclic group or a C 5-6 aryl group, which may itself be substituted, e.g., with linked or fused alicyclic or aromatic groups, or with other substituents.
  • the complex may also comprise a solid support, such as a polymeric substrate, i.e., at least one of R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 can be a polymer.
  • a polymeric substrate i.e., at least one of R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 can be a polymer.
  • Such a polymer will also comprise an appropriate linker, by which attachment to the remainder of the complex may be effected.
  • L is a neutral electron donor ligand, and may or may not be linked to R 2 , X 1 , and/or X 2 through a spacer moiety.
  • suitable L moieties include, without limitation, phosphine, sulfonated phosphine, phosphite, phosphinite, phosphonite, arsine, stibine, ether (including cyclic ethers), amino, amido, imino, sulfoxide, carboxy, nitrosyl, pyridyl, substituted pyridyl (e.g., halogenated pyridyl), imidazolyl, substituted imidazolyl (e.g., halogenated imidazolyl), pyrazinyl (e.g., substituted pyrazinyl), and thioether.
  • L is a phosphine of the formula PR′R′′R′′′, where R′, R′′, and R′′′ are each independently C 1-10 alkyl (particularly primary alkyl, secondary alkyl or cycloalkyl), C 5-20 aryl or a heteroatom-containing functional group.
  • R′, R′′, and R′′′ are the same, for example, —P(cyclohexyl) 3 , —P(cyclopentyl) 3 , —P(isopropyl) 3 , —P(phenyl) 3 .
  • L is —P(phenyl) 2 (R) or —P(phenyl)(R) 2 , where R is C 1-20 alkyl, typically lower alkyl.
  • weaker ligands such as the nitrogen-containing heterocycles, which enhance catalytic activity presumably because of the requirement that the L ligand be lost for initiation to occur. Examples of complexes wherein L and R 2 are linked include the following:
  • any two or more of X 1 , X 2 , L, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 of the complex of formula (VI) can be taken together to form a chelating multidentate ligand, as described, for example, in Grubbs et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,312,940.
  • bidentate ligands include, but are not limited to, bisphosphines, dialkoxides, alkyldiketonates, and aryldiketonates.
  • Specific examples include —P(Ph) 2 CH 2 CH 2 P(Ph) 2 —, —As(Ph) 2 CH 2 CH 2 As(Ph 2 )—, —P(Ph) 2 CH 2 CH 2 C(CF 3 ) 2 O—, binaphtholate dianions, pinacolate dianions, —P(CH 3 ) 2 (CH 2 ) 2 P(CH 3 ) 2 — and —OC(CH 3 ) 2 (CH 3 ) 2 CO—.
  • Preferred bidentate ligands are —P(Ph) 2 CH 2 CH 2 P(Ph) 2 — and —P(CH 3 ) 2 (CH 2 ) 2 P(CH 3 ) 2 —.
  • Tridentate ligands include, but are not limited to, (CH 3 ) 2 NCH 2 CH 2 P(Ph)CH 2 CH 2 N(CH 3 ) 2 .
  • Other preferred tridentate ligands are those in which any three of X 1 , X 2 , L, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 (e.g., X 1 , L, and any one of R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 ) are taken together to be cyclopentadienyl, indenyl or fluorenyl, each optionally substituted with C 2-20 alkenyl, C 2-20 alkynyl, C 1-20 alkyl, C 5-20 aryl, C 1-20 alkoxy, C 1-20 alkenyloxy, C 2-20 alkynyloxy, C 5-20 aryloxy, C 2-20 alkoxycarbonyl,
  • X 1 , L, and any one of R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 are taken together to be cyclopentadienyl or indenyl, each optionally substituted with vinyl, C 1-10 alkyl, C 5-20 aryl, C 1-10 carboxylato, C 2-10 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1-10 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryloxy, each optionally substituted with C 1-6 alkyl, halo, C 1-6 alkoxy or with a phenyl group optionally substituted with halo, C 1-6 alkyl or C 1-6 alkoxy.
  • X 1 , L, and any one of R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 may be taken together to be cyclopentadienyl, optionally substituted with vinyl, hydrogen, Me or Ph.
  • Tetradentate ligands include, but are not limited to O 2 C(CH 2 ) 2 P(Ph)(CH 2 ) 2 P(Ph)(CH 2 ) 2 CO 2 , phthalocyanines, and porphyrins.
  • the invention also encompasses a hexacoordinate complex where the Group 8 transition metal carbene complex of formula (VI) further comprises a second neutral electron donor ligand (L′) attached to the Group 8 transition metal (M).
