CN114108034B - Method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory material through molten salt electrolysis - Google Patents
Method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory material through molten salt electrolysis Download PDFInfo
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Abstract
A method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis belongs to the technical field of molten salt electrolysis. The method takes a fluoride molten salt system as a flux, crushed and ground waste zirconium-containing refractory materials or waste chromium-containing refractory material powder as a raw material, aluminum liquid as a liquid cathode and graphite as an anode, and performs electrolysis at high temperature to prepare the aluminum-based alloy. The method combines chemical components of the waste zirconium-containing refractory material or the waste chromium-containing refractory material, provides a flux capable of corroding the refractory material, realizes valence conversion and recycling of zirconium/chromium element in the waste zirconium-containing or chromium-containing refractory material by adopting a molten salt electrolysis method, and provides a thinking for recycling the waste refractory material.
Description
Technical Field
The invention relates to the technical field of molten salt electrolysis, in particular to a method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis.
Background
The refractory material is widely used in high temperature process in the fields of steel, nonferrous metal, building materials, chemical industry and the like, is an important foundation and supporting material for implementing all new high temperature industry technology and new technology, and belongs to resource type products. Although the refractory raw material resources of China are rich, the people share is low, the economic rapid development of China is added, the exploitation amount is continuously increased, the phenomenon of random excavation of private exploitation is serious, a large amount of resources are wasted, and some refractory raw material resources are increasingly exhausted. If the waste refractory materials can be recycled, the resource crisis is obviously relieved.
In the production, preparation and use processes of refractory products, a large amount of waste products and refractory waste materials are generated, and at present, the waste refractory materials in China are reprocessed and applied in a relatively extensive manner, for example, the waste refractory materials are buried as garbage, degraded and utilized and the like. On one hand, the low-level treatment mode occupies a large amount of land resources, and causes serious environmental pollution; on the other hand, the waste of valuable metal elements in the waste refractory materials is also caused. At present, the recycling of waste refractory materials is mainly represented by the following two aspects: firstly, limiting the use amount of waste refractory materials; and secondly, recycling the waste refractory materials. Therefore, the waste refractory materials are fully utilized, the exploitation of natural mineral raw materials is reduced, the cost and the energy consumption in the production and preparation processes of the refractory materials are reduced, the transportation cost of the refractory raw materials can be saved, the resource conservation, energy conservation and environmental protection are facilitated, and the method has remarkable economic and social benefits.
Zirconium/chromium-containing refractories are important high temperature refractories. Along with the updating of high-temperature kiln equipment, zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials are often abandoned, and zirconium/chromium containing valuable elements have important recovery and disposal values and are not fully valued. In addition, the zirconium/chromium-containing refractory contains a zirconium/chromium compound having a stable chemical composition, which is less likely to be corroded and is difficult to recycle.
Disclosure of Invention
Aiming at the problems of disposal of the existing waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory material, the invention combines chemical components of the waste zirconium-containing refractory material or the waste chromium-containing refractory material, seeks a flux capable of corroding the refractory material, and provides a method for recycling the waste zirconium-containing refractory material or the waste chromium-containing refractory material by adopting a molten salt electrolysis method to realize recycling of the waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory material by adopting the molten salt electrolysis method, thereby realizing green disposal and harmless utilization of Zr/Cr in the waste zirconium-containing refractory material or the waste chromium-containing refractory material.
According to the invention, a fluoride molten salt system is used as a flux, crushed and ground waste zirconium-containing refractory materials or waste chromium-containing refractory material powder is used as a raw material, aluminum liquid is used as a liquid cathode, graphite is used as an anode, and electrolysis is carried out at a high temperature to prepare the aluminum-based alloy, so that the valence conversion and recycling of zirconium/chromium elements in the waste zirconium-containing or chromium-containing refractory materials are realized, and an idea is provided for recycling the waste refractory materials.
