AU2009290159A1 - Compositions and methods using substances containing carbon - Google Patents

Description

CROSS-REFERENCE [00011 This application claims priority to the following copending patent application: U.S. Provisional Patent Application S erial No. 61/101,629, titled "Methods of Producing Carbon Sequestration Tradable Commodities, and Systems for -ransferring the Same," filed 30 September 2008; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 5 61/181,250, t tied "Compositions and Methods Using Substances with Negative delta 13C Values," filed 26 May 2009; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 61/117,541, titled "Methods of Producing Carbon Sequestratior Tradable Commodities, and Systems for Transferring the Same," filed 24 November 2008; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 61/219,310, titled "Compositions and Methods Using Substances with Negative delta 13C Values," filed 22 June 2009; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 61/232,401, titled, 10 "Carbon Cap ure and Storage," filed 7 August 2009; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 61/239,429, titled, "Appa atus, Systems, and Methods of Treating Industrial Waste Gases," filed 2 September 2009; U.S. Provisional P tent Application Serial No. 61/230,042, titled, "Apparatus, Systems, and Methods of Treating Industrial Waste Gases," filed 30 July 2009; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 61/178,475, titled, "Apparatus, systems, and Methods of Treating Industrial Waste Gases," filed 14 May 2009; U.S. Provisional Patent 15 Application erial No. 61/170,086, titled, "Apparatus, Systems, and Methods of Treating Industrial Waste Gases," filed 16 April 2009; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 61/168,166, titled, "Apparatus, Systems, and Methods of 'eating Industrial Waste Gases," filed 9 April 2009; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 61/158,992, titled, "Apparatus, Systems, and Methods of Treating Industrial Waste Gases," filed 10 March 2009; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 61/101,631, titled, "CO 2 Sequestration," filed 30 September 2008; 20 U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 61/101,626, titled, "High Yield CO2 Sequestration Product Production,"filed 30 September 2008; and is a continuation in part of the following copending applications: U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 12/557,492, titled, "CO 2 Commodity Trading System and Method," filed on 10 September 20 09;U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 12/475,378, titled, "Rocks and Aggregate, and Methods of Making and Using the Same," filed 29 May 2009; U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 12/344,019, titled, "Methods 25 of Sequestering C0 2 ," filed 24 December 2008; U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 12/501,217, titled, "Production of Carbonate. Containing Compositions from Material Comprising Metal Silicates," filed 10 July 2009; and U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 12/486,692, titled, "Methods and Systems for Utilizing Waste Sources of Metal Oxides," filed 17 June 2009; all of which are incorporated herein by reference. 30 BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Rel4ive isotope composition values, e.g., relative carbon isotope composition values (6"C values) can be used in a variety of ways to verify the origins of materials in a composition. Other substances within the composition rnay also be used to verify the origin of the material. Such techniques are useful in, e.g., confirming that a given imposition contains substances sequestered from a particular source, e.g., fossil fuels, and such 35 compositions may have a premium value. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [00031 In scme embodiments, the invention provides a composition that includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or a combination thereof, wherein the carbon in the composition has a relative carbon isotope composition (V"C) value 40 less than -26. 0 %o. In some embodiments, the invention provides a composition in which the composition is a -2- Docket No. CLRA-035WO synthetic con position. In some embodiments, the invention provides a composition in which the carbonates, bicarbonate, or combination of carbonates and bicarbonates make up at least 50% of the composition. In some embodiments, the invention provides a composition in which the composition has a mass of greater than 100 kg. In some embodiments, the invention provides a composition in which the CO 2 content of the composition is at least 5 10%. In som embodiments, the invention provides a composition in which the composition has a negative carbon footprint. In rome embodiments, the invention provides a composition that further includes boron, sulfur, or nitrogen in w-iich the relative isotopic composition of the boron, sulfur, or nitrogen is indicative of a fossil fuel origin. In some embodiments, the invention provides for a composition in which the carbonates, bicarbonates or combination >f carbonates and bicarbonates include calcium, magnesium or a combination of calcium and 10 magnesium. In some embodiments, the invention provides a composition in which the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) mol r ratio is between 1/200 and 200/1. In some embodiments, the invention provides a composition in which the cal ium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 12/1 to 1/15. In some embodiments, the invention provides a cofnposition in which the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 5/1 to 1/10. In some embodiments the invention provides a composition that further includes SOx or a derivative of SOx. In some 15 embodiments the invention provides a composition in which the composition includes a SOx derivative and in which the Scx derivative is a sulfite, a sulfate, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides a composition that further includes a metal. In some embodiments, the invention provides a composition that includes metal in which the metal includes lead, arsenic, mercury, or cadmium, or a combination thereof. [00041 In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material that includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or 20 a combination thereof, in which the carbon in the carbonates, bicarbonates or combination thereof has a relative carbon isotope composition (6"C) value less than -10.00 %o. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the component that includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof is carbon neutral or carbon negative. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the component that includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof is synthetic. In some embodiments, the 25 invention proides a building material of in which the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof make up at least 50% of the component that includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the CO 2 content of the component that includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof is at least 10%. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material that further includes boron, sulfur, or nitrogen in which the relative isotopic composition of the boron, 30 sulfur, or nitrogen is indicative of a fossil fuel origin. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof include calcium, magnesium or a combination of calcium and magnesium. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the calcium t< magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/200 and 200/1. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 12/1 to 1/15. In 35 some embodi nents, the invention provides a building material in which the component that includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof constitutes at least 20% of the building material. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the building material is a cementitious material. In some embodimentsl the invention provides a cementitious building material in which the building material is cement or concrete. In sjme embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the building material is a non 40 cementitious material. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material wherein the building material is an aggregate. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the building material is a roadway material. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the -3- Docket No. CLRA-035WO building material is a brick, a board, a conduit, a beam, a basin, a column, a tile, a fiber siding product, a slab, an acoustic barrier, plaster, dry-wall, stucco, a soil stabilization composition, or insulation or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the component that includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof further includes SOx or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the 5 invention provides a building material in which the component that includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination hereof and includes SOx or a derivative thereof includes a sulfate, a sulfite ,or a combination thereof as a derivative c f SOx. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material in which the component comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof further includes a metal. In some embodiments, the invention provides a building material that includes a metal in which the metal includes lead, arsenic, mercury or 10 cadmium of combinations thereof. [00051 In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition that includes carbonates, bicarbonates >r a combination of carbonates and bicarbonates, in which the carbon in the carbonates, bicarbonates or combination af carbonates and bicarbonates has a relative carbon isotope composition (6' 3 C) value less than -5.00 %o, and the v scosity of the composition is between 1 and 2000 cP. In some embodiments, the invention provides a 15 flowable cor-position in which the viscosity if between 10 and 1000 cP. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flkwable composition in which the composition is a synthetic composition. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition in which the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof make up at least 10% why of the composition. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition in which the CO 2 content of the composition of at least 10%. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable 20 composition in which the composition has a negative carbon footprint. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition that further includes boron, sulfur, or nitrogen in which the relative isotopic composition of the boron, sulfur, or nitrogen is indicative of a fossil fuel origin. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition in which the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof include calcium, magnesium or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition in which the calcium to 25 magnesium (ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/200 and 200/1. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition in which the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 12/1 to 1/15. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition in which the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 5/1 to 1/10. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition that further includes SOx or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition that 30 further includes a metal. In some embodiments, the invention provides a flowable composition that includes a metal in which the netal includes lead, arsenic, mercury, or cadmium of a combination thereof. [00061 In sme embodiments, the invention provides a synthetic composition that includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or a combination of carbonates and bicarbonates, in which the carbon in the composition has a relative carbon isotopF composition (8 13 C) value less than -5.00 %o and the composition is carbon negative. In some 35 embodiments, the invention provides a synthetic composition in which the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof make up at least 50% of the composition. In some embodiments, the invention provides a synthetic composition in which the composition has a mass of greater than 100kg. In some embodiments, the invention provides a synthetic composition in which the CO 2 content of the composition is at least 10%. In some embodiments the invention provides a synthetic composition that further includes boron, sulfur, or nitrogen in 40 which the rel tive isotopic composition of the boron, sulfur or nitrogen is indicative of a fossil fuel origin. In some embodiments, the invention provides a synthetic composition in which the carbonate, bicarbonates, or combination thereof include calcium, magnesium or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides a -4- Docket No. CLRA-035WO synthetic composition in which the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/200 and 200/1. In some embodiments. the invention provides a synthetic composition in which the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 12/1 to 1/15. In some embodiments, the invention provides a synthetic composition in which the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 5/1 to 1/10. In some embodiments, the invention provides a 5 synthetic co position that further includes SOx or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides a s thetic composition that further includes a metal. In some embodiments, the invention provides a synthetic composition that further includes a metal in which the metal includes lead, arsenic, mercury, or cadmium or a combination thereof. [0007] In scme embodiments, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition that 10 includes determining a relative carbon isotope composition (8"C) value for the composition. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition in which the composition is a building material, or a material for underground storage. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition in which the composition is a cementitious composition, or an aggregate. In some embodi ents, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition in which the 15 composition i a composition for storage of CO 2 . In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition that further includes determining the stability of the composition for release of CO 2 . In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition that further includ s measuring the carbon content for the composition. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition that further includes comparing the 13 C value of the composition 20 to another 6+ value. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition that further includes comparing the 6 13 C value of the composition to another 6"C value, in which the other 6' 3 C value is a reference ' 3 C value. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition that further includes comparing the V"C value of the composition to another 6 1 3C value, in which the othhr 6"C value is a value for a possible raw material for the composition. In some embodiments, the 25 invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition that further includes comparing the S1 3 C value of the composition to another S 13 C value, in which the other S"C value is a value for a fossil fuel, a flue gas derived from {he fossil fuel, a water source, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition that further includes determining whether the composition includes sequ stered CO 2 from a fossil fuel source based on the comparison of the S' 3 C value of the composition to a 30 reference S,3C value. