EP1519401B1

EP1519401B1 - Ionisation vacuum gauge

Info

Publication number: EP1519401B1
Application number: EP04014545A
Authority: EP
Inventors: Raffaele Correale
Original assignee: Varian SpA
Current assignee: Varian SpA
Priority date: 2003-08-08
Filing date: 2004-06-22
Publication date: 2009-06-03
Anticipated expiration: 2024-06-22
Also published as: ITTO20030627A1; US7049823B2; EP1519401A1; JP2005062176A; DE602004021326D1; US20050028602A1

Description

The present invention relates to an ionisation vacuum gauge.
More particularly, the present invention relates to an ionisation vacuum gauge for measuring the residual pressure of a gaseous material remaining in a container, for instance, after operation of a vacuum pump, the gauge being of the kind comprising an electron-emitting cathode, a grid for accelerating the electrons emitted by the cathode and a plate collecting the ionised positive molecules of the gas, wherein the measurement of the plate current by a galvanometer allows determining the value of the residual pressure inside the container.
Two kinds of vacuum gauges are known: thermionic emission vacuum gauges (also called hot cathode vacuum gauges), and field emission (or cold cathode) vacuum gauges.
In thermionic emission vacuum gauges, the electron source consists in one or more filaments, for instance of tungsten, brought to incandescence. A typical example of hot cathode vacuum gauge is the Bayard-Alpert vacuum gauge. That kind of vacuum gauge comprises a wire-shaped ion collecting plate, a cylindrical grid surrounding said plate and an incandescent tungsten filament for electron emission, located outside the grid. The electrons emitted by the filament and accelerated by the grid ionise the residual gas, and the ions and/or the ionised positive molecules are collected by the plate, which is kept at lower potential than the electron source and the grid.
In the disclosed design, the electrons pass several times through the grid and, during such in and out movement, they ionise the residual gas until they hit the grid and are absorbed by it.
Thanks to that design including a plate reduced to a simple wire, pressures as low as about 10^-9 Pa could be measured. Indeed, thanks to the reduced plate wire surface, the background current due to photoelectric effect from the plate (electron emission) caused by X rays produced by electrons hitting the grid is minimised.
Such a vacuum gauge is disclosed for instance in US patent No. 2,605,431 .
The major drawback of that kind of vacuum gauges is related to the nature of the electron-emitting cathode. Actually, an incandescent filament is an isotropic electron source, whereas directionality of the electron beam is an essential parameter for vacuum gauge sensitivity.
In the disclosed design, vacuum gauge sensitivity is not constant, since the distribution of the electron emission direction changes as the temperature along the emitting cathode filament changes, said filament typically reaching temperatures up to about 2000°C.
Moreover, the phenomenon of electron emission by thermionic effect entails high power consumption, long response times and a non-negligible pollution of the surrounding environment due to the release of impurities.
US 2003/0057953 discloses a vacuum gauge including an anode grid in the form of a helix which defines a ionization apace, a cold electron source projecting electrons axially directly through the support into the ionization space and ion collector supported within the anode and maintained at ground potential where it attracts positive ions formed by the collision between the energetic electrons and the molecules or atoms. Said cold electron, source includes an electron emitter substrate coated with a nanostructured carbon electron-emitting film, which can be composed of nanocrystalline graphite, carbon nanotubes, diamond, diamond-like carbon or a composite of two or more of the abode.