In order to achieve the purpose of the invention, the technical scheme adopted by the invention is as follows:
a method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis comprises the following steps:
s1: pretreatment of raw materials
Grinding the waste zirconium-containing refractory material or the waste chromium-containing refractory material to obtain waste refractory material powder;
and weighing the elpasolite mixture according to the proportion, wherein the elpasolite mixture comprises KF and AlF 3 KF: alF (AlF) 3 ＝(2.1～2.8):1；
S2: high temperature dissolution
Adding aluminum ingots, elpasolite mixture and waste refractory material powder into an electrolytic tank, and heating until the elpasolite mixture is melted to obtain an electrolytic system;
s3: electrowinning
Graphite is used as an anode, aluminum liquid is used as a cathode, the electrolysis is carried out by electrifying, and the current density of the cathode is controlled to be 0.5-1.5A/cm 2 And electrolyzing for 3-10 h to obtain the aluminum-based alloy.
In S1, the particle diameter of the refractory powder is 0.07mm or less.
In the S2, the elpasolite mixture is prepared from the following components in percentage by mass: waste refractory powder= (5-20): 1, a step of;
according to the mass ratio, aluminum ingots: waste refractory powder= (7-10): 1.
in the step S2, heating is carried out until the melting temperature of the cryolite mixture is 800-900 ℃.
In the step S3, waste refractory material powder is added into an electrolysis system at intervals of 20-40 min in the electrolysis process; the added waste refractory material powder accounts for 10-50% of the mass of the original added waste refractory material powder.
In the S2, in the adopted electrolytic tank, an insulating BN lining is arranged on the inner wall of the graphite crucible and used for controlling the current direction, isolating the side wall current and ensuring the stable formation of aluminum-based alloy on the lower layer of the crucible.
In the method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis, the prepared aluminum-based alloy is aluminum-zirconium alloy or aluminum-chromium alloy;
in the aluminum-zirconium alloy, the weight percentage of Zr is 5-10%;
in the aluminum chromium alloy, the mass percentage of Cr is 4-8%;
in the method for realizing recycling utilization by treating the waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory material through molten salt electrolysis, the recovery rate of the waste zirconium-containing refractory material or the waste chromium-containing refractory material is 92-98%.
The method for realizing recycling by treating waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis has the beneficial effects that:
through implementation of the technical scheme, the refractory materials which are difficult to dissolve and corrode can be dissolved by using the elpasolite, and the valence conversion and recycling of zirconium element or chromium element in the waste zirconium-containing refractory materials or chromium-containing refractory materials are realized, so that the Al-Zr/Al-Cr alloy with higher value is obtained. Zr/Cr in the waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory material is treated and utilized in a green way. The invention finds an environment-friendly disposal method of the waste zirconium-containing refractory material or the chromium-containing refractory material, has the advantages of short flow, simple and convenient operation, cost saving, high added value and the like, and has important reference value for saving the raw material resource and energy consumption of the refractory material and realizing the recycling and harmless reutilization.
Drawings
FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an electrolytic tank used in a method for realizing recycling of waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials by molten salt electrolysis: 1-a graphite crucible; a 2-BN liner; 3-graphite anode; 4-anode guide rod; 5-cathode guide rod; 6-molten salt electrolyte; 7-aluminum liquid;
Detailed Description
The present invention will be described in further detail with reference to examples.
Example 1
A method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis is shown in a figure 1, and comprises the following steps:
(1) Pretreatment of raw materials: waste zirconium-containing refractory materials are primarily selected and mixed with elpasolite, evenly mixed and ground to 200 meshesThe following mixture powder was obtained; wherein, the components contained in the elpasolite mixture and the molar ratio thereof are as follows: KF/AlF 3 =2.1; the elpasolite mixture comprises the following components in percentage by mass: waste zirconium-containing refractory powder = 10:1, a step of;
(2) High-temperature dissolution: according to the mass ratio, aluminum ingots: waste zirconium-containing refractory powder = 7:1, putting an aluminum block and ground mixture powder into an electrolytic tank, and heating to 800 ℃ in a graphite crucible 1 with a BN liner 2 to melt elpasolite;
adding waste zirconium-containing refractory material powder into the electrolytic tank every 30 minutes, wherein the addition amount is 10% of that of the waste zirconium-containing refractory material added initially;
(3) Electrolytic extraction: a graphite anode 3 is inserted from the upper part in the electrolytic tank, an anode guide rod 4 is connected to the graphite anode 3, a cathode guide rod 5 is inserted into an aluminum liquid 7, elpasolite is used as a molten salt electrolyte 6, and the electrolysis is performed by electrifying. Controlling the cathode current density to be 1A/cm 2 The electrolysis time is 6 hours, and the aluminum-zirconium alloy is obtained.
