US3713822A - Pyroelectric photoconductive elements and method of charging same - Google Patents

Pyroelectric photoconductive elements and method of charging same Download PDF

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Publication number
US3713822A
US3713822A US00068067A US3713822DA US3713822A US 3713822 A US3713822 A US 3713822A US 00068067 A US00068067 A US 00068067A US 3713822D A US3713822D A US 3713822DA US 3713822 A US3713822 A US 3713822A
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layer
recording element
temperature
electrophotographic
photoconductive
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H Kiess
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RCA Corp
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RCA Corp
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    • G—PHYSICS
    • G03—PHOTOGRAPHY; CINEMATOGRAPHY; ANALOGOUS TECHNIQUES USING WAVES OTHER THAN OPTICAL WAVES; ELECTROGRAPHY; HOLOGRAPHY
    • G03G—ELECTROGRAPHY; ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHY; MAGNETOGRAPHY
    • G03G15/00—Apparatus for electrographic processes using a charge pattern
    • G03G15/02—Apparatus for electrographic processes using a charge pattern for laying down a uniform charge, e.g. for sensitising; Corona discharge devices
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G03—PHOTOGRAPHY; CINEMATOGRAPHY; ANALOGOUS TECHNIQUES USING WAVES OTHER THAN OPTICAL WAVES; ELECTROGRAPHY; HOLOGRAPHY
    • G03G—ELECTROGRAPHY; ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHY; MAGNETOGRAPHY
    • G03G5/00—Recording members for original recording by exposure, e.g. to light, to heat, to electrons; Manufacture thereof; Selection of materials therefor
    • G03G5/02—Charge-receiving layers
    • G03G5/028—Layers in which after being exposed to heat patterns electrically conductive patterns are formed in the layers, e.g. for thermoxerography
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G03—PHOTOGRAPHY; CINEMATOGRAPHY; ANALOGOUS TECHNIQUES USING WAVES OTHER THAN OPTICAL WAVES; ELECTROGRAPHY; HOLOGRAPHY
    • G03G—ELECTROGRAPHY; ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHY; MAGNETOGRAPHY
    • G03G5/00—Recording members for original recording by exposure, e.g. to light, to heat, to electrons; Manufacture thereof; Selection of materials therefor
    • G03G5/02—Charge-receiving layers
    • G03G5/04—Photoconductive layers; Charge-generation layers or charge-transporting layers; Additives therefor; Binders therefor
    • G03G5/08—Photoconductive layers; Charge-generation layers or charge-transporting layers; Additives therefor; Binders therefor characterised by the photoconductive material being inorganic
    • G03G5/082—Photoconductive layers; Charge-generation layers or charge-transporting layers; Additives therefor; Binders therefor characterised by the photoconductive material being inorganic and not being incorporated in a bonding material, e.g. vacuum deposited
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G03—PHOTOGRAPHY; CINEMATOGRAPHY; ANALOGOUS TECHNIQUES USING WAVES OTHER THAN OPTICAL WAVES; ELECTROGRAPHY; HOLOGRAPHY
    • G03G—ELECTROGRAPHY; ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHY; MAGNETOGRAPHY
    • G03G2215/00—Apparatus for electrophotographic processes
    • G03G2215/02—Arrangements for laying down a uniform charge
    • G03G2215/026—Arrangements for laying down a uniform charge by coronas
    • G03G2215/028—Arrangements for laying down a uniform charge by coronas using pointed electrodes
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
    • Y10S—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10S430/00—Radiation imagery chemistry: process, composition, or product thereof
    • Y10S430/001—Electric or magnetic imagery, e.g., xerography, electrography, magnetography, etc. Process, composition, or product
    • Y10S430/102—Electrically charging radiation-conductive surface