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of characterizing a synthetic composition t at further includes quantifying the amount of carbon dioxide sequestered in the composition. [00081 In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of fingerprinting a composition that includes determining the values for stable isotopes of a plurality of elements, or the values for the ratios of stable isotopes of a plurality of el ments in the composition to determine an isotopic fingerprint for the composition, in which the 35 composition includes carbonates, bicarbonates, or a combination of carbonates and bicarbonates. In some embodimentsl the invention provides a method of fingerprinting a composition in which the stable isotopes include isotopes of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen or boron or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of fingerprinting a composition in which the composition is a building material or a material for underground storage. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of fingerprinting a composition in 40 which the composition is a composition for storing compounds of elements of at least two of the isotopes so determined. lin some embodiments, the invention provides a method of fingerprinting a composition that further includes comparing at least two of the values for stable isotopes or at least two of the values for the ratios of stable -5- Docket No. CLRA-035WO isotopes, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of fingerprinting a composition that further includes determining the probable source of one or more components of the composition based on the isotopic fingerprint of the material. 100091 In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of determining whether or not a composition 5 contains an element sequestered from a fossil fuel source; the method includes determining an isotopic value or ratio of isotopic values for the element, comparing the determined value with a reference isotopic value or ratio of isotopic values, and determining whether the composition contains an element sequestered from a fossil fuel source. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of determining whether or not a composition contains an element sequestered from a fossil fuel source in which the element is carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, or boron. In some 10 embodiments the invention provides a method of determining whether or not a composition contains an element sequestered f om a fossil fuel source in which the element is carbon and the comparison is a S 13 C value. [0010] Provided is a synthetic composition with a neutral or negative carbon footprint comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or a combination thereof, where the carbon in the composition has a relative carbon isotope composition (S 3 C) value of -5.00 %o or less. 15 [0011] Pro ided is a synthetic composition comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or a combination thereof, where the carbon in the composition has a relative carbon isotope composition (6"C) value of -22.00 %o or less. In some embodiments, such compositions have neutral or negative carbon footprints. In some embodiments, the carbonates andor bicarbonates comprise carbonates and/or bicarbonates of beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, ba ium or radium or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the carbonates and/or bicarbonates 20 comprise carbonates and/or bicarbonates of calcium or magnesium or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the composite n contains calcium and magnesium and the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/200 and 200/1. In some embodiments, the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 12/1 to 1/15. In some embodiments, the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 5/1 to 1/10. In some embodiments, the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/9 to 2/5. In some embodiments, the composition 25 further includes particulates from an industrial process. In such embodiments, the industrial process comprises the combustion o a fossil fuel. In such embodiments, the fossil fuel comprises coal. In some embodiments, the particulates filom the industrial process comprise flyash. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises NO, or a deri ative thereof. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises SO, or a derivative thereof. In some embodiinents, the composition further comprises VOCs or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the 30 composition further comprises a metal. In such embodiments, the metal comprises lead, arsenic, mercury or cadmium or cambinations thereof. [0012] Proxided is a building material comprising a component comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or a combination thereof where the carbon in the carbonates and/or bicarbonates has a relative carbon isotope composition ( 13 C) value less than -5.00 %o. In some embodiments, the component comprising carbonates and/or 35 bicarbonates in the building material constitutes at least 5% of the building material. In some embodiments, the building material is a cementitious material. In some embodiments, the building material is a mortar, a pozzolanic material, or a supplementary cementitious material or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the building material is cement or concrete. In some embodiment, the building material is non-cementitious. In some embodiments the building material is aggregate. In some embodiments, the aggregate is coarse aggregate. In some 40 embodimentsl the aggregate is fine aggregate. In some embodiments, the aggregate is reactive aggregate. In some embodiments the aggregate is non-reactive or inert aggregate. In some embodiments, the aggregate is formed or cast aggregate. In some embodiments, the building material is a roadway material. In some embodiments, the roadway -6- Docket No. CLRA-035WO material is a rbad base. In some embodiments, the roadway material is a paving material. In some embodiments, the material is a ron-cementitious material and the non-cementitious building material is a brick, a board, a conduit, a beam, a basing a column, a tile, a fiber siding product, a slab, an acoustic barrier, plaster, dry-wall, stucco, a soil stabilization composition, or insulation or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the composition further 5 includes partiulates from an industrial process. In such embodiments, the industrial process comprises the combustion o1 a fossil fuel. In such embodiments, the fossil fuel comprises coal. In some embodiments, the particulates from the industrial process comprise flyash. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises NO, or a deri active thereof. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises SO,, or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises VOCs or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the 10 composition 4irther comprises a metal. In such embodiments, the metal comprises lead, arsenic, mercury or cadmium or combinations thereof. [00131 Prov ded is a non-building material comprising a component comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or a combination hereof where the carbon in the carbonates and/or bicarbonates has a relative carbon isotope composition ' 3 C) value less than -5.00 %o. In some embodiments, the component comprising carbonates and/or 15 bicarbonates the non-building material are carbon-neutral or carbon-negative. In some embodiments, the component c mprising carbonates and/or bicarbonates in the non-building material constitutes more than 5% of the building mat4ial. In some embodiments, the non-building material is a household or commercial ceramic product, a paper product, a polymeric product, a lubricant, an adhesive, a rubber product, a chalk, a paint, a personal care product, a cle ning product, a personal hygiene product, a cosmetic, an ingestible product, a liquid ingestible 20 product, a solid ingestible product, an animal ingestible product, an agricultural product, a soil amendment product, a pesticide, an environmental remediation product, a forest soil restoration product, or a product for neutralization of over acidified water. [00141 Prov ded is a synthetic composition comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or a combination thereof where the carbon in he composition has a relative carbon isotope composition (6 13 C) value less than -5.00 %o and the 25 composition 4oes not release more than 1% of its total CO 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, and rainfall of normal pH, for at least 1 year. In some embodiments, the composition has a neutral or negative carbon footprint. In some embodiments, the composition is a solid precipitate. In some embodiments, the carbonates and/or bicarbonates comprise carbonates and/or bicarbonates of beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, batlium or radium or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the carbonates and/or bicarbonates 30 comprise carbonates and/or bicarbonates of calcium or magnesium or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the compositi n contains calcium and magnesium and the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/200 and 20q/1. In some embodiments, the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 12/1 to 1/15. In some embodiments, the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 5/ to 1/10. In some embodiments, the calcium tc magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/9 to 2/5. In some embodiments, the composition further 35 includes particulates from an industrial process. In such embodiments, the industrial process comprises the combustion o a fossil fuel. In such embodiments, the fossil fuel comprises coal. In some embodiments, the particulates frhm the industrial process comprise flyash. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises NO, or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises SO, or a derivative thereof. In some embodiinents, the composition further comprises VOCs or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the 40 composition f rther comprises a metal. In such embodiments, the metal comprises lead, arsenic, mercury or cadmium or combinations thereof -7- Docket No. CLRA-035WO 100151 Provided is a building material comprising a synthetic composition comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or a combine ion thereof where the carbon in the composition has a relative carbon isotope composition (S' 3 C) value less than -5.0) %o and the composition does not release more than 1% of its total CO 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, and rainfall of normal pH, for at least 1 year. In some embodiments, the 5 building mat ial is carbon-neutral or carbon-negative. In some embodiments, the building material is a cementitious material. In sme embodiments, the building material is cement or concrete. In some embodiments, the building material is a mortar, a pozzolanic material, or a supplementary cementitious material or combinations thereof. In some embodi nent, the building material is non-cementitious. In some embodiments, the building material is aggregate. In some embodiments, the aggregate is coarse aggregate. In some embodiments, the aggregate is fine 10 aggregate. In some embodiments, the aggregate is reactive aggregate. In some embodiments, the aggregate is non reactive or inert aggregate. In some embodiments, the aggregate is formed or cast aggregate. In some embodiments, the building material is a roadway material. In some embodiments, the roadway material is a road base. In some embodiments the roadway material is a paving material. In some embodiments, the material is a non-cementitious material and he non-cementitious building material is a brick, a board, a conduit, a beam, a basin, a column, a tile, a 15 fiber siding p oduct, a slab, an acoustic barrier, plaster, dry-wall, stucco, a soil stabilization composition, or insulation or combinations thereof. 10016] Provided is a non-building material comprising a component comprising a synthetic composition comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or a combination thereof where the carbon in the composition has a relative carbon isotope composition (5 13 C) value less than -5.00 %o and the composition does not release more 20 than 1% of its total C0 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, and rainfall of normal pH, for at least 1 year. In some embodiments, the carbonates and/or bicarbonates in the non-building material are cjrbon-neutral or carbon-negative. In some embodiments, at least 5% of the non-building material has a relative carbon isotope composition (6' 3 C) value less than -5.00 %o and the composition does not release more than 1% of its total C0 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, and rainfall of 25 normal pH, for at least 1 year. 10017] Pro ided is a synthetic composition including, but not limited to, magnesium carbonate and/or bicarbonate here the carbon in the composition has a relative carbon isotope composition (6'C) value less than 5.00 %o and he composition includes, but is not limited to, the mineral phases: magnesite, nesquehonite, hydromagne-ite, huntite, magnesium calcite, dolomite, protodolomite or disordered dolomite or 30 combination thereof. In some embodiments, the composition does not release more than 1% of its total C02 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, and rainfall of normal pH, for at least 1 year. [00181 Provided is a synthetic composition including, but not limited to, magnesium carbonate and/or bicarbonate where the carton in the composition has a relative carbon isotope composition (5"C) value less than -5.00 %o and 35 the compositon is in the hydration state of 1,2,3,4,5, or 6 waters of hydration or combinations thereof. In some embod ments, the composition does not release more than 1% of its total C0 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, and rainfall of normal pH, for at least 1 year. 100191 Provided is a synthetic composition comprising calcium carbonate or bicarbonate or any combination thereof where the carbon in the composition has a relative carbon isotope composition (S5 3 C) value less than -5.00 40 %o and the cOmposition includes, but is not limited to, the mineral phases amorphous calcium carbonate, calcite, aragonite, or vaterite or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the composition does not -8- Docket No. CLRA-035WO release more than 1% of its total C0 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, and rainfall of normal pH, for at least 1 year. 100201 Pro ided is a synthetic composition comprising calcium carbonate or bicarbonate or any combination thereof where the carbon in the composition has a relative carbon isotope composition (SVC) value less than -5.00 5 %o and the composition is in the hydration state of 1,2,3, or 4 waters of hydration or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the composition does not release more than 1% of its total C0 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, and rainfall of normal pH, for at least 1 year. 100211 Proxlided is a method of producing at least 100 kilograms per day of carbon-containing material that has a relative carbon isotope composition (6'C) value of less than -5.00 %o through carbon sequestration. In some 10 embodiments the product has a neutral or negative carbon footprint. [0022] Prov ided is a method of characterizing a synthetic composition by determining a relative carbon isotope composition (8 C) value for the composition. In some embodiments, the synthetic composition is a building material or a :aterial for underground storage. In some embodiments, the synthetic composition is a cementitious composition or an aggregate. In some embodiments, the synthetic composition is a composition for storage of CO 2 . 15 In some embodiments, the method includes the step of determining the stability of the composition for release of