  • Catalysts formed with the ligands of the invention where R 3 and R 4 are each biphenylyl or substituted biphenylyl are exemplified by the complex containing the 2,4,2′,6′-tetramethylbiphenylyl-(i.e., 2,6-dimethyl-3-(2′,6′-dimethylphenyl)phenyl-substituted ligand shown below:
  • R 20 , R 21 , R 23 and R 24 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C 1-20 alkyl, substituted C 1-20 alkyl, perfluoronated C 1-20 alkyl, C 1-20 heteroalkyl, substituted C 1-20 heteroalkyl, C 1-20 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryl, substituted C 5-20 aryl, heteroaryl, C 5-30 aralkyl, C 5-30 alkaryl, and halo.
  • Catalysts formed with the ligands of the invention where R 3 and R 4 are alicyclic, such diisopinocamphenyl, are exemplified by the complex containing the diisopinocamphenyl-substituted ligand shown below:
  • Ligands containing bulky, electron-donating groups such as those illustrated in the catalyst complexes above, provide for very highly active olefin metathesis catalysts. Such catalysts are thus suitable to catalyze reactions for which other, less active catalysts are ineffective, and are also useful in enhancing the stereoselectivity of a catalyzed cross-metathesis reaction.
  • X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of anionic ligands and polymers, or X 1 and X 2 may be taken together to form a cyclic group.
  • Preferred X 1 and X 2 groups are as identified above for formula (VI).
  • X 1 and X 2 are most preferably halo.
  • R 1 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, silyl, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and carboxyl.
  • Preferred R 1 groups are as identified above for formula (VI).
  • R 1 is most preferably hydrogen.
  • R 2 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, silyl, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, or R 1 and R 2 may be taken together to form a cyclic group.
  • Preferred R 2 groups are as identified above for formula (VI).
  • R 2 is preferably C 5-20 aryl, most preferably phenyl.
  • Y 1 and Y 2 are heteroatoms independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, and P.
  • Preferred Y 1 and Y 2 groups are as identified above for formula (VI).
  • Y 1 and Y 2 are preferably the same, and most preferably nitrogen.
  • the O and S heteroatoms are divalent, and therefore, it is understood that when either Y 1 or Y 2 is O or S, then the appended aryl group is absent.
  • R 5 and R 6 are independently selected from the group consisting of polymers, hydrogen, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and functional groups, optionally substituted with one or more moieties selected from the group consisting of C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryl, hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, —(CO)—H, halo, and functional groups.
  • Preferred R 5 and R 6 groups are as identified above for formula (VI).
  • R 5 and R 6 are most preferably C 5-20 aryl groups.
  • R 20 and R 21 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C 1-20 alkyl, substituted C 1-20 alkyl, perfluoronated C 1-20 alkyl, C 1-20 heteroalkyl, substituted C 1-20 heteroalkyl, C 1-20 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryl, substituted C 5-20 aryl, heteroaryl, C 5-30 aralkyl, C 5-30 alkaryl, and halo.
  • the R 20 and R 21 are preferably in the anti-position relative to R 5 and R 6 .
  • R 20 is an alkyl
  • R 21 is hydrogen.
  • R 20 and R 21 are alkyl groups.
  • L is a neutral electron donor ligand.
  • Preferred L groups are as identified above for formula (VI).
  • L is a phosphine having the formula PR′R′′R′′′, where R′, R′′, and R′′′ are each independently selected from the group consisting of C 1-10 alkyl and C 5-20 aryl.
  • L is selected from the group consisting of —P(cyclohexyl) 3 , —P(cyclopentyl) 3 , —P(isopropyl) 3 , —P(phenyl) 3 , —P(Phenyl) 2 (R) and —P(phenyl)(R) 2 , where R is alkyl.
  • Synthesis of the enatiomerically pure complexes of the invention begins with a compound such as a commercially available 1,2-diamine (1) such as (1R,2R)-1,2-diaminocyclohexane or (1R,2R)-diphenylethylenediamine, or similar diamines that are readily synthesized, such as di-t-butylethylenediamine, diadamantylethylenediamine, dimesitylethylenediamine, and so forth.
  • 1,2-diamine (1) such as (1R,2R)-1,2-diaminocyclohexane or (1R,2R)-diphenylethylenediamine, or similar diamines that are readily synthesized, such as di-t-butylethylenediamine, diadamantylethylenediamine, dimesitylethylenediamine, and so forth.
  • an N-aryl substituent can be introduced by reaction with an aryl halide through standard Pd-coupling reactions (Wolfe et al., J. Org. Chem. 65:1144-1157(2000)).