Definitions

  • This invention relates generally to an electrophotographic recording element and a method of charging same. More particularly, the invention relates to a novel electrophotographic plate of a pyroelectric compound and a novel method of charging the electrophotographic plate by changing its temperature. The novel electrophotographic plate and method of charging it are particularly useful in an electrophotographic process wherein an image developed on the plate is to be transferred from the plate to a transfer sheet.
  • the novel electrophotographic recording element and method of charging it make it possible to carry out an electrophotographic process without a high voltage power supply, thereby eliminating the inherent disadvantage thereof.
  • the novel electrophotographic recording element comprises a layer of a photoconductive pyroelectric material on a relatively electrically conductive substrate and in electrical contact therewith.
  • the pyroelectric material of the layer is oriented so as to produce electrostatic charges on the opposite surfaces of the layer when the temperature of the layer is changed.
  • the novel method of charging the novel recording element comprises changing the temperature of the layer to produce an electrostatic charge between the opposite surfaces of the layer.
  • the novel recording element and method employ the principles of pyroelectricity and obviate the need for relatively expensive high-voltage power supplies, corona discharge devices, and the necessary safety precautions required therefore.
  • the novel method is also relatively free from conditions that cause interference with radio and television reception.
  • FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a hexagonal, singlecrystal structure of a photoconductive, pyroelectric material, zinc oxide," exhibiting itspolar c-axis;
  • FIG. 2 is a fragmentary plan view of one embodiment of anovel electrophotographic recording element in the form of a plate, employing elemental bodies of the single-crystal material illustrated in FIG. 1;
  • FIG. 3 is a fragmentary cross-sectional view of the electrophotographic plate shown in FIG. 2, taken along the line 3-3, and viewed in the direction indicated by the arrows;
  • FIG; 4 is a side elevational view of the novel recording element and means, illustrated symbolically, for charging it in accordance with the novel method;
  • FIGS. 5 and 6 are side elevational views of the novel electrophotographic plate in different steps of forming an electrophotographic image thereon.
  • FIG. I of the drawing there is shown a single-crystal, photoconductive, pyroelectric material, such as a compound 10, of the type used to make the novel electrophotographic recording element.
  • the compound 10 may be a single-crystal, hexagonal structure of zinc oxide, for example, having opposite polar (0001) surfaces 12 and 14 that are different from each other with respect to the direction of a c-axis 16, the surface 14 being designated as the Zn surface and the surface 12 being designated as the 0 surface.
  • the novel recording element will be described with respect to the pyroelectric compound 10 of zinc oxide, it is within the contemplation of the present invention to use other pyroelectric compounds, such as CdS, SbSI, or CdSe, for example.
  • a voltage is produced between the opposite surfaces 12 and 14 that are transverse to the c-axis 16.
  • the surface 12 acquires a negative electrostatic charge with respect to the surface 14, the surface 14 acquiring a positive electrostatic charge.
  • the polarities of the electrostatic charges on the surfaces 12 and 14 depend upon whether the c-axis 16 is pointing upwardly, in the direction of the arrow 18, or downwardly in the direction 20 with respect to the surfaces 12 and 14, looking at FIG. 1.
  • the amplitude of the voltage produced by the change in temperature is proportional to the thickness of the compound 10 between the opposite surfaces 12 and 14.
  • One method of determining the polarities of the electrostatic charges produced on the faces 12 and 14 of the pyroelectric compound 10 is to etch one of the prism (1010) faces 22 with 40 percent hydrofluoric acid.
  • a plurality of etch pits 24 are produced which can indicate the direction of the polar c-axis.
  • Each etch pit 24 has an arrowhead-type shape that points in the positive direction of the c-axis.
  • the etch pit 24, in FIG. 1 indicates that the polar axis 16 is positive in the direction of the arrow 20 and negative in the direction of the arrow 18.
  • the pyroelectric compound 10 of zinc oxide may be grown by any suitable method known in the art or it may be purchased from commercial vendors, as from Litton, Inc., Airtron Division, Morris Plains, New Jersey; or from the Dielectric Materials and System Division of The 3M Company, St. Paul, Minnesota.
  • the zinc oxide crystal compound 10 may be purchased either in the uncut crystal form or in the form of wafers 28 cut from the crystal, for example, along the dashed line 26'parallel to the faces 12 and 14. Uncut crystals are commercially available in diameters of 1mm through 5 mm and in varying lengths of 2 mm to 10 mm, depending on their diameter.
  • the zinc oxide compound 10 is preferably doped with a suitable dopant, such as copper (concentration of about l-l0 cm' or lithium (concentration of about 5.l0 cm' to compensate the zinc oxide with P-type carriers so as to provide it with a suitable resistivity.