JP 10-267780 discloses a vacuum gauge comprising a flat substrate that supports a cold cathode provided with a sharp end and an arc-shaped collector electrode in a spaced opposite relationship to each other the sharp end of said cathode being pointed, towards said collector electrode. Said vacuum gauge further comprises an anode in which a gap through which the emitted electrons pass is provided, said anode being located between said cathode and said collector electrode.
DE 41 37 527 discloses a pressure gauge comprising an electron emitting cathode of a field emission type and an anode, serving simultaneously as an electron collector for their acceleration under applied positive anode voltage wit respect to the cathode, the gas ions, generated by the electron impacts, are assemble in a collector. Preferably, the cathode, the anode and the collector are realised as plane elements laying on parallel plans.
JP 03-293533 discloses a vacuum gauge wherein a cold cathode mechanism is consisted of a polypolar electron releasing mechanism formes on a disc-shaped substrate, an emitter power source and as acceleration power source. The polypolar electron releasing mechanism is arranged along a circle to match the cylindrical shape of an anode electrode.
JP 7-099034 discloses an ionization gauge comprising an electron guns provided at one end of a cylindrical grid for injecting accelerated electrons into the grid; said accelerated electron ionise the gaseous material in the grid and an ion collecting electrode is provided at the other end of the grid for collecting the positive ions generated by said electrons. The ionization gauge further comprises an electron collecting electrode for collecting the incident electrons after that they have contributed to ionise the gaseous material in the grid.
Nevertheless, in known vacuum gauge, the ion collecting electrode is placed opposite to the emitting cathode, so that the ions and ionised molecules attracted towards the collecting plate move in a direction that is substantially parallel to the direction along which the electron beam is accelerated by the accelerating grid.
As a consequence, in known gauges there is an important interaction between the emitting cathode and the collecting plate, and a corresponding non negligible background current due to photoelectric effect caused by X rays.
It is the main object of the present invention to overcome the above drawbacks, by providing a miniaturised vacuum gauge, which has a great sensitivity and which does not appreciably perturb the pressure measurements.
The above and other objects are achieved by a vacuum gauge as claimed in the appended claims.
Advantageously, the arrangement according to the invention exploits the nanotube technology for making the electron-emitting cathode.
According to such a solution, electron emission takes place by field effect, and not by thermionic effect: application to a nanotube film of a strong electric field, whose flow lines are concentrated at the ends of said nanotubes, results in electron emission.
A nanotube cathode is a so-called "cold" electron source, requiring very low power consumption and having high directionality.
According to a preferred embodiment of the invention, thanks to the use of such a cathode, it is possible to go over the cylindrical geometry of the conventional Bayard-Alpert vacuum gauge and to use different geometries, allowing miniaturising the ionisation vacuum gauge.
More particularly, according to some embodiments of the invention, the electrons continue moving in the space between the grid and the plate, without any appreciable electron amount passing again through said grid.
Some preferred embodiments of vacuum gauge according to the invention, given by way of non-limiting example, will be disclosed in greater detail hereinafter, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