  • an aldehyde or ketone can be condensed with the dianine and reduced in order to yield the desired product:
  • the resulting secondary amine is then condensed with a compound such as CH(Lg) 3 wherein Lg is a substituent displaceable by a nucleophile (e.g., triethyl orthoformate), and a salt having the formula X + Y ⁇ , such as an ammonium salt (e.g., ammonium tetrafluoroborate) to produce the corresponding imidazolium tetrafluoroborate salt (4) (Saba et al., Tetrahedron Lett. 32:5031-5034 (1991)):
  • the salt (4) is then treated with a strong base such as sodium or potassium tert-butoxide or hexafluoro-tert-butoxide, e.g., potassium hexafluoro-tert-butoxide, followed by addition of (L) 2 X 1 X 2 M ⁇ CR 1 R 2 , for example, (PCy 3 ) 2 (Cl) 2 Ru ⁇ CHPh, wherein the carbine displaces a single L group to generate the desired chiral complex (VI) in good yield:
  • a strong base such as sodium or potassium tert-butoxide or hexafluoro-tert-butoxide, e.g., potassium hexafluoro-tert-butoxide
  • the chiral Group 8 transition metal carbene complexes of Formula (VI) find particular utility as catalysts in effecting a host of enantioselective organic transformations.
  • these complexes can be used to control the enantioselectivity of an olefin metathesis reaction by catalyzing the reaction with a chiral Group 8 transition metal carbene complex of the invention.
  • these complexes can be treated with MX reagents, where M is an alkali metal and X can be any negatively charged counterion (e.g., Br ⁇ or I ⁇ ) in order to effect higher relative rates of enantioselectivity.
  • reaction of the neutral complex (VI) with lithium bromide or sodium iodide generates the bromide and iodide analogs of the complex, resulting in catalysts that exhibit enhanced enantioselectivity relative to the chloro counterpart (reaction with MX reagents should lead to exchange of the chloride groups for X groups without any change in charge).
  • a meso-triene or achiral triene can undergo asymmetric ring-closing metathesis to afford optically-enriched substituted cyclic or heterocyclic olefins in a reaction catalyzed by the complex of formula (VI):
  • the complex of formula (VI) may be used to treat a cyclic olefin substituted with two terminal olefin groups, to effect an enantioselective ring-opening/ring-closing metathesis reaction and thereby provide an optically enriched cyclic olefin:
  • the complex of formula (VI) can effect the ring-opening/cross metathesis between a cyclic and an acyclic olefin to afford an optically enriched product:
  • the complex of formula (VI) can effect a kinetic resolution via the enantioselective cross metathesis of a racemic mixture of a chiral olefin with another olefinic reactant, to afford an optically active product and starting material:
  • the complex of formula (VI) can also be used to effect kinetic resolutions through the enantioselective ring-closing of a racemic diene, affording partial conversion to an optically enriched sample of the starting material and an optically enriched cyclic olefin product:
  • the resulting diamines (3a, 3b, 3c, 4a, 4b, 4c) are then condensed with triethyl orthoformate and ammonium tetrafluoroborate to produce the corresponding imidazolium tetrafluoroborate salts (5a, 5b, 5c, 6a, 6b, 6c) (Saba et al., Tetrahedron Lett. 32:5031-5034 (1991)):
  • Diamine (4a) was synthesized in an analogous manner to provide a yield of 80%.
  • Diamine (3a) was synthesized in an analogous manner to provide a yield of 53%.
  • Diamine (3b) was synthesized in an analogous manner to provide a yield of 67%.
  • Diamine (3c) was synthesized in an analogous manner to provide a yield of 70%.
  • Salt (5a) was synthesized in an analogous manner to provide a yield of 99%.
  • Salt (5b) was synthesized in an analogous manner to provide a yield of 90%.
  • imidazolium salt (6b) (0.200 g, 0.408 mmol) and potassium hexafluoro-t-butoxide (0.108 g, 0.490 mmol) were dissolved in tetrahydrofuran (4 mL), added to a solution of bis(tricyclohexylphosphine)-benzylidene ruthenium dichloride (0.403 g, 0.490 mmol) in toluene (10 mL), and transferred to a Schlenk flask. The flask was removed from the glove box and heated to 50° C. under argon for 2 hours. The solution was cooled to ambient pentane temperature and the volatiles were removed in vacuo. The product was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , 7:1 :Et 2 O) to yield (8b) as a brown microcrystalline solid (0.300 g, 78%).
  • 1 H NMR 500 MHz, CD 2 Cl 2 ) exists as a mixture of atropisomers (4.9:1): ⁇ 0.80-2.01 (br m, 53 H); 3.07-4.00 (br m, 4H); 6.04-8.48 (m, 13H); 19.04 (s, 0.83 H); 19.21 (s, 0.17 H).