  • a suitable dopant such as copper (concentration of about l-l0 cm' or lithium (concentration of about 5.l0 cm' to compensate the zinc oxide with P-type carriers so as to provide it with a suitable resistivity.
  • the dark resistivity of wafers 28 of the compound 10 is at least l0ohm cm, and usually much higher.
  • the doped single-crystal, zinc oxide compound 10 possesses an illuminated resistivity of approximately 10 ohm cm.
  • FIGS. 2 and 3 there is shown a novel recording element in the form of an electrophotographic plate 30 suitable for use in an electrophotographic process for reproducing images.
  • the plate 30 comprises an electrically conductive substrate 32, such as a sheet of aluminum, copper, or stainless steel, and a photoconductive layer 34 of one or more wafers 28 of the pyroelectric compound 10.
  • the photoconductive layer 34 is a composite of a plurality of the pyroelectric elemental bodies, such as wafers 28.
  • the wafers 28 are adhered to the substrate 32 by any suitable electrically conductive paste 36 or solder. While the wafers 28 of zinc oxide,illustrated in FIGS.
  • the layer 34 should have its opposite (large) major surfaces 38 and 40 substantially continuous; that is, the wafers 28 should abut each other as closely as possible so as to provide substantially continuous, smooth, opposite major surfaces 38 and 40.
  • the lower surfaces of the wafers 28 that are in electrical contact with the substrate 32 may be coated with a very thin coating of indium so as to make a good electrical contact with the substrate 32 through the conductive paste 36.
  • each wafer 28 should preferably have a thickness of at least about 0.5 mm, one major surface area of at least 2.5 mm, and a resistivity of at least ohm-cm in the dark.
  • All of the wafers 28 of the electrophotographic plate 30 are oriented so that their c-axes are transverse to, and preferably perpendicular to, the opposite major surfaces 38 and 40 of the lay 34. Since the photoconductor of zinc oxide in most electrophotographic processes is charged negatively, the zinc oxide wafers 28 of the compound 10 are disposed in the layer 34 so that their c-axes point outwardly, as in the direction 18 of FIG. 1, from the upper major surface 38 of the layer 34. Thus, a negative electrostatic charge is produced upon the upper major surface 38 of the layer 34 when the temperature of the layer 34 is raised, as will be explained hereinafter. Conversely, the upper major surface 38 of the photoconductive layer 34 will exhibit a positive electrostatic charge if the temperature of the layer 34 is suddenly lowered from its ambient.
  • the upper surface 38 of the photoconductive layer 34 is preferably coated with a monolayer of one or more sensitizing dyes, such as fluorescence, cyanine dyes, rose bengal, or erythrosin, for example, to make the photoconductive layer responsive to visible light.
  • sensitizing dyes such as fluorescence, cyanine dyes, rose bengal, or erythrosin, for example.
  • the photoconductive layer 34 of zinc oxide wafers 28 can be exposed by ultraviolet light to which it is particularly sensitive.
  • a heater 42 such as a hot plate, is disposed adjacent to the electrophotographic plate 30.
  • the heater is connected in series with a suitable voltage source 44 and a switch 46.
  • the switch 46 is closed to energize the heater 42.
  • the voltage developed pyroelectrically across the photoconductive layer 34 of the electrophotographic plate 30, in darkness is proportional to the thickness of the layer 34; that is, the thickness of the wafers 28, and to the change in the temperature of the layer 34.
  • a thickness of the photoconductive layer 34 of about 0.7 mm will provide a voltage thereacross of about 250 volts when the temperature of the layer 34 is raised about 5C. If the c-axes of the wafers 28 are pointing outwardly from the upper surface 38 of the photoconductive layer 34, the upper surface 38 of the photoconductive layer 34, the upper surface 38 is charged negatively and the lower surface 40 is charged positively, as indicated symbolically in FIG. 4. If the c-axes of the wafers 28 were pointing downwardly from the upper surface 38, the charges on the surfaces 38 and 40 of the photoconductive layer 34 would be reversed.
  • a change in temperature of the photoconductive layer 34 of between about 5C and 30C from the ambient has been found suitable to charging the novel electrophotographic plate 30 for processing in an electrophotographic process.
  • a change in temperature of less then'5C may not develop a sufficient charge on a very thin layer 34, while a change in temperature of more than 30C may render the layer 34 too conductive to retain the charge for a desired period.
  • a preferred method of charging the novel electrophotographic late 30 is by raising its temperature from the ambient, it is within the contemplation of the novel method to charge the electrophotographic plate 30 by cooling it between about 5C and 30C from the ambient. This may be accomplished by blowing refrigerated air onto the surface 38 of the layer 34, from any suitable source, through a plurality of jets 47 disposed above the photoconductive layer 34, as shown in FIG. 4. Any other means of cooling, such as by Peltier elements, for example, may also be used.
  • the charged electrophotographic plate 30 can now be exposed to a light image to be reproduced, whereby to discharge the electrophotographic plate 30 selectively and to provide an electrostatic latent image on the photoconductive layer 34.