CO

2 . In some embodiments the methods includes the step of determining the carbon content of the composition. In some embodifnents, the method includes the step of comparing the SVC value of the composition to another V 1 C value, in som> cases the other V"C value is a standard V'C values, in other cases a V"C value for a possible raw material for p-oducing the composition. In some cases, the other 6 3 C value used for comparison is that of a raw 20 material that 4ould be a fossil fuel, flue gas derived from the fossil fuel, a water source or a combination thereof. In some embodi nents, the method further comprises determining whether the composition comprises sequestered CO 2 from a fossil uel source based upon comparing the 8"C values. In some embodiments, the amount of carbon dioxide sequestered in the composition is quantified. [0023] Provided is a method of fingerprinting a composition comprising determining the values for stable isotopes 25 of a plurality of elements, or the values for the ratios of stable isotopes of a plurality of elements in the composition to determine in isotopic fingerprint for the composition. In some embodiments, the stable isotopes comprise isotopes of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen or boron or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the composition is a building material or a material for underground storage. In some embodiments, the method includes the step of comparing at least two of tlie values for stable isotopes or at least two of the values for the ratios of stable isotopes, or a 30 combination thereof. In some embodiments, the method includes the step of determining the probable source of one or more of the components of the composition based on the isotopic fingerprint of the material. In some embodiments, the probable source of one or more of the components is a fossil fuel. [00241 Prov ded is a method of determining whether or not a composition contains an element sequestered from a fossil fuel source comprising determining an isotopic value or a ratio of isotopic values for the element. In some 35 embodiments the element is carbon, sulfur, nitrogen or boron. In some embodiments, the method further comprises the step of coimparing the isotopic value or ratio of isotopic values to a standard value. In some embodiments, the element is ca+on and the comparison is a V"C value. INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE 10025] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by 40 reference to tlie same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. -9- Docket No. CLRA-035WO BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 10026] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed desci iption that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and 5 the accompar ying drawings of which: [00271 Figu re 1 provides an exemplary carbon sequestration process. 100281 Figure 2 provides a diagram of the method of preparing samples for analysis with bench-top 10 instrumentation used to obtain V 1 C values. 100291 Figure 3 provides a diagram of the production of precipitate material from carbon dioxide containing gas and brucite tailings on the laboratory scale. Indicated in the diagram are the materials (gas, liquid, and solid) that were characterized. 15 100301 Figure 4 provides a diagram of the production of precipitate material from carbon dioxide containing gas and brucite tailings on a large scale in a 250,000 gallon tank. Indicated in the diagram are the materials (gas, liquid, and solid) tha were characterized. 20 [00311 Figue 5 provides a diagram of the production of precipitate material from carbon dioxide containing gas and brucite taIlings in a continuous process. Indicated in the diagram are the materials (gas, liquid, and solid) that were characterized. [00321 Figuqe 6 provides a diagram of the production of precipitate material from carbon dioxide containing gas 25 and fly ash in a laboratory scale process. Indicated in the diagram are the materials (gas, liquid, and solid) that were characterized [00331 Figu-e 7 provides a comparison of 8 13 C data from literature, the source of the carbon dioxide containing 30 gas, the indus rial waste, precipitate, and supernate from a laboratory scale process using brucite tailings as the industrial walte. 100341 Figure 8 provides a comparison of 813 C data from literature, the source of the carbon dioxide containing gas, the industrial waste, precipitate, and supernate from a large scale process using brucite tailings as the industrial 35 waste. 100351 Figu e 9 provides a comparison of 13 C data from literature, the source of the carbon dioxide containing gas, the industrial waste, precipitate, and supernate from a continuous process using brucite tailings as the industrial waste. 40 -10- Docket No. CLRA-035WO 10036] Figu e 10 provides a comparison of 61 3 C data from literature, the source of the carbon dioxide containing gas, the indu4rial waste, precipitate, and supernate from a laboratory scale process using fly ash as the industrial waste. 5 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [00371 The Invention provides compositions containing elements with certain relative element isotope composition value or values, and methods for determining the content of compositions in terms of the relative element isotopic value or values. In some embodiments, the invention provides compositions, e.g., synthetic compositions containing carbon with a negative relative carbon isotope composition (81 3 C) value, and methods for analyzing carbon in a 10 composition to determine S 3 C values, e.g., to verify that some or all of the carbon in the composition is from a carbon sequetration process. In some embodiments, other elements, such as sulfur, boron, or nitrogen, may be similarly press nt and/or characterized according to their isotopic content or isotopic ratios, and in addition other substances, s ch as sulfites, sulfates, or heavy metals, may also be present in the compositions and may be analyzed. The compositons and methods find use in applications where it is desired to use materials that are the product of 15 sequestration of substances whose release into the environment is undesirable, such as carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, heavy metals, and other substances produced in, e.g., the burning of fossil fuels, and verifying the source of car on and the like in such materials. [00381 Befcre the present invention is described in greater detail, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to paricular embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the 20 terminology rised herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present invention will be limited only by the appended claims. [0039] Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limjt unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limit of that range and any other stated ot intervening value in that stated range, is encompassed within the invention. The upper and lower 25 limits of thest smaller ranges may independently be included in the smaller ranges and are also encompassed within the invention, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the invention. [00401 Cert in ranges are presented herein with numerical values being preceded by the term "about." The term "about" is use herein to provide literal support for the exact number that it precedes, as well as a number that is near 30 to or approximately the number that the term precedes. In determining whether a number is near to or approximately a specifically recited number, the near or approximating unrecited number may be a number which, in the context in which it is presented, provides the substantial equivalent of the specifically recited number. [00411 Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods and 35 materials sim lar or equivalent to those described herein can also be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, representative illustrative methods and materials are now described. [00421 All publications and patents cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference and are incorporated herein by reference to disclose and describe the methods and/or materials in connection with which the 40 publications are cited. The citation of any publication is for its disclosure prior to the filing date and should not be construed as an admission that the present invention is not entitled to antedate such publication by virtue of prior -11- Docket No. CLRA-035WO invention. Fu ther, the dates of publication provided may be different from the actual publication dates which may need to be ind ependently confirmed. [0043] It is noted that, as used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. It is further noted that the claims may be drafted to 5 exclude any optional element. As such, this statement is intended to serve as antecedent basis for use of such exclusive terrlinology as "solely," "only" and the like in connection with the recitation of claim elements, or use of a "negative" limitation. 100441 As A ill be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading this disclosure, each of the individual embodiments described and illustrated herein has discrete components and features which may be readily separated 10 from or combined with the features of any of the other several embodiments without departing from the scope or spirit of the p esent invention. Any recited method can be carried out in the order of events recited or in any other order which is logically possible. Introduction [00451 In fuher describing the subject of the invention, methods used to measure isotopic ratio values, e.g., 6C 15 values and element content, e.g., carbon content, in compositions will be presented. Methods of tracking or verifying the rigin of, e.g., carbon, in a composition will also be described. Then compositions containing elements with certain i otopic ratios, e.g., 6"C values, will be described. Method for Determining Relative Isotopic Values 20 [0046] In or e aspect the invention provides methods of characterizing a composition by determining its relative isotope comp sition ratio value. Although various isotopes may be used, all of which have isotopic ratios that may be compared Nith standard ratios-e.g., carbon, oxygen, sulfur, boron, and nitrogen-the following description focuses prim rily on carbon, and the relative carbon isotopic ratio, or V"C value. It will be understood that the discussion ap lies equally to other appropriate elements as well. In some embodiments, the elemental content, e.g., 25 carbon conterjt of the composition is determined as well. In some embodiments, the methods further include verifying that the composition contains carbon from CO 2 that is from a particular source, e.g., a fossil fuel source, such as by co paring the value determined for carbon content and relative carbon isotope composition ratio with a standard value, a raw material value, or the like. The composition may be a composition in which carbon, e.g., carbon dioxide, from a fossil fuel source is stored. In some cases it is desirable to use such a composition in, e.g., a 30 structure or a roadway, in preference to other materials, in order to ensure the sequestration of carbon dioxide and, optionally, other undesirable substances, in the built environment. In some cases it is desirable to use such a composition, .g., a slurry or solution, as a sequestration medium for the long-term storage of carbon dioxide and, optionally, oter undesirable substances. Thus in some embodiments the methods further include determining the stability of the composition for carbon dioxide storage, e.g., determining the rate of release of carbon dioxide under 35 set conditions 100471 In scme embodiments, the methods include measuring the isotopic value, such as the relative isotope ratio value, for a plurality of elements, e.g., two or more of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and boron, making it possible to isotopically "fingerprint" a particular composition. [0048] The nethods of the invention are useful, e.g., to verify that some or substantially all of the carbon and, in 40 some cases, o her elements, in a composition originated in a fossil fuel. -12- Docket No. CLRA-035WO Stable isotope s and isotope fractionation 100491 Many elements have stable isotopes, and these isotopes may be preferentially used in various processes, e.g., biological processes. An example is carbon, which will be used to illustrate most of the methods described herein, howel er, it will be appreciated that these methods are also applicable to other elements with stable isotopes if 5 their ratios can be measured in a similar fashion to carbon; such elements include nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and boron. Methods for measuring isotope ratios of these elements are well-known. [00501 The relative carbon isotope composition (6 1 3 C) value with units of %o (per mil) is a measure of the ratio of the concentra ion of two stable isotopes of carbon, namely 12C and "C, relative to a standard of fossilized belemnite (the PDB standard). 10 6 1 3C %o= [ ( "C/ 2 C sample - 3 C/"C PDB standard ( 13