Fig. 1 is a schematical perspective representation of a nanotube;
Fig. 2A is a schematical representation of a first way of assembling nanotubes for manufacturing a nanotube film for electron emission;
Fig. 2B is a schematical representation of a second way of assembling nanotubes for manufacturing a nanotube film for electron emission;
Figs. 3 to 5 are schematical perspective views of vacuum gauges employing a nanotube cathode, which are not embodiments of the present invention;
Figs. 6 to 8 are schematical perspective views of as many embodiments of the invention.

Referring to Fig. 1, reference numeral 1 denotes, a single-wall carbon nanotube.
Carbon nanotubes are one of the possible forms of crystalline carbon, together with graphite, diamond and fullerenes.
Generally, a single-wall carbon nanotube 1 can be considered as a carbon tube made of a graphite layer rolled up into a cylinder, closed at its ends by two hemispherical caps 1b. The nanotube body is formed only by hexagonal carbon structures 3a, whereas the end caps are generally formed by both hexagonal structures 3a and pentagonal structures 3b of carbon atoms.
The diameter of a nanotube is generally in the range 0.8 to 10 nm and usually is below 2 nm. The length of a nanotube is instead generally of the order of 10⁴ to 10⁵ nm, so that nanotubes can be considered monodimensional structures.
Multiple nanotubes assembled into a thin film exhibit optimum field emission capability, i. e. capability of emitting electrons due to the action of a strong electric field, whose flow lines are concentrated at ends 1b of said nanotubes
In order to exhibit good field emission capability, the nanotubes in said thin film must be arranged in ordered manner.
Figs. 2A and 2B show two typical modalities for assembling the nanotubes.
In Fig. 2A, a plurality of nanotubes 5, 5', 5" are arranged inside one another, so that they are concentric and form a so-called multiple-wall nanotube.
In Fig. 2B, on the contrary, a plurality of nanotubes 7, 7', 7" are arranged parallel and adjacent to one another, so that they form an ordered bundle.
By using either arrangement described above, a nanotube film with optimum electron emission properties can be obtained.
Turning now to Fig. 3, a vacuum gauge employing a nanotube cathode is shown. The ionisation vacuum gauge is of the so-called Bayard-Alpert type, which uses a cathode 31 capable of emitting electrons and formed by a nanotube film 29 arranged on a substrate 27.
As mentioned above, said vacuum gauge is housed inside a vacuum chamber 10 and it comprises, besides said nanotube cathode 31 for electron emission, an anode 13 in the shape of a cylindrical grid, capable of accelerating the electrons emitted by said cathode, and a wire-shaped plate or collecting electrode 15, located centrally of anode 13, for collecting the gas ions and ionised positive molecules.
Cathode 31, formed by a thin nanotube film 29 arranged on a substrate 27 according to the arrangement shown in either Fig. 2A or Fig. 2B, is a low-temperature, highly directional, field-emission electron source. To this end, an extraction grid 30 is located opposite nanotube film 29, at short distance therefrom, and is connected to a power supply 17 keeping the grid at a potential V₃₀ higher than that of said substrate 27, which is grounded. The potential difference between said substrate 27 and said extraction grid 30 generates an electric field in which nanotube film 29 is immersed and which causes field-effect electron emission by the nanotubes.
The electrons emitted by said cathode 31 are accelerated by grid-shaped anode 13, connected to a second power supply 19 and kept at a potential V₁₃ > V₃₀. The electrons accelerated in this manner pass through said grid 13 and move towards collecting electrode 15 that, however, being grounded, repels the electrons, causing them to pass again through grid 13. This motion in and out of said grid 13 continues until the electrons are absorbed by the grid itself. During this motion, the electrons ionise the molecules or atoms of the residual gas contained in vacuum chamber 10, so that said ionised molecules or atoms are attracted by said plate 15. The ion current generated on said plate 15 can be measured by means of a galvanometer 21. Suitable signal processing means 23 allow obtaining the residual gas pressure inside chamber 10 from the value of said ion current, once the current intensity of the electron source consisting in cathode 31 is known.
It is clear that using a nanotube cathode allows solving many problems inherent in the use of ionisation vacuum gauges. The nanotubes are highly directional electron sources, whereas the conventional incandescent filament is a substantially isotropic source. Moreover, the power required to apply to the cathode a potential difference sufficient to cause field emission by the nanotubes is far lower than that required to bring said filament to incandescence.
Referring to Fig. 4, there is shown another vacuum gauge employing a nanotube cathode. A chamber 10 encloses the volume containing a residual gas, the pressure of which is to be measured. The vacuum gauge substantially comprises: a cathode 31 capable of emitting electrons, which cathode is formed by a nanotube film 29 arranged on a substrate 27 and is provided with an extraction grid 30; a grid-shaped anode 33, capable of accelerating the electrons emitted by cathode 31; and a plate or collecting electrode 35, which is to collect the ions produced by the electron collisions with the gas atoms or molecules.
In that embodiment, anode 33 is made as a substantially plane grid placed opposite said cathode 31, at short distance therefrom. Thus, the electrons emitted by cathode 31 are focussed into a beam oriented according to a preferential initial direction (denoted by arrow F), substantially perpendicular to the plane of said grid 33.