  • This operation in the electrophotographic process is illustrated in FIG. 5.
  • a transparency 48 of the image to be reproduced, as a frame of a motion picture film 50, for example, is projected through a light projector 52 to the upper surface 38 of a charged (previously heated) photoconductive layer 34.
  • the exposure step should be carried out as soon as possible after the charging step to prevent a loss of the charge with a change in temperature.
  • any suitable developing means known in the electrophotographic art are examples of developing means known in the electrophotographic art.
  • the surface 38 may I be brushed with a magnetic brush comprising a magnet 54 and a triboelectric mixture 56 of iron and toner particles, as taught in U.S. Pat. No. 2,874,063, issued on February 17, 1959, to H. G. .Greig for Electrostatic Printing.
  • Thetoner particles 58 are positive. in the triboelectric mixture 56 and are attracted to the negative charges of the latent electrostatic image, thereby developing the latent image, as shown in FIG. 6.
  • the developed image may be fixed, as by heating, on the surface 38 of the photoconductive layer 34, or, if desired, the unfixed image may be transferred to a transfer sheet by any suitable means and methods well known in the art for transferring an unfixed image from an electrophotographic plate to a transfer sheet.
  • the improved electrophotographic plate has been shown and described as comprising singlecrystal, photoconductive, pyroelectric wafers of zinc oxide which is white
  • the photoconductive layer of the plate may comprise other pyroelectric, photoconductive compounds. While some of the pyroelectric compounds, such as CdS, SbSI, or CdSe, are not white, they are quite suitable for producing unfixed images on the novel electrophotographic plate for transfer purposes to transfer surfaces.
  • the novel method of charging the novel electrophotographic plate eliminates the need of the high voltage power supply of the prior art and the attendant disadvantages inherent herein.
  • the dimensions of the embodiments of the electrophotographic plate and conditions of the method of charging it described herein are merely illustrative and are not intended to be considered in a limiting sense.
  • An electrophotographic recording element comprising;
  • An electrophotographic recording element as described in claim 1, wherein said material is a compound selected from the group consisting of single-crystal ZnO, CdS, CdSe, and
  • An electrophotographic recording element as described in claim 1, wherein said material is single-crystal zinc oxide, said layer comprises one or more bodies of said single-crystal zinc oxide, and each of said bodies has a c-axis pointing toward said substrate.
  • each of said wafers has a thickness of at least 0.5 mm, a large surface with an area of at least 2.5 mm, and a resistivity of at least lO ohm-cm in the dark.
  • a photoconductive layer of a recording element is sequentially electrostatically charged, selectively discharged with a light image to provide an electrostatic latent image, and said latent image is developed with an electroscopic toner to provide a visible image on said layer
  • the improvement of charging said layer comprises one or more elemental bodies of said compound.
  • each of said elemental bodies has a c-axis, and said caxes extend in the same direction and are substantially perpendicular to said surface of said layer.
  • said material is single-crystal ZnO
  • said layer comprises a plurality of wafers of said single-crystal ZnO, and each of said wafers has a c-axis extending outwardly from said exposed surface and said layer.
  • said recording element comprising the steps of:
  • said photoconductive layer in theform of one or more similar crystalline elemental bodies of a photoconductive, pyroelectric material on an electrically conductive substrate, each of said elemental bodies being similarly oriented with respect to their crystal axes to produce electrostatic charges of opposite polarity on the opposite large surfaces, respectively, of said layer when the temperature of said layer is changed, and changing the temperature of said layer to produce said electrostatic charges, whereby to charge said layer.
  • the step of changing the temperature of said layer to produce said electrostatic charges comprises raising the temperature of said layer between 5C and 30C.
  • the step of changing the temperature of said layer to produce said electrostatic charges comprises lowering the temperature of said layer between 5C and 30C.
  • the step of providing said photoconductive layer comprises providing a layer of one or-more wafers of single-crystal, photoconductive zinc oxide on an electrically conductive substrate, each of said wafers of zinc oxide having a c-axis that is pointing in the same direction and oriented substantially perpendicularly to opposite large surfaces of said layer, and the step of changing the temperature of said layer comprises heating or cooling said layer at least about 5C.
  • said layer has one surface in electrical contact with anelectrically conductive substrate, and said c-axes of said wafers of zinc oxide point outwardly from the opposite large surface of said layer.
  • Claim 3 Col. 5, line 55 "Claim 3" should be Claim 1-- Claim 4, Col, 5, line 65 Cancel “and” and insert -of- Column 4, line '36 Cancel “late” and insert --plate Column 5, line 29 Cancel "herein” and insert thereinfiigned and Scaled this twenty-seventh D ay OF April 1 9 76 [SEAL] A ttest:

