Classifications

• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
  • A23K—FODDER
  • A23K50/00—Feeding-stuffs specially adapted for particular animals
  • A23K50/80—Feeding-stuffs specially adapted for particular animals for aquatic animals, e.g. fish, crustaceans or molluscs
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
  • A23K—FODDER
  • A23K10/00—Animal feeding-stuffs
  • A23K10/20—Animal feeding-stuffs from material of animal origin
  • A23K10/22—Animal feeding-stuffs from material of animal origin from fish
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
  • A23K—FODDER
  • A23K10/00—Animal feeding-stuffs
  • A23K10/20—Animal feeding-stuffs from material of animal origin
  • A23K10/26—Animal feeding-stuffs from material of animal origin from waste material, e.g. feathers, bones or skin
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
  • A23K—FODDER
  • A23K20/00—Accessory food factors for animal feeding-stuffs
  • A23K20/10—Organic substances
  • A23K20/179—Colouring agents, e.g. pigmenting or dyeing agents
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
  • A23K—FODDER
  • A23K40/00—Shaping or working-up of animal feeding-stuffs
  • A23K40/30—Shaping or working-up of animal feeding-stuffs by encapsulating; by coating
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A23—FOODS OR FOODSTUFFS; TREATMENT THEREOF, NOT COVERED BY OTHER CLASSES
  • A23K—FODDER
  • A23K50/00—Feeding-stuffs specially adapted for particular animals
  • A23K50/40—Feeding-stuffs specially adapted for particular animals for carnivorous animals, e.g. cats or dogs
  • A23K50/48—Moist feed
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02A—TECHNOLOGIES FOR ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02A40/00—Adaptation technologies in agriculture, forestry, livestock or agroalimentary production
  • Y02A40/80—Adaptation technologies in agriculture, forestry, livestock or agroalimentary production in fisheries management
  • Y02A40/81—Aquaculture, e.g. of fish
  • Y02A40/818—Alternative feeds for fish, e.g. in aquacultures

Definitions

• Ground meat and/or fish paste is a method which has been developed for the production of pet food and wet feed for fish and/or fur-bearing animals.
• the feed is produced from a paste made of meat and/or fish by-products and/or whole fish, plus some energy-giving meal.
• Pellets of ground fish paste are surface treated with sufficient heat to apply a film of coagulated protein to the feed particles, whilst the protein in the rest of the feed particles will have a decreasing degree of coagulation towards the particle core.
• the method which is described in this application comprises cooking in hot animal and/or vegetable oil.
• the buoyancy of feed intended for fish can be adjusted by controlling the amount of heat applied.
• Cooking in hot oil (animal and/or vegetable) at different temperatures and for different residence times provides in addition the possibility of controlling the water content, fat content and fatty acid content of the feed.
• Production of feed for fish is used here as an example, but the method described can also be used for the production of pet food and feed for fur-bearing animals (and optionally for feed for other animals and birds).
• New wet feeds must satisfy the requirements that modern fish farming has with respect to the physical structure of feed, and must not stick together, be crushed or dissolve too quickly in water.
• the object of the method described in this application is to attain such stabilisation by heat treating the surface of wet feed pellets (which chiefly consist of meat and/or fish by-products and some energy-giving meal) in hot oil. Treatment with hot oil will cause the pellet surfaces to coagulate, so that they neither stick to each other and surrounding equipment nor dissolve in water. The degree of coagulation will decrease towards the core of the pellet, and the depth of the coagulation will therefore be controllable.
• the aim is that central units with access to meat and/or fish waste will in the future be able to provide salmon farmers with quality feed which is considerably cheaper than dry feed.
• the concept will mean great savings for the salmon farmers who are able to make use of it, whilst ensuring an enhanced utilisation of Norwegian fish resources.
• Pet food and fur-bearing animal feed of good quality can be produced using the same equipment, optionally in the same factories.
• Sustained high temperature at a low moisture level can cause heat damage to the protein and thus reduce both digestibility and growth.
• the heat treatment takes place at a high temperature (100-200°C), whilst the feed particles are wet ( ⁇ 50% dry matter), and the period of heat transfer is very short (5-60 seconds).
• the surface of the feed particles is subjected to heat sufficient to apply a film of coagulated protein to the feed particles, whilst the protein in the rest of the feed particles will have a decreasing degree of coagulation towards the particle core.
• the method enhances the digestibility of the protein in comparison with raw ground meat and/or fish paste, probably due to a protein structure which is more readily available for enzymatic cleavage, and thus is also more readily available for absorption.
• a protein structure of this kind may also bring about a "protein mix effect" with different rates of solubility and digestibility of the protein in the different parts of the feed particle. In this case, this may lead to a more even abso ⁇ tion of amino acids from the intestinal tract and better utilisation of the amino acids for deposits in the muscle.