In the aluminum-zirconium alloy obtained by the cathode, the mass percentage of Zr is 8%, and the balance is Al, and unavoidable impurities such as Fe, ti, si and the like are also contained;
the recovery rate of Zr element in the waste zirconium-containing refractory material can reach 94 percent.
Example 2
A method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste chromium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis comprises the following steps:
(1) Pretreatment of raw materials: waste chromium-containing refractory materials are primarily sorted and mixed with elpasolite, uniformly mixed and ground to below 200 meshes, and mixture powder is obtained; wherein, the components contained in the elpasolite mixture and the molar ratio thereof are as follows: KF/AlF 3 =2.6; the elpasolite mixture comprises the following components in percentage by mass: waste chromium-containing refractory powder = 20:1, a step of;
(2) High-temperature dissolution: according to the mass ratio, aluminum ingots: waste chromium-containing refractory powder = 8:1, putting the aluminum block and the ground mixture powder into an electrolytic tank, and heating to 860 ℃ to melt the elpasolite;
adding waste chromium-containing refractory material powder into the electrolytic tank once every 30 minutes, wherein the addition amount is 30% of the initial waste chromium-containing refractory material;
(3) Electrolytic extraction: a graphite anode is inserted from the upper part in the electrolytic tank, and electrolysis is performed by electrifying. Controlling the cathode current density to be 1.5A/cm 2 The electrolysis time is 4 hours, and the aluminum chromium alloy is obtained.
In the aluminum chromium alloy obtained by the cathode, the mass percentage of Cr is 6 percent, and the balance is Al, and unavoidable impurities such as Fe, ti, si and the like are also contained;
the recovery rate of Cr element in the waste chromium-containing refractory material can reach 93 percent.
Example 3
A method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis is shown in a figure 1, and comprises the following steps:
(1) Pretreatment of raw materials: primarily sorting the waste zirconium-containing refractory material, mixing with the elpasolite mixture, uniformly mixing, and grinding to below 200 meshes to obtain mixture powder; wherein, the components contained in the elpasolite mixture and the molar ratio thereof are as follows: KF/AlF 3 =2.3; the elpasolite mixture comprises the following components in percentage by mass: waste zirconium-containing refractory powder = 5:1, a step of;
(2) High-temperature dissolution: according to the mass ratio, aluminum ingots: waste zirconium-containing refractory powder = 9:1, putting an aluminum block and ground mixture powder into an electrolytic tank, and heating to 830 ℃ in a graphite crucible 1 with a BN liner 2 to melt elpasolite;
adding waste zirconium-containing refractory material powder into the electrolytic tank once every 20 minutes, wherein the addition amount is 20% of the initial waste zirconium-containing refractory material;
(3) Electrolytic extraction: a graphite anode 3 is inserted from the upper part in the electrolytic tank, an anode guide rod 4 is connected to the graphite anode 3, a cathode guide rod 5 is inserted into an aluminum liquid 7, elpasolite is used as a molten salt electrolyte 6, and the electrolysis is performed by electrifying. Controlling the cathode current density to be 0.8A/cm 2 The electrolysis time is 7 hours, and the aluminum-zirconium alloy is obtained.
In the aluminum-zirconium alloy obtained by the cathode, the mass percentage of Zr is 7%, and the balance is Al, and unavoidable impurities such as Fe, ti, si and the like are also contained;
the recovery rate of Zr element in the waste zirconium-containing refractory material can reach 95 percent.