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US00068067A 1970-08-31 1970-08-31 Pyroelectric photoconductive elements and method of charging same Expired - Lifetime US3713822A (en)

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JP (1) JPS4931659B1 (enrdf_load_stackoverflow)
AU (1) AU459574B2 (enrdf_load_stackoverflow)
BE (1) BE771909A (enrdf_load_stackoverflow)
CA (1) CA945423A (enrdf_load_stackoverflow)
CH (1) CH542465A (enrdf_load_stackoverflow)
DE (1) DE2141918A1 (enrdf_load_stackoverflow)
FR (1) FR2104360A5 (enrdf_load_stackoverflow)
GB (1) GB1306665A (enrdf_load_stackoverflow)
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SE (1) SE361746B (enrdf_load_stackoverflow)

Cited By (16)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
DE2438025A1 (de) * 1973-08-06 1975-02-27 Minnesota Mining & Mfg Verfahren und mittel zur erzeugung elektrostatischer ladungsbilder
US3899969A (en) * 1973-08-06 1975-08-19 Minnesota Mining & Mfg Printing using pyroelectric film
US3935327A (en) * 1973-08-06 1976-01-27 Minnesota Mining And Manufacturing Company Copying using pyroelectric film
JPS5112242U (enrdf_load_stackoverflow) * 1974-07-15 1976-01-29
US4092862A (en) * 1976-05-04 1978-06-06 Minnesota Mining And Manufacturing Thermal gradient temperature sensor
US4106933A (en) * 1975-06-18 1978-08-15 Minnesota Mining And Manufacturing Company Piezoelectric method and medium for producing electrostatic charge patterns
US4465764A (en) * 1982-09-30 1984-08-14 Pennwalt Corporation Use of pyroelectric and photovoltaic polyvinylidene fluoride to enchance the photosensitivity of silver halide emulsions and the products made thereby
JPH0233155A (ja) * 1988-07-22 1990-02-02 Canon Inc 電子写真感光体
US5153615A (en) * 1991-04-26 1992-10-06 Xerox Corporation Pyroelectric direct marking method and apparatus
US5185619A (en) * 1991-04-26 1993-02-09 Xerox Corporation Electrostatic printing method and apparatus employing a pyroelectric imaging member
US5808648A (en) * 1996-03-19 1998-09-15 Sharp Kabushiki Kaisha Image forming apparatus and image forming method using pyroelectric imaging layer
US6291085B1 (en) 1998-08-03 2001-09-18 The Curators Of The University Of Missouri Zinc oxide films containing P-type dopant and process for preparing same
US6342313B1 (en) * 1998-08-03 2002-01-29 The Curators Of The University Of Missouri Oxide films and process for preparing same
US20040234823A1 (en) * 2003-05-20 2004-11-25 Burgener Robert H. Zinc oxide crystal growth substrate
US20050269565A1 (en) * 2002-06-24 2005-12-08 Cermet, Inc. Semi-insulating bulk zinc oxide single crystal
US20220077372A1 (en) * 2012-02-07 2022-03-10 Ethan James Ciccotelli Method and device for the generation of electricity directly from heat

Families Citing this family (1)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
JPS5183443U (enrdf_load_stackoverflow) * 1974-12-24 1976-07-05

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US3579332A (en) * 1968-05-27 1971-05-18 Rca Corp Single-crystal zinc oxide and an electrophotographic plate made therefrom

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US3573906A (en) * 1967-01-11 1971-04-06 Xerox Corp Electrophotographic plate and process
US3579332A (en) * 1968-05-27 1971-05-18 Rca Corp Single-crystal zinc oxide and an electrophotographic plate made therefrom