It is therefore advantageous to make plate 35 as a plane plate, in register with and substantially parallel to said grid 33.
Note that, in the embodiment shown, cathode 31 and plate 35 are made as plane plates. Such members could however have a different shape as well, e.g. a concave or convex shape. Moreover, plate 35 could be also made as a small bar or a wire. The plane plate shape is however preferable since increasing the plate surface directed towards the electron source results in increasing the sensitivity of said plate.
The electrons, once they are emitted by said cathode 31 due to field effect, are accelerated through holes 34 of grid 33 according to a direction perpendicular to said grid, towards plate 35. To this end, like in the gauge disclosed in FIG. 3; said grid 33 is; suitably biased at a potential V₃₃ higher than potential V₃₀ at which extraction grid 30 of cathode 31 is set and such that the electrons passing through grid 33 come out therefrom with a kinetic energy preferably in the range 100 to 150 eV, that is, in the most favourable energy range for ionisation of residual gas present in chamber 10.
In order to keep extraction grid 30 of cathode 31 and anode 33 at different potentials, two d.c. power supplies 17, 19 connected in series are provided also in this embodiment.
Extraction grid 30 is connected to power supply 17, which keeps the grid at a potential V₃₀ higher than that of grounded substrate 27 of nanotube film 29.
The electrons emitted by said cathode 31 are accelerated by grid-shaped anode 33, connected to the second power supply 19 and kept at a potential V₃₃ > V₃₀.
During their motion between said grid 33 and said plate 35, the electrons collide with the atoms or the molecules of the residual gas, ionising them. When arriving close to said plate 35, the electrons are repelled by the plate, since said plate is grounded. The electrons are also repelled by the walls of chamber 10, which also are grounded, and are directed again towards grid 33, by which they are eventually absorbed after further collisions with the atoms or the molecules of the residual gas.
The ions of the residual gas are on the contrary collected by plate 35, which is connected with a galvanometer 21 allowing measuring the absorbed ion current. Suitable means 23 for processing the analogue signal generated by said galvanometer allow obtaining the residual gas pressure in chamber 10 from the value of said ion current, once the current intensity of the source consisting in cathode 31 is known.
To obtain a more accurate measurement, also grid 33 can be connected to a second galvanometer (not shown), for measuring the grid electron current due to the electrons absorbed by said grid.
Residual pressure p_x can thus be obtained according to relation: $p_{x} = c \cdot i_{p} / i_{g}$
where: c is a constant typical of the apparatus and of the gas nature; i_p is the plate current intensity; i_g is the grid current intensity.
Note that using a plane geometry allows placing the collecting plate at a greater distance from the grid (which, on the contrary, surrounds said plate in the Bayard-Alpert vacuum gauge), thus limiting the background current due to the photoelectric effect of the plate caused by X rays produced on the grid. Consequently, in the vacuum gauge according to the invention, the plate does not need to be reduced to a wire (as in the Bayard-Alpert vacuum gauge), but its surface can be advantageously increased so as to enhance the measurement sensitivity.
Moreover, using the plane geometry for grid-shaped anode 33, together with using a nanotube emitting cathode 31, allows further miniaturising the vacuum gauge according to the invention.
Said cathode 31 and said grid 33 may be spaced apart by some tens of micrometres (for instance, 20 to 50 µm), and the spacing between said grid 33 and said plate 35 may for instance range from 100 to 500 µm, depending on the sensitivity needed. Clearly indeed, the greater the spacing between said grid 33 and said plate 35, the greater the probability of ionisation of the residual gas contained in chamber 10.
In order to further reduce the size of the vacuum gauge according to the invention, in the embodiment shown in Fig. 4, two magnets 25 (for instance, electromagnets or permanent magnets), formed by grounded plane discs or plates, are located between said grid 33 and said plate 35, in planes perpendicular to both said electrodes 33, 35 and hence parallel to the initial direction of the electron beam.
The magnetic field produced by said magnets 25 affects the motion of the electrons, which follow spiral paths. Thus, the number of collisions of each electron with the atoms or the molecules of the residual gas per unit of linear distance travelled is increased. In other words, with a same geometry, the ionisation degree of said gas, and hence the sensitivity of the vacuum gauge according to the invention, are increased. In the alternative, the spacing between grid 33 and plate 35 (and hence the overall dimensions of the vacuum gauge according to the invention) can be reduced, while leaving the ionisation degree of'the residual gas and the vacuum gauge sensitivity unchanged.
Turning now to Fig. 5, there is shown a further vacuum gauge employing a nanotube cathode, which differs from the gauges previously shown in the shape of the grid-shaped anode, here denoted by reference numeral 133.
Said anode 133 is made as a substantially parallelepiped cage, having a face 133a parallel to said cathode 31 and located at short distance therefrom. Thus, the electrons emitted by cathode 31 are accelerated through face 133a of anode 133 according to a preferential initial direction (denoted by arrow F), substantially perpendicular to the plane of said face 133a.