Example 4
A method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste chromium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis comprises the following steps:
(1) Pretreatment of raw materials: waste chromium-containing refractory materials are primarily sorted and mixed with elpasolite, uniformly mixed and ground to below 200 meshes, and mixture powder is obtained; wherein, the components contained in the elpasolite mixture and the molar ratio thereof are as follows: KF/AlF 3 =2.5; the elpasolite mixture comprises the following components in percentage by mass: waste chromium-containing refractory powder = 20:1, a step of;
(2) High-temperature dissolution: according to the mass ratio, aluminum ingots: waste chromium-containing refractory powder = 7:1, putting an aluminum block and ground mixture powder into an electrolytic tank together, and heating to 850 ℃ to melt elpasolite;
adding waste chromium-containing refractory material powder into the electrolytic tank once every 40 minutes, wherein the addition amount is 30% of the initial waste chromium-containing refractory material;
(3) Electrolytic extraction: a graphite anode is inserted from the upper part in the electrolytic tank, and electrolysis is performed by electrifying. Controlling the cathode current density to be 0.5A/cm 2 The electrolysis time is 10 hours, and the aluminum chromium alloy is obtained.
In the aluminum chromium alloy obtained by the cathode, the mass percentage of Cr is 5 percent, and the balance is Al, and unavoidable impurities such as Fe, ti, si and the like are also contained;
the recovery rate of Cr element in the waste chromium-containing refractory material can reach 93 percent.
Example 5
A method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis is shown in a figure 1, and comprises the following steps:
(1) Pretreatment of raw materials: primarily sorting the waste zirconium-containing refractory material, mixing with the elpasolite mixture, uniformly mixing, and grinding to below 200 meshes to obtain mixture powder; wherein the elpasolite mixture containsThe components and the molar ratio thereof are as follows: KF/AlF 3 =2.8; the elpasolite mixture comprises the following components in percentage by mass: waste zirconium-containing refractory powder = 15:1, a step of;
(2) High-temperature dissolution: according to the mass ratio, aluminum ingots: waste zirconium-containing refractory powder = 10:1, putting an aluminum block and ground mixture powder into an electrolytic tank, and heating to 880 ℃ in a graphite crucible 1 with a BN liner 2 to melt elpasolite;
adding waste zirconium-containing refractory material powder into the electrolytic tank once every 25 minutes, wherein the addition amount is 25% of that of the initial waste zirconium-containing refractory material;
(3) Electrolytic extraction: a graphite anode 3 is inserted from the upper part in the electrolytic tank, an anode guide rod 4 is connected to the graphite anode 3, a cathode guide rod 5 is inserted into an aluminum liquid 7, elpasolite is used as a molten salt electrolyte 6, and the electrolysis is performed by electrifying. Controlling the cathode current density to be 1.2A/cm 2 The electrolysis time is 5 hours, and the aluminum-zirconium alloy is obtained.
In the aluminum-zirconium alloy obtained by the cathode, the mass percentage of Zr is 8%, and the balance is Al, and unavoidable impurities such as Fe, ti, si and the like are also contained;
the recovery rate of Zr element in the waste zirconium-containing refractory material can reach 93 percent.
Example 6
A method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste chromium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis comprises the following steps:
(1) Pretreatment of raw materials: waste chromium-containing refractory materials are primarily sorted and mixed with elpasolite, uniformly mixed and ground to below 200 meshes, and mixture powder is obtained; wherein, the components contained in the elpasolite mixture and the molar ratio thereof are as follows: KF/AlF 3 =2.7; the elpasolite mixture comprises the following components in percentage by mass: waste chromium-containing refractory powder = 18:1, a step of;
(2) High-temperature dissolution: according to the mass ratio, aluminum ingots: waste chromium-containing refractory powder = 9:1, putting an aluminum block and ground mixture powder into an electrolytic tank, and heating to 870 ℃ to melt elpasolite;
adding waste chromium-containing refractory material powder into the electrolytic tank once every 30 minutes, wherein the addition amount is 25% of that of the original waste chromium-containing refractory material;
(3) Electrolytic extraction: a graphite anode is inserted from the upper part in the electrolytic tank, and electrolysis is performed by electrifying. Controlling the cathode current density to be 1.2A/cm 2 The electrolysis time is 5 hours, and the aluminum chromium alloy is obtained.