C/

1 2 C PDB standard) X 1000 100511 2 C i; preferentially taken up by plants during photosynthesis and in other biological processes that use inorganic car on because of its lower mass. The lower mass of 1 2 C allows for kinetically limited reactions to 15 proceed more efficiently than with 13 C. Thus, materials that are derived from plant material, e.g., fossil fuels, have relative carbon isotope composition values that are less than those derived from inorganic sources. The carbon dioxide in flu gas produced from burning fossil fuels reflects the relative carbon isotope composition values of the organic mate ial that was fossilized. Table I lists relative carbon isotope composition value ranges for relevant carbon sources for comparison. 20 [00521 Matcrial incorporating carbon from burning fossil fuels reflects V"C values that are more like those of plant derived material, i.e. less, than that which incorporates carbon from atmospheric or non-plant marine sources. Verification t lat the material produced by a carbon dioxide sequestering process is composed of carbon from burning fossil fuels can include measuring the S' 3 C value of the resultant material and confirming that it is not similar to the values for atmospheric carbon dioxide, nor marine sources of carbon. 25 Table 1. Relative carbon isotope composition (S8 3 C) values for carbon sources of interest. Car on Source S 13 C Range [%o] 6 13 C Average value [%o] C3 Plants (m ost higher plants) -23 to -33 -27 C4 Plants (r ost tropical and -9to-16 -13 marsh plants) Atmosphere -6 to -7 -6 Marine Carbonate (CO 3 ) -2 to +2 0 Marine Bicafbonate (HCO 3 ) -3 to +1 -1 Coal from Yillourn Seam in Australia' -27.1 to -23.2 -25.5 Coal from D-an Coal Bed in Kentucky, USA 2 -24.47 to -25.14 -24.805 1. Holdgate, .R. et al., Global and Planetary Change, 65 (2009) pp. 89-103. 2. Elswick, E. et al., Applied Geochemistry, 22 (2007) pp. 2065-2077. -13- Docket No. CLRA-035WO 10053! In scme embodiments the invention provides a method of characterizing a composition comprising measuring its relative carbon isotope composition (S 1 C) value. In some embodiments the composition is a composition that contains carbonates, e.g., magnesium and/or calcium carbonates. Any suitable method may be used for measuring the V"C value, such as mass spectrometry or off-axis integrated-cavity output spectroscopy (off 5 axis ICOS). 100541 One difference between the carbon isotopes is in their mass. Any mass-discerning technique sensitive enough to measure the amounts of carbon can be used to find ratios of the 1 1C to 12 C isotope concentrations. Mass spectrometry s commonly used to find S1 3 C values. Commercially available are bench-top off-axis integrated cavity output spectroscopy (off-axis ICOS) instruments that are able to determine 6 3 C values as well. These values 10 are obtained l y the differences in the energies in the carbon-oxygen double bonds made by the 12 C and "C isotopes in carbon dioide. The S 13 C value of a carbonate precipitate from a carbon sequestration process serves as a fingerprint fo a CO 2 gas source, as the value will vary from source to source, but in most carbon sequestration cases 6 3 C will generally be in a range of -9%o to -35%o. [00551 In scme embodiments the methods include the measurement of the amount of carbon in the composition. 15 Any suitable technique for the measurement of carbon may be used, such as coulometry. Carbon measurements may be used in some cases to quantitate the amount of carbon dioxide sequestered in a composition. Isotope measurements may be used to verify that the source of the carbon in a composition is what it is claimed to be. 100561 A further feature of some embodiments of the invention includes comparing the 6C value for the composition *ith another 13 C value; this other ' 3 C value may be a standard value, a value for a possible raw 20 material in tht composition (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas, or flue gas), or any other value that gives useful information for the compIrison. In some embodiments, the 6"C value for the composition is compared to a fixed value or range of values, such as a value between -l%o and -50%o, or between -5%o and -40%o or between -5%o and -35%o, or between -7% and -40%o or between -7%o and -35%oor between -9%oand -40%o or between -9%o and -35%o, or a comparison t4 a value that is -3%o, -5%o, -6%o, - 7 %o, -8%o, -9%o, -10%o, -11%o, -12%o, -13%o, -14%o, -15%o, 25 16%o, -17%o -18%o, -l 9 %o, -20%o, -21%o, -22%o, -23%o, -24%o, -25%o, -26%o, -27%o, -28%o, -29%o, -3O%o, -31%o, -32%d, -33%o, -34%o, - 3 5 %o, -36%o, -37%o, -38%o, -39%o, - 4 0%o, -41%o, -42%o, - 4 3 %o, -44%o, or 4 5 %o. In so4e embodiments, a value less than a fixed value is indicative that some or substantially all of the carbon in the composition is of fossil fuel origin, e.g. a value less than any of the values given herein, such as a value less than -7%o, ora value less than -10%o, or a value less than -15%o, or a value less than -20%o, or a value less than 30 25%o, or a value less than -30%o, or a value less than -35%o, a value less than -40%o. [00571 In some embodiments, the 6 3 C value for the composition is compared to a value for a possible raw material of the composition. For example, the 6 3 C value for the composition may be compared to a S1 3 C value, or a range of 6"C values, fir a fossil fuel, such as a natural gas, an oil, a coal or a particular type of coal, or such as a flue gas produced fror burning a natural gas, an oil, a coal or a particular type of coal. This can be particularly useful in 35 verifying that the composition contains CO 2 from the fossil fuel and/or from the burning of the fossil fuel. As an example only if the 6 3 C value for a coal is -34%o and the 6 13 C value for a composition that is claimed to have sequestered C1O 2 from the burning of the coal is equal to or within a certain range of -34%o (which can be any suitable range, depending on measurement conditions, variations in the coal, variations in the flue gas from the coal, etc., e.g., ±101o, or ±2%o , or ±3%o , or ± 4 %o , ±5%o), this may be considered verification, in whole or in part, that 40 the carbon in he composition originated in the fossil fuel. In the above example, if the acceptable range is ±3%o and the compositi m has a 6"C value of -32%o then the 6C value would be considered consistent with an origin for the -14- Docket No. CLRA-035WO carbon in the composition from that particular coal. Other factors may be considered in the verification, as appropriate. In some embodiments the V"C value is the sole factor considered. 100581 Sone embodiments further involve quantifying the amount of CO 2 sequestered from a source of CO 2 , e.g. a fossil fuel source, in a composition. For example, coulometry may be used to determine the relative amount of 5 carbon in a composition, and isotopic ratio values may be used to verify that the carbon is wholly or partially of fossil fuel origin. It is then a simple calculation to determine the amount of CO 2 (or carbon) sequestered in the composition, given the relative amount of the carbon that is of fossil fuel origin and the total carbon. [00591 Othcr embodiments of the invention include determining isotopic values or isotopic ratios compared to a standard that gre similar to V 3 C values, for elements other than carbon, or in addition to carbon, in a composition. 10 Such elements include, but are not limited to, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and boron. The isotopic value for any such element, or combination of elements, may be measured by techniques similar to those used for carbon. Such techniques and methods of expressing isotopic ratios in comparison with a standard are well-known in the art, e.g., 6"B values for boron and 6S values for sulfur. Thus in some embodiments the invention provides methods of isotopically fngerprinting a composition by determining a plurality of isotopic values or isotopic ratio values, or a 15 combination ihereof, for the composition. In some embodiments, the quantity of the element or its compounds in the composition is also determined. In some embodiments one or more of the isotopic components of the isotopic fingerprint is used in combination with quantitation of the element/compound represented by the isotope to determine the total amount of the element/compound in the composition that is of a particular origin, e.g., that is of fossil fuel origin. In addition, isotopic ratios may be altered during combustion and other processing of a fossil fuel 20 (e.g., for boren and/or sulfur), and these alterations may be taken into account in some embodiments to further refine the verification n and/or quantification analysis. [0060] In scme embodiments, the isotopic values or isotopic ratio values, or a combination thereof, are determined for two or mcre of carbon, sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and boron. In some embodiments an isotopic fingerprint for carbon and st lfur is determined, e.g., a V"C values for carbon and 5 value for sulfur. In some embodiments an 25 isotopic fing4print for carbon and boron is determined, e.g., a 6 13 C values for carbon and 6"B value for boron. In some embodiments an isotopic fingerprint for carbon, sulfur, and boron is determined, e.g., a 6 13 C values for carbon, 64S value fol sulfur, and 6"B value for boron. 100611 The sotopic fingerprint may be used to verify the source of the elements in the composition, e.g., in a protocol to verify that the composition contains elements of fossil fuel origin. This is useful because many of the 30 elements, e.g carbon and sulfur or their oxides or other compounds, are subject to regulation, such as cap and trade systems or other regulatory systems, in various parts of the world. Thus the techniques of the invention may be used, e.g., in such a system, to verify and/or quantitate capture of the elements and/or their compounds. This verification a+d/or quantitation can be used to confirm compliance with regulations, to calculate credits or penalties for sequestration of the elements or compounds, e.g., carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and any other 35 element or c4pound subject to regulation for which isotopic measurements may be performed, and for any other suitable use a will be apparent to those of skill in the art. 100621 For example, to show that carbon dioxide sequestration occurs during a process, the total amount of carbon dioxide gas coming out of a process is shown to be less than the total amount of carbon dioxide gas entering the process; in addition the origin of the carbon dioxide in the exiting gas may be shown to be the same as that of the gas 40 entering the pocess and/or a product of the process is show to have sequestered the CO 2 from the gas. "Fingerprintin g" a material correlates the carbon, and/or other elements, contained in the material to a source by measuring and comparing the ratios of stable isotopes of carbon and/or other elements, such as nitrogen and sulfur. -15- Docket No. CLRA-035WO As users of materials seek to obtain carbon credits when using materials, this method will be useful to prove carbon dioxide sequ stration and show a material to be carbon negative. [0063] Shown in figure 1 is a carbon dioxide sequestration process that has three possible sources of carbon. They are: the gas s earn that contains CO 2 [100], the air above the solution where the sequestration process takes place 5 [105], and the water or solution [110] of the shown sequestration process, e.g. sea water, brine, or other ionic solution. Th amount of carbon in each can be measured. For the incoming CO 2 containing gas stream [100], the partial pressuIe of CO 2 gas is measured, e.g. using a commercially available gas probe as is known to those skilled in the art. The flow rate of the CO 2 containing gas is also measured or regulated. By knowing the volume of gas from the flow rate nd the concentration of CO 2 in the gas, the total amount of CO 2 that goes into the process is known. 