• Cooking in animal and/or vegetable oil and subsequent cooling gives solid pellets having a "meatball consistency" which do not stick, even after freezing.
• Cooking in oil reduces the water content in the feed and adds extra fat to the feed. This allows the possibility of adjusting the fat content in the feed and also of adding desired fatty acids.
• the higher fat content probably together with the formation of gas bubbles in the feed particles during heat treatment, gives the oil-cooked feed entirely different buoyancy than raw ground fish paste. This creates the possibility of controlling the buoyancy in oil-cooked fish feed by controlling the temperature (degree of bumping) and residence time (degree of fat penetration) in the oil bath.
• the fat content in the feed particles can also be increased by spraying on oil prior to cooling.
• the pellets of ground meat and/or fish paste must be surface treated with heat, so that they are given a surface film of coagulated protein.
• the methods described in this application include as stated above: (1): cooking in hot animal and/or vegetable oil (deep-frying).
• the ground fish paste On cooking in hot oil, the ground fish paste is pelleted directly in the oil bath (animal and/or vegetable oil, 100-200°C), and is lifted out of the bath and passed into a cooling tunnel by means of a conveyor belt having buckets.
• the residence time in the oil bath (5-60 seconds) is controlled using the speed of the conveyor belt.
• the oil is heated using steam pipes or electric elements.
• the cooled feed is then put into suitable packaging, e.g., large sacks or containers.
• Pellets of suitable size were produced with the aid of a food mixer with a sausage attachment and manual cutting of the string of paste. They were subsequently cooked in sunflower oil for 15 seconds at 180°C in a deep fryer, shaken dry, cooled on a wire tray, and frozen singly.
• the block of 750 g of ground fish paste was defrosted in a cold-storage room over night, kneaded in a food mixer as 83 g of Premix 2 was gradually added.
• the finished mixture contained 100 g of wheat-oat mixture per kg, and was kneaded for a further 20 minutes.
• the paste was then rolled out into strings and cut up into suitable pellets.
• the test was carried out using salmon in seawater, in eight tanks (lm x lm), with 20 fish of 500 g in each tank Light was on continuously, and the feed was distributed 24 hours a day with the aid ofa belt auto feeder.
• the composition of the ground fish paste and the feeds is shown in Table 1.
• the finished paste had a viscous and fine consistency, but with only a 10% content of dry raw materials was still too sticky for pellet production.
• cooking in oil and subsequent cooling gave solid pellets having a "meatball consistency", which did not stick even after freezing.
• the cooking in oil reduced the water content in the feed from 60 to 51% and added extra fat to the feed.
• Such protein structure may also bring about a "protein mix effect", with different rates of solubility and digestibility of the protein in the different parts of the feed particle. In this case, this may result in a more even abso ⁇ tion of amino acids from the intestinal tract, and better utilisation of the amino acids for deposits in the muscle. However, to examine such effects would call for further tests.
• the fat digestibility was high in the case of both feeds, and was virtually unaffected by the heat and the extra addition of fat by cooking in oil.
• the extra fat supply reduced the ratio of digestible protein to digestible energy (g digestible protein/digestible MJ) from 17.2 to 14.1 g/MJ.
• the optimal ratio of digestible protein to digestible energy in salmon feed in the seawater phase is between 16 and 20 g/MJ ( court and Roem, 1996).
• the paste should therefore be mixed with more protein than fat than in this test, either by using leaner raw fish material or by adding extra fishmeal. If one chooses to add fishmeal, one will at the same time obtain a drier and better consistency of the paste which is to be pelleted.
• cooking in oil is a promising form of production for surface coagulated wet feed for salmon with respect to feed utilisation.
• compositions are well-balanced with respect to the fishes' need for protein, fat and carbohydrates.
• compositions include the extreme situations where only fatty fish or lean fish are used.
• content of wheatmeal and fishmeal are kept constant. Therefore by inte ⁇ olation one may easily arrive at the correct ratio of raw fish material to oil in new recipes which include both fatty and lean fish.
• the formulation of the ground fish paste is presented in Table 1.
• the paste was produced in two batches, but using the same composition: 82.9% raw fish material (frozen whole herring and frozen cod scraps), 1 1.7% dry meal (LT fishmeal and sieved wheatmeal), 4.9% fish oil and 0.5% water.
• the indigestible marker yttrium oxide (Y 2 O 3 ) per kg was added to it to give 50 mg of Y 2 O 3 per kg of the ready mixed paste.
• the Y 2 O 3 was first mixed into a small amount of the fishmeal in a food processor. The rest of the fishmeal was then gradually added in a larger kneading machine.
• Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) was added to the paste as antioxidant. Crystalline BHT was first dissolved in alcohol in the ratio of 60g BHT to one litre of alcohol, and 16 ml of this solution was then added per kg of fish oil before being mixed into the paste (50mg BHT per kg paste).
• the defrosted raw fish material was first cut up and mixed in a large high-speed chopping machine. Then fishmeal, wheatmeal, oil and water were added in turn and mixed into the fish mass in the high-speed chopping machine. Finally the mixtures were passed through a microcutter with a cutting rate of 3000 - 4000 revs/min. The finished pastes had a temperature of about 30°C.
• Norse LT-94 Norse LT-94 (Nordsildmel, Bergen, Norway), with the addition of 1.0g Y 2 0 3 (Sigma Chemical
• the test feed was produced in a modified fish ball cooker, where the mould diameter in the fish ball cutter was 1 1 mm.
• the cooker was six metres long and was filled with 1200 litres of oil, which was heated by 28 electric elements of 3.0 - 3.2 kW (a total of 86 - 90 kW).
• In the cooker there was mounted an inclined conveyor belt which emerged from the oil bath after three metres. By adjusting the speed of this conveyor belt the residence time of the paste balls in the oil bath could be controlled. From the deep-fryer the ready fried feed moved on a seven-metre open conveyor belt before passing onto a six-metre conveyor belt through an air-cooled tunnel.
• Feed 1 fried for 15 seconds Feed 2, fried for 25 seconds Feed 3, fried for 35 seconds
• each feed was produced from two separate paste mixtures in two separate frying batches.
• the production of each test feed started when the temperature in the oil bath reached 184°C. In each production the temperature then fell gradually to about 179°C.
• the core temperature in the feed particles was measured in 55 ⁇ 7.9 (mean ⁇ standard deviation) particles from each production using an electronic thermometer at the end of the conveyor belt in the deep fryer, i.e., three metres after the feed had exited the oil bath.
• the finished feed was collected in plastic trays, cooled in a cold-storage room (2°C) and frozen in a freezing room (-30°C) on the same afternoon. Digestibility tests
• test was carried out using salmon in seawater in 12 test pens (3x7x5 m) with 40 fish of 2.5 kg in each pen. Fish were put out 11 days prior to the start of the test to allow them to become accustomed to the test pens. In the test period the fish were fed according to appetite twice a day.
• Digestibility was further determined following the method described by Austreng (1978) using yttrium oxide as an indigestible marker (Austreng et al., 1996).
• Footnotes a indicate significant differences within column at 10% level.
• the core temperature in the feed particles which were fried for 15 seconds was significantly lower than the core temperature in the particles which were fried for longer. There was no difference in temperature between the particles which were cooked for 25 seconds and those cooked for 35 seconds. This shows that the core temperature in the feed particles had reached boiling point after 25 seconds frying time at 180°C. That the temperatures measured at 25 and 35 seconds frying time are somewhat lower than 100°C is probably due to the fact that the temperatures were measured very quickly, that the feed particles had already cooled a little, and that the size of the feed particles was uneven, where the core temperature was still lower in the very largest particles. This last-mentioned is also illustrated by the fact that the variation in core temperature decreased when the frying time of the feed particles was increased from 25 to 35 seconds.
• the deep frying resulted in an increase in dry matter content in the feed and an increase in the fat content in the feed dry matter (see Table 4).
• the water loss in the feed particles increased as the frying time increased.
• fat abso ⁇ tion was highest after the middlemost frying time, i.e., after 25 seconds.
• the optimal DP/DE ratio in feed for salmon in the seawater phase is between 16 and 20 g/MJ (Einem and Roem, 1996). Higher water content and possibly better protein quality may perhaps cause the right DP/DE ratio to be lower in wet feed than in dry feed. In the wet feeds in this test the DP/DE ratio was however as low as 12.7 ⁇ 0.3 g/MJ (mean ⁇ standard deviation). When deep frying wet feed the paste should therefore contain more lean raw fish material and/or protein meal (fishmeal, soyameal, etc.) If more protein meal is added, the dry matter content in the finished feed will increase simultaneously.
• Footnotes a c indicate significant differences in the column at the 5% level * indicates significant differences at 5% level N.S. indicates no significant differences Grams digestible protein per digestible MJ
• the formulation of the ground fish paste is presented in Table 1.
• the paste was produced in two batches, but following the same recipe: 82.9% raw fish material (frozen whole herring and frozen cod scraps), 1 1.7% dry meal (LT fishmeal and sieved wheatmeal), 4.9% fish oil and 0.5% water.
• Carophyll Pink corresponding to 30 mg/kg wet weight, was added to the two different productions of paste.
• Carophyll Pink was dispersed in hot water (50°C) by stirring for about 30 minutes and then stirred into the oil phase.