In the aluminum chromium alloy obtained by the cathode, the mass percentage of Cr is 6 percent, and the balance is Al, and unavoidable impurities such as Fe, ti, si and the like are also contained;
the recovery rate of Cr element in the waste chromium-containing refractory material can reach 94 percent.
Example 7
A method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis is shown in a figure 1, and comprises the following steps:
(1) Pretreatment of raw materials: primarily sorting the waste zirconium-containing refractory material, mixing with the elpasolite mixture, uniformly mixing, and grinding to below 200 meshes to obtain mixture powder; wherein, the components contained in the elpasolite mixture and the molar ratio thereof are as follows: KF/AlF 3 =2.8; the elpasolite mixture comprises the following components in percentage by mass: waste zirconium-containing refractory powder = 15:1, a step of;
(2) High-temperature dissolution: according to the mass ratio, aluminum ingots: waste zirconium-containing refractory powder = 8:1, putting an aluminum block and ground mixture powder into an electrolytic tank, and heating to 900 ℃ in a graphite crucible 1 with a BN liner 2 to melt elpasolite;
adding waste zirconium-containing refractory material powder into the electrolytic tank once every 35 minutes, wherein the addition amount is 15% of the initial waste zirconium-containing refractory material;
(3) Electrolytic extraction: a graphite anode 3 is inserted from the upper part in the electrolytic tank, an anode guide rod 4 is connected to the graphite anode 3, a cathode guide rod 5 is inserted into an aluminum liquid 7, elpasolite is used as a molten salt electrolyte 6, and the electrolysis is performed by electrifying. Controlling the cathode current density to be 0.7A/cm 2 The electrolysis time is 9 hours, and the aluminum-zirconium alloy is obtained.
In the aluminum-zirconium alloy obtained by the cathode, the mass percentage of Zr is 8%, and the balance is Al, and unavoidable impurities such as Fe, ti, si and the like are also contained;
the recovery rate of Zr element in the waste zirconium-containing refractory material can reach 95 percent.
Example 8
A method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste chromium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis comprises the following steps:
(1) Pretreatment of raw materials: primarily sorting the waste chromium-containing refractory materials, uniformly mixing and grinding the waste chromium-containing refractory materials to below 200 meshes to obtain waste chromium-containing refractory material powder; weighing an elpasolite mixture, wherein the elpasolite mixture comprises the following components in molar ratio: KF/AlF 3 ＝2.4；
(2) High-temperature dissolution: the weight ratio of the elpasolite mixture is as follows: waste chromium-containing refractory powder = 20:1, a step of; aluminum ingot: waste chromium-containing refractory powder = 10:1, a step of; weighing materials, putting the aluminum block, the elpasolite mixture and the waste chromium-containing refractory material powder into an electrolytic tank together, and heating to 840 ℃ to dissolve the elpasolite;
adding waste chromium-containing refractory material powder into the electrolytic tank once every 25 minutes, wherein the addition amount is 20% of that of the original waste chromium-containing refractory material;
(3) Electrolytic extraction: a graphite anode is inserted from the upper part in the electrolytic tank, and electrolysis is performed by electrifying. Controlling the cathode current density to be 1.5A/cm 2 The electrolysis time is 4 hours, and the aluminum chromium alloy is obtained.
In the aluminum chromium alloy obtained by the cathode, the mass percentage of Cr is 6 percent, and the balance is Al, and unavoidable impurities such as Fe, ti, si and the like are also contained;
the recovery rate of Cr element in the waste chromium-containing refractory material can reach 96 percent.
Comparative example 1
The difference from example 1 is that the current density was changed to 0.3A/cm 2 The electrolysis time was changed to 20 hours to obtain an aluminum-zirconium alloy.