10 Air is a mixt re of oxygen (02), nitrogen (N 2 ), C0 2 , water vapor, ozone, and other gases. Similar to what is measured for the incoming CO 2 gas stream, to characterize the air in the system [105], the partial pressure of CO 2 is measured, e.g. using a commercially available probe, and the volume of air is known based upon the dimensions of the reaction assel. These values for the air in the system give us the amount of carbon contributed by the air. Any suitable met d, e.g. coulometry, is used to measure the concentration of carbon in the water [110]. Both the 15 inorganic an the organic carbon content can be measured using coulometry by varying the digestion liquid. In general, the organic carbon does not participate in the reactions and thus is not included in the accounting of carbon in the seques ation process. 10064] There are four components that result from the CO 2 sequestration process of the example [115] that may contain carbon. These components are: the effluent gas [120], the desired product [130], the effluent liquid [135], 20 and the air in contact with the product and effluent liquid after the reaction takes place [125]. As mentioned above, the amount o carbon in the gas components is determined using a commercially available probe to determine the partial pressu e of carbon dioxide in conjunction with the volume of gas in the system. The amount of carbon in the liquid and solid components is measured using coulometry. These materials are also characterized by their V1 3 C values using mr)ass spectrometry or off-axis ICOS. The product's V"C value [130] is compared to the value of the 25 incoming CO gas stream [100], to its fingerprint. A 6C for a product that is close to that of the incoming C0 2 , e.g., that is sti 11 very strongly negative, is indicative of the fact that the carbon in the product did not come from the water [110] or air [105]. Water and air typically have only mildly negative S1 3 C values, not less than -8%o, to be measured in this method of material and process characterization. [00651 Comparing the amount of carbon in the incoming components to the amount of carbon in the components 30 resulting fro4 the sequestration process shows whether or not any carbon is unaccounted for. This mass balance in conjunction 4ith the 1 3 C fingerprinting shows that some portion of the CO 2 leaves the incoming gas stream, is not present in the effluent gas stream, and is incorporated into the product. [00661 The xemplary process shown in figure 1 is a process [115] during which the CO 2 from the incoming gas dissolves [100] into the solution, reacts with ions in the solution, and forms a material which serves to remove the 35 CO 2 from the incoming gas in a form that may be stored over a long term, or that may be converted to such a form. The process riay produce a solution, a precipitated material, or a slurry, so long as the ultimate product is suitable for long-term storage. The isotopic content or ratio, e.g., 6 1 C value, of any component may be measured at any stage of the p ocess in order to obtain both a quantitative and/or qualitative measure of the fate of the original CO 2 . In addition, carbon measurements, by e.g., coulometry, allow the exact quantitation of the fate of the CO 2 . In the 40 case of any measurement, multiple samples may be obtained, either from a material or over time, for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8k 9, 10 or more than 10 samples may be obtained and analyzed. Thus, for product produced in large lots, and/or p oduced continuously, a suitable number of samples may be taken to indicate the overall 6"C value -16- Docket No. CLRA-035WO and/or carboI content of the entire amount of material. In the example shown in Fig. 1, CO 2 may enter the process from the gas ontaining CO 2 (e.g., flue gas from fossil fuel burning), from the air in contact with the water into which the gas containing CO 2 is being dissolved [105], and from the water itself [110]. The V1 3 C value for one, two, or all of these may be measured, and the concentration of C0 2 , and flow rate, of each may also be measured. Similar 5 measurement, may be made of the effluent gas [120], the air in contact with the drying product of the precipitation step and/or the liquid effluent [125], the product (e.g., a solid material containing carbonates or a liquid slurry of carbonates an 1/or bicarbonates) [130], and the liquid effluent [135]. Any additional sources or sinks for CO 2 may be similarly testId and accounted for. Knowing the flow rates, volumes, times of flow, S 1 3 C values, and CO 2 concentration/amounts in each of the sources and sinks, it is straightforward to calculate mass balances and to 10 confirm, e.g., sequestration of CO2 into the product from the original flue gas, and to quantitate the amount of CO 2 sequestered. It will be appreciated that different sources of flue gas, e.g., different fossil fuels such as coals from various locati ns, may have different SV 3 C values, and the product produced at a given location, using given raw materials, ma be identified or confirmed based on such SVC values. While one way to do this is to compare the 1 3C of a put tive product with the 6 13 C value of the fossil fuel from which it is said to have come, or the CO 2 from 15 the burning o said fossil fuel, it is also possible to sample individual lots of product, or representative samples of a number of lot , in order to use a V"C that is empirically derived from product itself. Either approach, or a combination, may be taken toward verification and identification of counterfeit materials. [00671 It will also be appreciated that other elements, such as sulfur, boron, and/or nitrogen, which are present in the fossil fuel will likely have their own isotopic ratio values that are specific to the specific type of fossil fuel, e.g., 20 to the specific type and geographic origin of coal used, and potentially even to particular batches of coal. If the 6"C value is combined with one or more of these values a unique "fingerprint" for the origin of the material may be obtained, which may be compared against the fingerprint for a composition which is claimed to sequester carbon and/or other substances from the fossil fuel. Thus, in some embodiments, the invention provides methods of verifying the ource of a composition by determining a 6C value for the composition and an isotopic composition 25 value for one or more of sulfur, boron, or nitrogen. These isotopic values or combinations of values may be used alone, or the amounts of each element, and/or ratios thereof, may be used (e.g., the ratio of carbon to boron, or carbon to sulf ar, or sulfur to boron, etc.), to verify the origin of the composition. As with isotopic ratios, when amounts of th" element itself are used, the amounts in the composition may be compared to actual samples taken at the supposed point of origin, i.e., the site of sequestration, to determine if there is a match. Combinations of 30 amounts and isotopic ratios offer an extremely powerful method of exactly typing and verifying a composition, and are included isi embodiments of the invention. [00681 Other substances that are optionally sequestered in the precipitated composition, or in the solution, include one or more cf sulfur oxides (SOx, e.g., SO 2 and SO 3 ), nitrogen oxides (NO,, e.g., NO or NO 2 ), heavy metals such as mercury, radioactive substances, and volatile organic compounds. These substances or, in some cases, their 35 derivatives, n ay also be measured and quantitated in the composition that is being analyzed, and values compared to actual or theo etical values to determine quantities removed from the flue gas (for regulatory and/or trading purposes), or, if the composition is an unknown composition or a composition that is claimed to originate in a particular fos il fuel, to verify that it did, indeed, so originate. Thus, in some embodiments the invention include methods of analyzing a sample that include determining a S 3 C value for the sample and determining a value for one 40 or more of th 1 content of SO, or a derivative thereof, such as a sufate or a sulfite, e.g., calcium or magnesium sulfate or sulfite, NOs or a derivative thereof, or mercury or a derivative thereof such as mercuric chloride, and comparing the values to reference values, which may be empirically derived from actual samples of known origin, theoretically -17- Docket No. CLRA-035WO derived, or derived in any other suitable manner. In some embodiments the invention includes methods of analyzing a sample that include determining a 61 3 C value for the sample, determining a similar isotopic ratio value for one or more of boron, sulfur, or nitrogen, and determining a value for one or more of the content of SO, or a derivative thereof, such is a sufate or a sulfite, e.g., calcium or magnesium sulfate or sulfite, NO, or a derivative thereof, or 5 mercury or a derivative thereof such as mercuric chloride, and comparing the values to reference values, which may be empiricalli derived from actual samples of known origin, theoretically derived, or derived in any other suitable manner. [00691 If d4ired, the relative carbon isotope composition value of the solution during the process can be monitored using, e.g., mess spectrometry or off-axis ICOS. The concentration of CO 2 dissolved into the solution may be 10 calculated fro n the total alkalinity measurement. A measure of the total alkalinity of a known volume of solution will allow for the carbon dioxide content to be calculated. Monitoring the CO 2 dissolving into the solution while the process is progressing allows adjustments to be made to create the desired sequestration products and is an optional component of the method. [0070] It ca1 be appreciated that this method is equally applicable to a wide variety of other products including but 15 not limited to combustible fuel, environmental analytes, foods, and paint. Any material wherein the stable isotope content of sot rce materials can be compared to that of the products can be characterized by this method. For example, rati s of stable isotopes for oxygen (160 and 180), nitrogen (1 4 N and "N), sulfur ("S and 1 4 S), hydrogen ('H and 2 H), 4nd/or boron (' 0 B and "B) can also be measured, e.g. using mass-spectrometry. It can also be appreciated tliat the amounts of these, and any other suitable element, may be measured using a variety of standard 20 laboratory an lytical techniques. These values may be used to trace other components in a product. For example, sulfur from fl je gas may be traced in a product in an analogous manner to carbon. Similarly, nitrogen may also be traced. In this way, a "fingerprint" for a particular product may be produced. In the simplest case, the fingerprint is a value for a ralio of stable isotopes in a product (e.g. V1 3 C value). In other embodiments, a plurality of isotope ratios may be used, -.g. 2,3,4,5,6, or more than 6. In some embodiments a fingerprint for a product comprises a value for a 25 stable carbon isotope or ratio values. In some embodiments a fingerprint for a product comprises a value for a stable sulfur isotope or ratio of values. In some embodiments a fingerprint for a product comprises a value for a stable nitrogen isotope or ratio values. In some embodiments a fingerprint for a product comprises a value for a stable boron isotope or ratio values. In some embodiments, a combination of values or ratios of values for stable isotopes for more than, one element is used. In some embodiments, a combination of concentration values or ratios of 30 concentrations for stable isotopes of carbon and sulfur are provided. In some embodiments, a combination of values or ratios of values for stable isotopes for more than one element is used. In some embodiments, a combination of concentration values or ratios of concentrations for stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen are provided. In some