  • 13 C NMR (125 MHz, CD 2 Cl 2 ): ⁇ 274.00 (d, J 78 Hz, NCN); 298.51 (br s, Ru ⁇ CHPh).
  • 31 P NMR 121 MHz, CD 2 Cl 2 ): ⁇ 23.85, 25.70, 29.65.
  • Substrates (10), (11), and (12) monosubstituted central olefin with which the catalyst undergoes the initial metathesis reaction (Ulman et al., Organometallics 17:2484-2489 (1998)), and two di- or trisubstituted pendant olefins with which the stereochemically defining cyclization step occurs.
  • the conditions were as follows: 2.5 mol % of catalyst, 55 mM substrate in CH 2 Cl 2 , 38°. When the halide salt was included, conditions were: 5 mol % of catalyst, 100 mol % of halide salt, 55 mM substrate in THF, 38° C.
  • the halide ligand is bound trans to the L-type ligand.
  • the halides adopt a cis arrangement in the alkylidene-halide-olefin plane.
  • the olefin binds trans to the L-type ligand.
  • C is inconsistent with the observed stereochemical outcome of the desymmetrization of substrates 10, 11 and 12.
  • geometry (B) cannot be discounted, geometry (A) appears to be most consistent with the observed ligand effects and stereochemical outcome of these reactions.
  • the unbound olefin occupies the distal position relative to the apical halide; this proposed steric interaction between the unbound olefin and apical halide is further consistent with the dramatic increase in enantioselectivity observed upon changing the halide from Cl— to Br— to I—. Further details on the stereochemical model can be found in Seiders, et al., Organic Letters 3(20):3225-3228 (2001).
  • Asymmetric cross metathesis provides a powerful means for the formation of stereogenic centers under catalytic and mild conditions starting from readily available olefinic starting materials.
  • the chiral ligand provides a steric bias that directs the face from which the incoming olefin will approach the catalyst after the substrate is already bound to the catalyst. The enantiomeric excess is then determined by the difference in the relative energies of the two possible cyclic transition states that lead to the cyclic products, not by the initial binding of the substrate.
  • the ligand In asymmetric olefin cross metathesis, the ligand not only needs to designate the face from which the cross partner will access the catalyst, but also needs to directly interact with the cross partner during the binding event such that one enantiomer (or one enantiotopic olefin in the case of a desymmetrization) will be preferred. This requires a greater degree of control in the olefin binding event.
  • the catalysts of the invention effectively impart the desired facial selectivity. It is proposed that inclusion of steric bulk at the meta position, opposite to the ortho group already present, will impart a greater steric influence on the binding of the chiral/prochiral substrates without interfering with the highly effective transmission of chirality from the backbone to the aniline derived aromatic groups.
  • the catalysts were prepared from commercially available and or readily synthesized starting materials, e.g., 1-bromo-2,5-diisopropylbenzene.
  • starting materials e.g., 1-bromo-2,5-diisopropylbenzene.
  • palladium mediated coupling of 1-bromo-2,5-diisopropylbenzene to (1R,2R)-diphenyl ethylene diamines afforded the diarylated product in good yield.
  • Conversion to the tetrafluoroborate salt occurred without event.
  • excess of the chiral ligand was employed to ease in the purification.
  • X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of anionic ligands and a linker attached to a polymeric substrate, or X 1 and X 2 may be taken together to form a cyclic group;
  • R 1 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, silyl, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and carboxyl;
  • R 2 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, silyl, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, or R 1 and R 2 may be taken together to form a cyclic group;
  • Y 1 and Y 2 are heteroatoms independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, and P, with the proviso that when Y 1 or Y 2 is O or S, then the appended aryl group is absent;
  • R 5 and R 6 define chiral centers at the ring carbons and are independently selected from the group consisting of a linker attached to a polymeric substrate, hydrocarbyl, substituted hydrocarbyl, heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, substituted heteroatom-containing hydrocarbyl, and functional groups, optionally substituted with one or more moieties selected from the group consisting of C 1-10 alkyl, C 1-10 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryl, hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, —(CO)—H, halo, and functional groups;
  • R 20 and R 21 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C 1-20 alkyl, substituted C 1-20 alkyl, perfluoronated C 1-20 alkyl, C 1-20 heteroalkyl, substituted C 1-20 heteroalkyl, C 1-20 alkoxy, C 5-20 aryl, substituted C 5-20 aryl, heteroaryl, C 5-30 aralkyl, C 5-30 alkaryl, and halo; and
  • L is selected from the group consisting of arsine, stibine, ether, amino, amido, imino, sulfoxide, carboxy, nitrosyl, pyridyl, substituted pyridyl, imidazolyl, substituted imidazolyl, pyrazinyl, and thioether.

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