In the aluminum-zirconium alloy obtained by the cathode, the mass percentage of Zr is 3 percent, and the balance is Al, and unavoidable impurities such as Fe, ti, si and the like are also contained;
the recovery rate of Zr element in the waste zirconium-containing refractory material only reaches 40 percent.
Comparative example 2
The difference from example 2 is that the current density was changed to 3A/cm 2 The electrolysis time was changed to 2 hours to obtain an aluminum chromium alloy.
The electrolyte becomes viscous, the molten salt system is destroyed, and the aluminum chrome alloy is not obtained at the cathode.
Comparative example 3
The difference from example 1 is that the molar ratio is: the molar substitution ratio of the mixture of NaCl/kcl=2.1 of chloride is: KF/AlF 3 Elpasolite mixture=2.1.
It is found that the waste zirconium-containing refractory material is insoluble and cannot be electrolyzed to obtain the aluminum-zirconium alloy.
Comparative example 4
The difference from example 1 is that KF/AlF is used in a molar ratio 3 The substitution molar ratio of elpasolite mixture=1.5 is: KF/AlF 3 Elpasolite mixture=2.1.
The aluminum-zirconium alloy obtained at the cathode has a Zr mass of 2% and the balance Al, and also contains unavoidable impurities such as Fe, ti, si, etc.;
the recovery rate of Zr element in the waste zirconium-containing refractory material only reaches 30 percent.
Claims (7)
1. A method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials through molten salt electrolysis is characterized by comprising the following steps:
s1: pretreatment of raw materials
Grinding the waste zirconium-containing refractory material or the waste chromium-containing refractory material to obtain waste refractory material powder;
and weighing the elpasolite mixture according to the proportion, wherein the elpasolite mixture comprises KF and AlF 3 KF: alF (AlF) 3 =(2.1~2.8):1；
S2: high temperature dissolution
Adding aluminum ingots, elpasolite mixture and waste refractory material powder into an electrolytic tank, and heating until the elpasolite mixture is melted to obtain an electrolytic system; according to the mass ratio, aluminum ingots: waste refractory powder= (7-10): 1, a step of; the weight ratio of the elpasolite mixture is as follows: waste refractory powder= (5-20): 1, a step of;
s3: electrowinning
Graphite is used as an anode, aluminum liquid is used as a cathode, the electrolysis is performed by electrifying, and the current density of the cathode is controlled to be 0.5-1.5A/cm 2 And (3) electrolyzing for 3-10 h to obtain the aluminum-based alloy.
2. The method for realizing resource utilization of waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials treated by molten salt electrolysis according to claim 1, wherein in the step S1, the particle size of refractory material powder is below 0.07 mm.
3. The method for realizing resource utilization of waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials treated by molten salt electrolysis according to claim 1, wherein in the step S2, the temperature for melting the cryolite mixture is 800-900 ℃.
4. The method for realizing resource utilization by treating waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials by molten salt electrolysis according to claim 1, wherein in the step S3, waste refractory material powder is added into an electrolysis system at intervals of 20-40 min in the electrolysis process; the mass of the added waste refractory material powder is 10% -50% of the mass of the original added waste refractory material powder.
5. The method for realizing the recycling of the waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory material treated by molten salt electrolysis according to claim 1, wherein the prepared aluminum-based alloy is aluminum-zirconium alloy or aluminum-chromium alloy in the method for realizing the recycling of the waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory material treated by molten salt electrolysis.
6. The method for realizing recycling of waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory materials treated by molten salt electrolysis according to claim 5, wherein the aluminum-zirconium alloy comprises 5-10% of Zr by mass; in the aluminum chromium alloy, the mass percentage of Cr is 4% -8%.
7. The method for realizing recycling of waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory treated by molten salt electrolysis according to claim 1, wherein the recovery rate of the waste zirconium-containing refractory or the waste chromium-containing refractory is 92% -98% in the method for realizing recycling of the waste zirconium/chromium-containing refractory treated by molten salt electrolysis.
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