embodiments a combination of values or ratios of values for stable isotopes for more than one element is used. In some embodiments, a combination of concentration values or ratios of concentrations for stable isotopes of carbon, 35 nitrogen, and sulfur are provided. In some embodiments, a fingerprint for a product comprises a SVC value. In some embod+ients, a fingerprint comprises a V 1 C value and a S14S value. In some embodiments, a fingerprint comprises a Si3C value and a 0"B value. In some embodiments, a fingerprint comprises a V' 3 C value and a 1 5 N value. In sone embodiments, a fingerprint comprises a S 3 C value, a 634S value, and a 6 5 N value. In some embodimentsI a fingerprint comprises a 613C value, a S14S value, and a 6"B value. In some embodiments, a 40 fingerprint co nprises a 6 13 C value, a 6"B value, and a 6 5 N value. -18- Docket No. CLRA-035WO Composition Containing Carbon 100711 In scme embodiments the invention provides compositions containing carbon with negative relative carbon isotope composition (6 13 C) values, e.g., synthetic compositions. Such values may be indicative of plant-based origins, e.g. flue gas from burning fossil fuel, and may be used to verify that the carbon in the composition comes 5 partially or completely from the burning of fossil fuel. Compositions that are likely to contain components from flue gas combustion, e.g., CO 2 and optionally other components such as sulfur-, nitrogen-, and/or heavy metal-containing components, are useful as vehicles to sequester such substances from the environment, and may also have other uses such as in the built environment. In some embodiments, the composition is a synthetic composition. Synthetic compositions provided in some embodiments of the invention are typically formed by any synthetic method that 10 produces a pr >duct with carbon with a negative S 3 C value, however, they may be formed by sequestering CO 2 gas in the synthetic omposition, e.g,, the composition may be formed by precipitating material from an aqueous solution into which C02 gas from, e.g., the burning of fossil fuel, has been introduced. Other possible compositions, e.g., synthetic compositions, of the invention include aqueous solutions containing, e.g., carbonates and/or bicarbonates which have a negative 1 3"C value, or slurries containing both solids and aqueous liquids, either or both of which may 15 contain, e.g., arbonates and/or bicarbonates which have a negative 6 3 C value. The compositions may be present in amounts of m re than 1 kg, such as more than 10 kg, for example, more than 100 kg, more than 1000 kg, more than 100,000 kg, More than 1,000,000 kg or even more than 10,000,000 kg. The compositions may, for example, have a mass of 1 kg 1o 10,000,000 kg, or 10 kg to 10,000,000 kg, or 100 kg to 10,000,000 kg, or 1000kg to 10,000,000kg, or 10,000kg te 10,000,000kg, or I kg to 1,000,000 kg, or 10 kg to 1,000,000 kg, or 100 kg to 1,000,000 kg, or 20 1000kg to 1,030,000kg, or 10,000kg to 1,000,000kg, or I kg to 100,000 kg, or 10 kg to 100,000 kg, or 100 kg to 100,000 kg, ou 1000kg to 100,000kg, or 10,000kg to 100,000kg, or 1 kg to 10,000 kg, or 10 kg to 10,000 kg, or 100 kg to 10,000 kg, or 1000kg to 10,000kg, or 1 kg to 1000 kg, or 10 kg to 1000 kg, or 100 kg to 1000 kg. In some cases the composition may be a solid mass. In some cases the composition may be made up of particulate matter, in which individual particles are relatively small, e.g., 0.1-1000 microns average diameter, or in some cases even 1000 25 microns to several centimeters or more in diameter, or combinations thereof, in which case the composition is considered to be the combined mass of the particles in a single batch, lot, container, or the like. In the case of larger amounts of composition, it may be desirable to take multiple samples to determine an accurate value for, e.g., 6 3 C value and/or arbon content. Compositions of the invention may also have an average density that falls within a certain range, for example, in some embodiments, a composition of the invention has a bulk density of 50 lb/ft to 30 200 lb/ft 3 , an; in certain embodiments a bulk density of 75 lb/ft 3 to 125 lb/ft 3 . Compositions of the invention may also have an verage hardness that falls within a certain ranges, such as in some embodiments a composition of the invention has an average hardness between 1 and 7 on the Mohs scale of hardness. In some embodiments, a composition If the invention has an average hardness of at least 3 on the Mohs scale of hardness. In some embodimentsl a composition of the invention has an average hardness of at least 4 on the Mohs scale of hardness. In 35 some embodiments, a composition of the invention has an average hardness of at least 5 on the Mobs scale of hardness. In same embodiments, a composition of the invention has an average hardness between 1 and 6 on the Mobs scale ol hardness, such as between 1 and 5, such as between 2 and 5, such as between 1 and 4, such as between 2 and 6, such as between 2 and 4 on the Mohs hardness scale. 100721 In some embodiments compositions of the invention comprise carbon with SVC values less than -5.00%o, 40 6%o, -7%o, 1%o, -9%o, -10%o, -11%o, -12%o,-15%o,-17%o, -20%o,-2l.0%o,-21.7%o, -21.8%o, -21.9%o, 22.0%o, -23 0%o, -24.0%o, -25.0%o, -26.0%o, -27.0%o, -28.0%o, -29.0%o, -30.0%o, -31.0%o, -32.0%o, 35.0%o, or -40.0%o. In some of these embodiments the compositions may further have a carbon dioxide content -19- Docket No. CLRA-035WO (e.g., in some embodiments in the form of carbonates, bicarbonates, or a combination of carbonates and bicarbonates) of at least 1% w/w, such as at least 10% w/w, for example, at least 20% w/w, and in some embodiments at least 30% w/w, 40% w/w or even 50% w/w. Carbon dioxide content may be determined by any suitable anal sis and/or calculation, as are known in the art. In some embodiments the invention provides a 5 composition, e.g., a solid composition or a slurry of solid and aqueous solution, for which the S'3C value of the carbon-conta ning composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -5%o and in certain embodiments the 6 13 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -5%> and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. In some embodiments the 6S 3 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -1O%o, and in certain 10 embodiments the 6C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -10%o and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. In some embodiments the 61 3 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -15%o, and in certain embodiment s the 61 3 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -15%bo and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. In some embodiments the 6 13 C value of the 15 carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -20.0%o, and in certain embodiments the 6 13 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -20%" o and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. In some embodiments the 6C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -22.0%o and in certain embodiments the 61 3 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is 20 less than -229%o and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. In some embodiments the 6 13 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -23.0%o and in certain embodiments the 6"C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -239o and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. In some embodiments the 6 13 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -24.0%o and in certain 25 embodiments the 6"C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -24%o and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. In some embodiments the 6"C value of the carbon-contai ing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -25.0%o, and in certain embodiments the 6 13 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -25Oo and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. In some embodiments the V 1 C value of the 30 carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -27.0%o and in certain embodiment; the 6C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -27Oo and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. In some embodiments the 6 3 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -30.0%o and in certain embodiment; the SVC value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is 35 less than -30%O}o and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. In some embodiments the S 3 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -40.0%o and in certain embodiments the 6 13 C value of the carbon-containing composition, e.g., synthetic carbon containing composition is less than -404o and the carbon dioxide content is at least 10%. 100731 In some embodiments of the invention carbon-containing compositions, e.g., synthetic carbon containing 40 compositions, are provided that are carbon neutral or carbon negative in addition to having a negative S 13 C value as described heroin. Carbon neutral and carbon negative are terms that refer to the amount of carbon dioxide gas released in the production of a product as compared to the amount of carbon dioxide prevented from entering the -20- Docket No. CLRA-035WO atmosphere., i.e., sequestered, by the product. Carbon neutral products prevent as much carbon dioxide from reaching the Earth's atmosphere as is released in producing the product. Carbon negative products prevent more carbon dioxin e from reaching the Earth's atmosphere than is released during the production of the product. For example, in a carbon dioxide sequestration process where the flue gas from a power plant is injected into an 5 impermeable under-ground repository, the carbon dioxide actually prevented from entering the atmosphere through the sequestration technique is weighed against the carbon dioxide produced to power the machinery performing the injection of tlhe flue gas. If more carbon dioxide is placed into the impermeable repository than is released by the sequestering machinery, then the process is carbon negative. The concepts of carbon negative products or methods are elaborated upon in patent application US 12/344,019, specifically page 7, and application US 61/117,541, 10 specifically pges 1 and 2, which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. 100741 In scfme embodiments compositions of the invention contain strontium, e.g., between 0.001% and 5% w/w/ strontium, or between 0.00001% and 1% w/w strontium, or between 0.001% and 0.1% w/w strontium, or between 0.01% and 50% w/w strontium, or between 0.01% and 1% w/w strontium, or between 0.01% and 0.1% w/w strontium, or between 0. 1% and 5% w/w strontium, or between 0.1% and 1% w/w strontium. In some embodiments 15 compositions of the invention contain boron, e.g., between 0.000001% and 2.0% w/w boron, or between 0.00001% and 1% w/w boron, or between 0.0001% and 0.1% w/w boron, or between 0.001% and 1% w/w boron, or between 0.001% and C.1% w/w boron, or between 0. 1% and 5% w/w boron, or between 0.1% and 1% w/w boron. In some embodiments compositions of the invention contain selenium, e.g., between 0.000001% and 2.0% w/w selenium, orl between 0.00001% and 1% w/w selenium, or between 0.0001% and 0.1% w/w selenium, or 20 between 0.001% and 1% w/w selenium, or between 0.001% and 0.1% w/w selenium, or between 0. 1% and 5% w/w selenium, or between 0.1% and 1% w/w selenium. 