Collecting plate 35 is placed opposite face 133a, in correspondence of open base 132 of grid 133.
Note that using a parallelepiped grid 133 allows increasing the vacuum gauge sensitivity. Actually, being both plate 35 and the walls of chamber 10 grounded, the ions could be attracted by said walls rather than by plate 35, thereby creating an ion dispersion effect. Use of a parallelepiped grid 133, which is closed except for said opening 132 in correspondence of said plate 35, allows avoiding ion dispersion and consequently increasing the vacuum gauge sensitivity.
Turning now to Fig. 6, there is shown a first embodiment of the vacuum gauge according to the invention.
In the previously disclosed vacuum gauges, said plate 35 is placed opposite the cathode and lies in a plane substantially parallel to the cathode itself and perpendicular to preferential direction F of the electron beam.
On the contrary, in the embodiment of the vacuum gauge according to the invention shown in Fig. 6, plate 35 lies in a plane substantially perpendicular to the plane of cathode 31, and hence it is located in a plane parallel to preferential initial direction F of the electron beam. Thus, the ions and the ionised molecules attracted towards said plate 35 move towards the plate in a direction substantially perpendicular to that of the electron beam.
Thus, interactions between the electron source (cathode 31) and collecting plate 35 are limited. More particularly, the photoelectric effect on plate 35 due to X rays emitted by grid 133' is significantly limited, whereby the sensitivity of the vacuum gauge according to the invention is further increased.
In this embodiment too, grid-shaped anode 133' is suitably equipped with a side opening 132' in correspondence with collecting plate 35.
An extracting device 37 may be provided in correspondence of opening 132' to make ion channelling towards plate 35 easier. Said extracting device may consist, for instance, in an electrostatic lens and it is connected to a power supply 16, such that the extraction device can be brought to a potential intermediate between the potentials of plate 35 (that is grounded) and grid 133'.
In this embodiment too, use of a pair of magnets 25 in order to create a magnetic field causing the electrons to move along spiral paths may be provided for. In the present case, said plate-shaped magnets 25 are advantageously located in planes perpendicular to both cathode 31 and plate 35.
In order to limit the background current due to photoelectric effect of the plate caused by X rays produced on the grid and, hence, to improve the sensitivity of the vacuum gauge according to the invention, it might be advantageous to place collecting plate 35 at a greater distance from grid-shaped anode 133'. To this aim, means such as magnets, capacitor plates, electrostatic lenses, radiofrequency devices, capable of deflecting a beam of charged particles, could be used.
Turning to Fig. 7, there is shown a second embodiment of the invention, in which a capacitor 45 is provided, of which plates 47 are suitably biased so as to channel between them the ions or the ionised molecules, so as to deflect their advancing direction by about 90°.
More particularly, one of said plates 47 may be grounded and the other may be brought to a suitable potential to obtain ion paths with the desired curvature radius.
The electrons accelerated by anode 133' collide with the atoms or the molecules of the residual gas and ionise them. The ions or the ionised molecules are channelled into the space between plates 47 of said capacitor 45 and are deflected by 90° towards a plate 35 placed at the exit from the passageway defined between said plates 47.
Similarly, in a third embodiment of the vacuum gauge according to the invention, shown in Fig. 8, a capacitor 49 may be provided, located between extracting device 37 and collecting plate 35 and having plates 51 that are shaped so as to deflect the direction of the ions or the ionised molecules by about 180°.
The ions or the ionised molecules produced by the collisions of the electrons accelerated by anode 133' are channelled between plates 51 of said capacitor 49 and are deflected by 180° towards a plate 35 placed at the exit from the passageway defined between said plates 51.
Advantageously, according to the latter two embodiments, collecting plate 35 is isolated from the electron beam and the electron source, so that the photoelectric effect due to X rays produced on grid 133' is significantly reduced.
In a variant of the latter two disclosed embodiments described above, a pair of shaped magnets might be used in place of a capacitor for deflecting the ions. In such case, electrical potential V_m between said magnets will be chosen depending on the curvature radius desired for the ion paths, according to relation $m / q = r^{2} B^{2} / 2 (V_{133 ʹ} - V_{m})$
where m and q are the mass and the charge, respectively, of the ions to be deflected, r is the desired curvature radius, B is the strength of the magnetic field generated by said magnets and V_133' is the potential of grid 133'.
The skilled in the art will immediately appreciate that the use of the vacuum gauge described above gives important advantages. First, the possibility of constructing a vacuum gauge of extremely reduced size makes the vacuum gauge according to the invention suitable for any field of application. Still thanks to its reduced size, the vacuum gauge according to the invention does not perturb the environment where pressure is to be measured, so that said measurement is more reliable and accurate.
It is clear as well that the above description has been given only by way of non-limiting example and that changes and modifications are possible without departing from the scope of the present invention, defined by the appended claims.