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Grigas, Pyroelectric effect in SBSI, C.A., Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 91082S. *
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Cited By (26)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
DE2438025A1 (de) * 1973-08-06 1975-02-27 Minnesota Mining & Mfg Verfahren und mittel zur erzeugung elektrostatischer ladungsbilder
US3899969A (en) * 1973-08-06 1975-08-19 Minnesota Mining & Mfg Printing using pyroelectric film
US3935327A (en) * 1973-08-06 1976-01-27 Minnesota Mining And Manufacturing Company Copying using pyroelectric film
US3992204A (en) * 1973-08-06 1976-11-16 Minnesota Mining And Manufacturing Company Method and medium for producing electrostatic charge patterns
JPS5112242U (enrdf_load_stackoverflow) * 1974-07-15 1976-01-29
US4106933A (en) * 1975-06-18 1978-08-15 Minnesota Mining And Manufacturing Company Piezoelectric method and medium for producing electrostatic charge patterns
US4092862A (en) * 1976-05-04 1978-06-06 Minnesota Mining And Manufacturing Thermal gradient temperature sensor
US4465764A (en) * 1982-09-30 1984-08-14 Pennwalt Corporation Use of pyroelectric and photovoltaic polyvinylidene fluoride to enchance the photosensitivity of silver halide emulsions and the products made thereby
JPH0233155A (ja) * 1988-07-22 1990-02-02 Canon Inc 電子写真感光体
US5153615A (en) * 1991-04-26 1992-10-06 Xerox Corporation Pyroelectric direct marking method and apparatus
US5185619A (en) * 1991-04-26 1993-02-09 Xerox Corporation Electrostatic printing method and apparatus employing a pyroelectric imaging member
US5808648A (en) * 1996-03-19 1998-09-15 Sharp Kabushiki Kaisha Image forming apparatus and image forming method using pyroelectric imaging layer
US6291085B1 (en) 1998-08-03 2001-09-18 The Curators Of The University Of Missouri Zinc oxide films containing P-type dopant and process for preparing same
US7033435B2 (en) 1998-08-03 2006-04-25 The Curators Of The University Of Missouri Process for preparing p-n junctions having a p-type ZnO film
US6410162B1 (en) * 1998-08-03 2002-06-25 The Curators Of The University Of Missouri Zinc oxide films containing P-type dopant and process for preparing same
US6475825B2 (en) 1998-08-03 2002-11-05 The Curators Of The University Of Missouri Process for preparing zinc oxide films containing p-type dopant
US6610141B2 (en) 1998-08-03 2003-08-26 The Curators Of The University Of Missouri Zinc oxide films containing p-type dopant and process for preparing same
US20040094085A1 (en) * 1998-08-03 2004-05-20 The Curators Of The University Of Missouri Process for preparing p-n junctions having a p-type ZnO film
US20070022947A1 (en) * 1998-08-03 2007-02-01 The Curators Of The University Of Missouri Process for preparing p-n junctions having a p-type ZnO film
US6342313B1 (en) * 1998-08-03 2002-01-29 The Curators Of The University Of Missouri Oxide films and process for preparing same
US20050269565A1 (en) * 2002-06-24 2005-12-08 Cermet, Inc. Semi-insulating bulk zinc oxide single crystal
US20070126015A1 (en) * 2002-06-24 2007-06-07 Cermet, Inc. Semi-Insulating Bulk Zinc Oxide Single Crystal
US20040234823A1 (en) * 2003-05-20 2004-11-25 Burgener Robert H. Zinc oxide crystal growth substrate
US7172813B2 (en) * 2003-05-20 2007-02-06 Burgener Ii Robert H Zinc oxide crystal growth substrate
US20220077372A1 (en) * 2012-02-07 2022-03-10 Ethan James Ciccotelli Method and device for the generation of electricity directly from heat
US11968899B2 (en) * 2012-02-07 2024-04-23 Ethan James Ciccotelli Method and device for the generation of electricity directly from heat

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AU3229871A (en) 1973-02-15
GB1306665A (en) 1973-02-14
AU459574B2 (en) 1975-03-27
NL7111935A (enrdf_load_stackoverflow) 1972-03-02
DE2141918A1 (de) 1972-03-02
CA945423A (en) 1974-04-16
JPS4931659B1 (enrdf_load_stackoverflow) 1974-08-23
BE771909A (fr) 1971-12-31
CH542465A (de) 1973-09-30
FR2104360A5 (enrdf_load_stackoverflow) 1972-04-14
SE361746B (enrdf_load_stackoverflow) 1973-11-12

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