100751 In scme embodiments, carbon containing compositions, e.g., synthetic carbon containing compositions are provided where the compositions contain carbon having a negative 6"C value as described herein, where at least part of the carbon is in the form of carbonates and/or bicarbonates, e.g., carbonates and/or bicarbonates of beryllium, 25 magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium or radium or combinations thereof. The molar ratio of carbonates to bicarbonates may be any suitable ratio for the process of producing the composition and/or the intended use of the composition, iuch as: a carbonate/bicarbonate ratio of greater than 100/1, less than 1/100, more than 50/1, 25/1, 10/1, 9/1, 8/11 7/1, 6/1, 5/1, 4/1, 3/1, 2/1, 1/1, %, 1/3, or 1/4; less than 50/1, 25/1, 10/1, 9/1, 8/1, 7/1, 6/1, 5/1, 4/1, 3/1, 2/1, 1/1, %, 13, or ; or substantially all carbonate or substantially all bicarbonate. In some embodiments, the 30 carbonate/bic4rbonate ratio may be 100/1 to 1/100, or 50/1 to 1/50, o, 25/1 to 1/25, or 10/1 to 1/10, or 5/1 to 1/5, or 2/1 to 1/2, or 100/1 to 1/10, or 100/1 to 1/1, or 50/1 to 1/10, or 50/1 to 1/1 or 25/1 to 1/10, or 25/1 to 1/1 or 10/1 to 1/1, or 1/100 o 10/1, or 1/100 to 1/1, or 1/50 to 10/1, or 1/50 to 1/1, or 1/25 to 10/1, or 1/25 to 1/1, or 1/10 to 1/1. In some embodiments the invention provides carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions that contain carbonates and/or bicarbonates of calcium or magnesium or combinations thereof. In 35 some embodi ents the invention provides carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions that contain only carbonates of calcium or magnesium or combinations thereof without containing bicarbonate, cr containing only trace amounts of bicarbonate. Other embodiments provide carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions that are comprised solely of bicarbonates of calcium or magnesium oi combinations thereof. In the embodiments of the invention where both calcium and magnesium are 40 provided, various embodiments include a range of ratios between the calcium and magnesium atoms in the carbon containing co npositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing composition. In some embodiments of the invention, the calcium to m gnesium molar ratio (Ca/Mg) range is less than 1/200 to greater than 200/1. In some embodiments, -21- Docket No. CLRA-035WO Ca/Mg ratio i 1/1. In some embodiments, Ca/Mg ratio ranges are 2/1 to %, 3/2 to 2/3, or 5/4 to 4/5. In some embodiments Ca/Mg ratio ranges are 1/7 to 200/1, 1/15 to 12/10, 1/10 to 5/1, 1/7 to %, or 1/9 to 2/5. In some embodiments Ca/Mg ratio ranges are 1/200 to 1/7, 1/70 to 1/7, or 1/65 to 1/40. In some embodiments, Ca/Mg ranges are 1/1 to 3/1 or 1/2 to 2/1. In some embodiments, Ca/Mg ranges are 2/1 to all calcium, 3/1 to 200/1, 5/1 to 5 200/1, or 10/ to 200/1. 10076 In s~me embodiments, other components besides carbon dioxide or compounds derived from carbon dioxide (e.g. -:arbonates and/or bicarbonates) are included in a carbon containing composition. For example, in some embodiments, the carbon found in the composition originates at least in part from the burning of fossil fuel and the productio of a flue gas, e.g., in an industrial process, and other components of the fossil fuel may also provide 10 additional coinponents of the carbon containing composition. Exemplary components include the combustion gases, e.g., nitrogen oxides (NOx); sulfur oxides (SO.) and sulfides; halides such as hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride; particulates such as flyash, cement kiln dust, other dusts and metals including arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, ch omium, chromium VI, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, or vanadium; and organics such as hydrocarbons and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), radioactive materials, 15 dioxins and FAH compounds. PAH (Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons) are organic compounds produced when materials con aining carbon and hydrogen are burned. As used herein, nitrogen oxides (NO,) refers to oxides of nitrogen, e.g. nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ); and sulfur oxides (SO,) refers to oxides of sulfur, e.g., sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and sulfur trioxide (SO3). In all of these embodiments, it can be appreciated that the components nay interact with other participants in the reaction that forms the synthetic carbon-containing 20 composition juch that the components are provide in the product (the synthetic carbon containing composition) as derivatives of the original components. 100771 In s me embodiments the compositions of the invention may include flyash. In some embodiments compositions of the invention contain flyash in an amount of 0.001% w/w - 10.0%, such as 0.01% w/w - 5.0%w/w, such as 0.1% w/w - 5.0% w/w, such as 1.0% w/w-5.0% w/w, such as 1.0% w/w - 4.0% w/w, such as 1.0% w/w 25 3.0% w/w, suh as 1.0% w/w - 2.5% w/w, such as 0.1%w/w to 2.5%w/w fly ash. In some embodiments compositions of the invention contain one or more mercury compounds, e.g., mercuric chloride and/or other mercuric con pounds, in an amount of 0.0000001 - 0.1 % w/w, e.g., 0.000001 - 0.1 % w/w, or 0.00001 - 0.1 %, or 0.0000001 - 0 %, or 0.0000001 - 0.001, or % 0.0000001 - 0.001 %, or 0.0000001 - 0.00001 %, or 0.000001 0.1, or % 0.00001 - 0.01 %, or 0.000001 - 0.001 %, or 0.000001 - 0.0001 %, or 0.000001 - 0.00001, or % 30 0.00001 - 0.01 %, or 0.00001 - 0.001 %, or 0.00001 - 0.0001 w/w. In some embodiments compositions of the invention contain one or more sulfur compounds, e.g., one or more sulfates, sulfites, or combination of sulfates and sulfites, in an amount of 0.01-30% w/w, e.g., 0.01-20% w/w, or 0.01-10% w/w, or 0.01-1% w/w, or 0.1-30% w/w, e.g., 0.1-20% w/w, or 0.1-10% w/w, or 0.1-1%, or 1-30% w/w, e.g., 1-20% w/w, 1-10% w/w, or 1-5%w/w. In some embodiments compositions of the invention contain one or more nitrogen compounds, e.g., derivatives of NOx such 35 as nitrates or nitrites, in an amount of 0.01-30% w/w, e.g., 0.01-20% w/w, or 0.01-10% w/w, or 0.01-1% w/w, or 0.1-30% w/wl e.g., 0.1-20% w/w, or 0.1-10% w/w, or 0.1-1%, or 1-30% w/w, e.g., 1-20% w/w, 1-10% w/w, or 1-5% w/w. It will le apparent that a composition may contain one or more of flyash, mercury compounds, sulfur compounds, 4r nitrogen compounds, e.g., one or more mercury, sulfur, or nitrogen compounds in the weight percentage rages given above. 40 100781 In scme embodiments, the invention provides compositions, such as synthetic compositions, containing carbon with 63C value less than -5%o, or less than -1O%o, or less than -15%o, or less than -20%o, or less than 25%o which Ilso include one or more of the following: SO,; NO,; metals including: arsenic, beryllium, boron, -22- Docket No. CLRA-035WO cadmium, chriomium, chromium VI, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, or vanadium; VOCs; particulates such as fly ash; or radioactive compounds or derivatives thereof. In some embodimentsl the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 5 1 3C value less than -5%o that further comprise SO. or derivatives thereof. In some embodiments, 5 the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 6"C values less thn -5%o that further comprise particulate matter, e.g. fly ash. In some embodiments, the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 61 3 C values less than -5%o tht further comprise a metal, e.g. arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI, cobalt, lead, manganIse, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, or derivatives thereof. In 10 some embodi nents, the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 1 3 C values less than -5%o that further comprise SO, or derivatives thereof and particulate matter, e.g. fly ash. In some embodiments, the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing co positions with 6C values less than -5%o that further comprise SO, or derivatives thereof and a heavy metal, .g. arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, 15 molybdenum selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, or derivatives thereof, in some embodiments the heavy metal is mercf1ry or a derivative compound of mercury. In some embodiments, the invention provides for carbon containing co npositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with SVC values less than -5%o that further comprise particulate matter, e.g. fly ash, and a heavy metal, e.g. arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, or 20 derivatives th reof, in some embodiments the heavy metal is mercury or a derivative compound of mercury. In some embodiments, the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 6"C values less than -5%o that further comprise NO, or derivatives thereof. In some embodiments the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 6 1 -C values less than -5%o that further comprise VOCs or derivatives thereof. In some 25 embodiments the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 6" 3 C value less than -15%o that further comprise SO_ or derivatives thereof. In some embodiments the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 6C values less than -15%o that further comprise particulate matter, e.g. fly ash. In some embodiments the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing 30 compositions with 6 13 C values less than -15%o that further comprise a metal, e.g. arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadiunr, or derivatives thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides for carbon containing compositions! e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 6 3 C values less than -15%o that further comprise SO, or derivatives thereof and particulate matter, e.g. fly ash. In some embodiments, the invention provides for 35 carbon contai ing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with V"C values less than -15%o that further comprise SO, or derivatives thereof and a heavy metal, e.g. arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, or derivatives thereof; in some embodiments the heavy metal is mercury or a derivative compound of mercury. In some embodimentsl the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing 40 compositions with 6C values less than -15%o that further comprise particulate matter, e.g. fly ash, and a heavy metal, e.g. arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, or derivatives thereof, in some embodiments the heavy -23- Docket No. CLRA-035WO metal is merc iry or a derivative compound of mercury. In some embodiments, the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 513C values less than -15%o that further comprise NOX or derivatives thereof. In some embodiments, the invention provides for carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing compositions with 6C values less than -15%o that further comprise 5 VOCs or derivatives thereof. More details regarding the inclusion of by-products of industrial processes are given in patent application US 61/156,809, specifically pages 1-2, 19-24, and 32-39, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. [00791 As described herein, in some embodiments, the carbon found in the composition originates at least in part from the burning of fossil fuel, e.g., coal, and the production of a flue gas, e.g., in an industrial process, and other 10 components cf the fossil fuel may also provide additional components of the synthetic carbon containing composition. In addition to the components detailed above, there are other elements in fossil fuels, e.g., coals, that, through processes of fractionation, also have isotopic ratios which may be compared to standards, as described more fully in the m thods section, and as well-known in the art. For example, ratios of stable isotopes for oxygen (160 and 180), nitrogen ( 4 N and "N), sulfur ("S and 34S), hydrogen ('H and 2 H), and boron (' 0 B and "B) can also be 15 measured, e.g. using mass-spectrometry. Thus in some embodiments the invention provides compositions comprising c rbon SVC values less than -5%o that further comprise boron with a 6 11 B value of less than -2%o, less than -5%o, leis than -7%o, less than -10%o, less than -12%o, less than -14%o, less than -15%o, less than -17%o;, less than -20%o. less than -22%o. less than -25%o; or less than -30%o; sulfur with a 64S value of less than -5%o , or between 0 and +10%o , or combinations thereof. These compositions may further contain one or more of a SO.