Claims

An ionisation vacuum gauge for measuring the residual pressure of a gaseous material in a container (10), the gauge comprising:
- an electron-emitting cathode (31), said cathode being formed by a plurality of nanotubes;

- a grid shaped anode (133') made as a substantially parallelepiped cage and having a face (133'a) substantially parallel to and opposite said cathode (31) for accelerating the electrons emitted by said cathode according to a preferential initial direction (F) substantially perpendicular to the plane of said face (133'a); and

- a plate (35) placed outside said cage (133') for collecting the ions and/or ionised molecules of said gaseous material, once ionised by said electrons accelerated by said accelerating grid (133');
wherein the measurement of the plate current allows determining the value of the residual pressure inside the container characterised in that said cage (133') has a side opening (132') in correspondence with said collecting plate (35) so that said ions and/or ionised molecules attracted towards said plate (35) move towards the plate in a direction substantially perpendicular to said preferential initial direction (F) of the electron beam.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 1, wherein said plate (35) lies in a plane substantially perpendicular to the plane of the cathode (31), whereby said plate (35) is located in a plane substantially parallel to said preferential initial direction (F) of the electron beam.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 1, wherein said cathode (31) includes a nanotube film (29).
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 1, wherein said cathode (31) includes a plurality of single-wall carbon nanotubes.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 4, wherein said nanotubes comprise each a tubular carbon body made of a graphite layer rolled up into a cylinder and closed at both ends by two hemispherical caps, said body being formed by hexagonal carbon structures (3a) and said caps being formed by both hexagonal structures (3a) and pentagonal structures (3b) of carbon atoms.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 5, wherein said nanotubes have diameters in the range 0.8 to. 10 nm and lengths in the range 10⁴ to 10⁵ nm.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 6, wherein said nanotubes are arranged inside one another, so as to be concentric and to form a so-called multiple-wall nanotube.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 6, wherein said nanotubes are arranged parallel and adjacent to one another, so as to form an ordered bundle.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 3, wherein said cathode (31) includes an extraction grid (30) located opposite said nanotube film (29).
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 1, wherein most of the electrons emitted by said cathode (31) cross said accelerating grid (133') only once.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 1, wherein the spacing between said cathode (31) and said accelerating grid ( 133') is far smaller than the spacing between said cathode (31) and said plate (35).
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 11, wherein the spacing between said cathode (31) and said accelerating grid ( 133') is preferably in the range 20 to 50 µm, and the spacing between sad cathode (31) and said plate (35) is preferably below 550 µm.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 1, comprising means for generating an electric and/or magnetic field directed so as to increase the length of the path travelled by said electrons between said accelerating grid and said plate (35).
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 13, wherein said means comprise a pair of permanent magnets or of electromagnets (25) arranged so as to define between them a passageway for the electrons accelerated by said accelerating grid and directed towards said plate (35).
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 1, wherein means (37) are provided for directing said ions and/or molecules towards said plate (35).
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 1, comprising means for generating an electric and/or magnetic field directed so as to deflect the ions and/or the ionised molecules according to a predetermined direction, said means being located between said side opening (132') and said collecting plate (35).
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 16, wherein said means comprise a pair of curved plates (47; 51) defining between them a passageway through which the ions and/or the ionised molecules generated by said electron beam and directed towards said plate (35) are deflected when an electric and/or magnetic field is generated between the curved plates.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 17, wherein the deflection undergone by said ions and/or said ionised molecules while travelling through the passageway defined between said plates (47; 51) is in the range 0° to 180°.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 18, wherein said deflection is of about 90° and said plate (35) is substantially parallel to said cathode (31).
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 18, wherein said deflection is of about 180° and said plate (35) is substantially perpendicular to said cathode (31).
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 17, wherein said means comprise a pair of plates (47; 51) of a capacitor (45; 49), a first plate being grounded and the second one being suitably biased.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 17, wherein said means comprise a pair of permanent magnets or electromagnets.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 9 wherein said extraction grid (30) is connected to a first power supply (17) keeping said extraction grid (30) at a potential higher than that of said nanotube film (29), said accelerating grid (133') being connected to a second power supply (31) keeping the accelerating grid (133') at a potential higher than that of said extraction grid (30).
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 23, wherein said film (29) is grounded.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 23 or 24, wherein said plate (35) is grounded.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in any of claims 23 to 25, wherein the walls of said container (10) are grounded.
The vacuum gauge as claimed in claim 15, wherein said means (37) consist in an electrostatic lens connected to a power supply (16) keeping the lens at a potential different from zero and lower than the potential of said accelerating grid (133').