• Y 2 O 3 yttrium oxide
• Y 2 O 3 was first mixed with a small amount of the fishmeal mixture in a food processor. The rest of the fishmeal was then gradually added in a larger kneading machine.
• Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT; 2,6-di-tert-butyl-p-cresol) was added to the paste as an antioxidant. Crystalline BHT was dissolved in ethanol (60g BHT/1). The solution (16 ml) was added to the fish oil before being mixed into the paste (50 mg per kg paste).
• the thawed raw fish material was first cut up and mixed in a high-speed chopper (Schneidmischer 325, Kramer-Grebe, Wallau/Lahn, Germany). Then fishmeal, wheatmeal, oil and water were added in turn and mixed into the fish mass.
• the mixtures were then comminuted by means ofa microcutter with a cutting speed of 3000 to 4000 revs/min.
• the finished pastes had a temperature of about 30°C. Table 1. Formulation and chemical composition of the paste
• the test feed was produced in a modified fish ball cooker, where the mould diameter in the ball cutter was 11 mm.
• the cooker was six metres long, and was filled with 12 litres of oil, which was heated by 28 electric elements of 3.0 - 3.2 kW (in total 86-90 kW).
• In the cooker there was mounted an inclined conveyor belt which emerged from the oil bath after three metres. By adjusting the speed of the conveyor belt the residence time of the paste balls in the oil bath was controlled.
• the ready-fried feed was conveyed further on an open conveyor belt (seven metres) and then through an air-cooled tunnel (six metres).
• each feed was consequently produced from two separate paste mixtures in two separate frying batches.
• the production of each test feed started when the temperature in the oil bath reached 184°C. The temperature then fell gradually to 179°C.
• the core temperature in the feed particles was measured in 5517.9 (meanlstandard deviation) particles for each production using an electronic thermometer at the end of the conveyor belt in the deep fryer, i.e., three metres after the feed had exited from the oil bath.
• the finished feed was collected in plastic trays, cooled in a cold-storage room (2°C) and frozen in a freezing room (-30°C) the same afternoon. Digestibility tests
• test was carried out using salmon in seawater, in 12 test pens (3x7x5 m), with 40 fish of 2.5 kg in each pen.
• the fish were set out 1 1 days prior to the start of the test to allow them to become accustomed to the test pens.
• the fish were fed according to appetite twice a day.
• the samples were analysed isocratically using HPLC on a silica gel column (Merck Hibar, LiChrosorb Si 60.5 ⁇ m particle size; inner diameter 4.6 mm, length 125 mm; flow rate 1.5 ml/min; (35 bar); detection wave length 470 nm) with 14% acetone in hexane as mobile phase, as described by Vecchi et al. (1987). The concentration was calculated with the aid of an external standard.
• the HPCL used was a Shimadzu LC- 10AS liquid chromatograph coupled to a Shimadzu SPD-M6A Photodiode array UV- VIS detector and Shimadzu CBM-10A Communications Bus module.
• the samples were injected by means ofa Shimadzu SIL-10 autoinjector.
• the chromatograms were reintegrated (Class LC10 software, Shimadzu, Japan) for base line correction.
• the retention time (R ⁇ ) for astaxanthin was about 10.0 mins.
• the concentration was calculated according to the following:
• Apparent digestibility coefficients (ADC) for astaxanthin in the different feeds were determined using an indirect method after sampling dung as described by Austreng (1978). Yttrium oxide was used as an indigestible marker (Austreng et al., 1996). ADCs were calculated according to Maynard and Loosli ( 1969).
• Apparent digestibility coefficients for astaxanthin (ADC) for the different feeds are given in Table 4. There were no significant differences in digestibility of astaxanthin between feed fried from 15 to 35 seconds, although there was a tendency for the feed pretreated with astaxanthin to have a different digestibility after treatment for respectively 15 and 35 seconds (Table 4). Compared with digestibility values for canthaxanthin found when using indigestible markers and dredging out dung (Torrissen et al., 1990), the values in this test were very high. Comparable results were obtained for astaxanthin in rainbow trout (Choubert and Storebakken, 1996; Bjerkeng et al., 1997). Deep frying of wet feed is therefore found to be a relatively gentle heat treatment process, where a residence time of up to 35 seconds in oil at 180°C does not cause any significant damage to the fishes' ability to utilise astaxanthin.
• Footnotes tr indicate trends (0.05 ⁇ p ⁇ 0.1).
• Austreng E., 1978. Digestibility determination in fish using chromic oxide marking and analysis of contents from different segments of the gastrointestinal tract.

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• 1997
  • 1997-04-10 AU AU25787/97A patent/AU2578797A/en not_active Abandoned
  • 1997-04-10 WO PCT/NO1997/000093 patent/WO1997038590A1/en not_active Application Discontinuation
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