20 derived, NO, derived, or mercury-derived compound, as described further herein. [00801 In scme embodiments of the invention, the carbon containing compositions, e.g, synthetic carbon containing cotnposition includes magnesium carbonates or calcium carbonates or combinations thereof. In some embodiments the carbon-containing composition includes dolomite, a carbonate containing both calcium and magnesium having the chemical formula Ca 0 5 Mg 0 5 CO3, and/or protodolomite (amorphous dolomite with calcium to 25 magnesium ratios deviating from 1:1). Other embodiments contain CaCO as one or more of the minerals calcite, aragonite, or vaterite or as combinations thereof. Some embodiments have hydrated forms of calcium carbonate including: ikaite (CaCO 3 .6H 2 O), amorphous calcium carbonate (CaCO 3

*H

2 0) or monohydrocalcite (CaCO 3 9H 2 0) or combinations thereof. Some embodiments contain magnesium carbonates in various stages of hydration where waters of hyd ation include 1,2,3,4, or more than 4 waters of hydration or combinations thereof, such as no hydration 30 as magnesite {MgCO 3 ) or ternary hydration as nesquehonite (MgCO 3 .3H 2 0). Other embodiments include versions of more comfy lex versions of magnesium carbonates that include waters of hydration and hydroxide such as artinite (MgCO 3 eMgNOH) 2 .3H 2 O), dypingite (Mg 5

(CO

3

)

4

(OH)

2 .5H 2 0), or hydromagnesite (Mg 5

(CO

3

)

4

(OH)

2 .3H 2 0) or combinations thereof. Some embodiments include carbonates of calcium and/or magnesium in all or some of the various states of hydration listed herein. 35 [00811 In some embodiments the invention provides for a carbon containing composition, e.g, synthetic carbon containing composition comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates or bicarbonates has a V"C value less than -5%o, or less than -10%o or less than -15%o or less than 20%o or less ihan -25%o or less than-30%o or less than -35%o where the composition does not release more than 1%, or 5%, oil 10% of its total CO 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, including 40 rainfall of normal pH, for its intended use, for at least 1, 2, 5, 10, or 20 years, or for more than 20 years, for example, for more than 100 years. In some embodiments the composition does not release more than 1% of its total CO 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, including rainfall of normal pH, for its intended -24- Docket No. CLRA-035WO use, for at least 1 year. In some embodiments the composition does not release more than 5% of its total CO 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, including rainfall of normal pH, for its intended use, for at least 1 year. In some embodiments the composition does not release more than 10% of its total CO 2 when exposed to normal cou ditions of temperature and moisture, including rainfall of normal plH, for its intended use, for at least 1 5 year. In some embodiments the composition does not release more than 1% of its total CO 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, including rainfall of normal pH, for its intended use, for at least 10 years. In some embodijnents the composition does not release more than 1% of its total CO 2 when exposed to normal conditions of temperature and moisture, including rainfall of normal pH, for its intended use, for at least 100 years. In some emb diments the composition does not release more than 1% of its total CO 2 when exposed to normal 10 conditions of temperature and moisture, including rainfall of normal pH, for its intended use, for at least 1000 years. Any suitable surrogate marker or test that is reasonably able to predict such stability may be used; e.g., conditions of elevated temp erature or pH conditions that are reasonably likely to indicate stability over an extended period in an accelerated test may be used. For example, depending on the intended use and environment of the composition, a sample of the: composition may be exposed to 50, 75, 90, 100, 120, or 150 4C for 1, 2, 5, 25, 50, 100, 200, or 500 15 days at between 10% and 50% relative humidity, and a loss less than 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, or 50% of its carbon Inay be considered sufficient evidence of stability for a given period, e.g., for 1, 10, 100, 1000, or more than 1000 yelrs.. CO 2 content of the material may be monitored by any suitable method, e.g., coulometry. Other conditions m4y be adjusted as appropriate, including pH, pressure, UV radiation, and the like, again depending on the intended dr likely environment. It will be appreciated that any suitable conditions may be used that one of skill 20 in the art would reasonably conclude indicate the requisite stability over the indicated time period. In addition, if accepted chemical knowledge indicates that the composition would have the requisite stability for the indicated period this may be used as well, in addition to or in place of actual measurements. For example, some carbonate compounds tlat may be part of a composition of the invention, e.g. in a given polymorphic form, may be well known geologically and known to have withstood normal weather for decades, centuries, or even millennia, without 25 appreciable breakdown, and so have the requisite stability. 100821 In sime embodiments the invention provides for a building material containing a component comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates and/or bicarbonates has a 6"C value less than -5%o, e.g., less than -10%o, such as less than -15%o and in some embodiments less than 20%o. A "building material," as that term is used herein, includes any material that is or may be used for a 30 construction purpose, for example, but not limited to, work and home habitats, industrial structures and transportatior-related structures such as roads, parking lots and parking structures, as well as environmental structures such as dams, levees, and the like. In some of these embodiments the building material further contains SO,; NOx; metals including: arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, or vanadium; VOCs; particulates such as fly ash; or 35 radioactive compounds or derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof, as described above. Further, in some embodiments, the building material does not release more than 1%, or 5%, or 10% of its total CO 2 when exposed to normal condi ions of temperature and moisture, including rainfall of normal pH, for its intended use, for at least 1, 2, 5, 10, or 20 ycars, or for more than 20 years, for example, for more than 100 years, also as described above. In some embodiments the invention provides for an aggregate, for example, a synthetic aggregate containing a component 40 comprising crbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates or bicarbonates has a 6 3 C value less than -5%o, e.g., less than -10%o such as less than -15%o and in some embodiments less than -20%o. In some embodiments, the aggregate of the invention is a fine aggregate, a coarse aggregate, reactive -25- Docket No. CLRA-035WO aggregate, incrt or non-reactive aggregate, or a formed or cast aggregate. Reactive aggregate is aggregate which undergoes a chemical reaction such that it bonds to the surrounding material when hydrated. Some embodiments provide for a cementitious building material containing a component comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates or bicarbonates has a 3 C value less than -5%o, e.g., less 5 than -10%o such as less than -lS%o and in some embodiments less than -20%o. Some embodiments provide for a cement or c ncrete containing a component comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates or bicarbonates has a V"C value less than -5%o, e.g., less than -10%o such as less than -15%o and ir some embodiments less than -20%o. In some embodiments the invention provides for other cementitious >uilding material such as: mortar, a pozzolanic material, or a supplementary cementitious material or 10 combinations thereof containing a component comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in he carbonates or bicarbonates has a V"C value less than -5%o, e.g., less than -10%o such as less than -15%o and ir some embodiments less than -20%o. In some embodiments the invention provides for non cementitious uilding material such as: roadway material, a brick, a board, a conduit, a beam, a basin, a column, a tile, a fiber si ing product, a slab, an acoustic barrier, plaster, dry-wall, stucco, a soil stabilization composition, or 15 insulation or ombinations thereof containing a component comprising carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof wher the carbon in the carbonates or bicarbonates has a 6"C value less than -5%o, e.g., less than -10%o such as less than -15%o and in some embodiments less than -20%o. In some embodiments the roadway material may be an asphalt or a paving material. [00831 Some embodiments of the invention provide for non-building materials containing components that include 20 carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates and/or bicarbonates has a 6C value less than -5%o, e.g., less than -10%o such as less than -15%o and in some embodiments less than 20%o. In soine embodiments the non-building material includes: a household or commercial ceramic product; a paper product ; a polymeric product; a lubricant; an adhesive; a rubber product; a chalk; a paint; a personal care product; a cosmetic; an ingestible product; an agricultural product; or an environmental remediation product. In 25 some embodiinents, the invention provides for a personal care product that includes a cleaning product or a personal hygiene product. In some embodiments, the invention provides for an ingestible product that includes a liquid, a solid, or an at imal ingestible product containing components that include carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates and/or bicarbonates has a S 3 C value less than -5%o, e.g., less than -10 /oo such as less than -15%o and in some embodiments less than -20%o. Some embodiments of the 30 invention pro ide for an agricultural product that includes a soil amendment product or a pesticide containing components t4at include carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates and/or bicar 4 nates has a SVC value less than -5%o, e.g., less than -10%o such as less than -15%o and in some embodiment; less than -20%o. Some embodiments of the invention provide for an environmental remediation product that includes a forest soil restoration product or a product for neutralization of over acidified water 35 containing co nponents that include carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates an4or bicarbonates has a SPC value less than -5%o, e.g., less than -10%o such as less than -15%o and in some em4diments less than -20%o. In some embodiments the invention provides for a paper product containing co nponents that include carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates anlor bicarbonates has a 5' 3 C value less than -5%o, e.g., less than -10%o such as less than -15%o and 40 in some embadiments less than -20%o. Some embodiments of the invention provide for a lubricant containing components that include carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates and/or bicarbnates has a 63C value less than -5%o. In some embodiments, the invention provides for a paint -26- Docket No. CLRA-035WO containing cc ponents comprised of carbonates or bicarbonates or combinations thereof where the carbon in the carbonates ar d/or bicarbonates has a S 3 C value less than -5%o. Building materials of the invention may also have an average hardness that falls within a certain ranges, such as in some embodiments a building material of the invention has an average hardness between I and 7 on the Mohs scale of hardness. In some embodiments, a building material 5 of the invention has an average hardness of at least 3 on the Mohs scale of hardness. In some embodiments, a building material of the invention has an average hardness of at least 4 on the Mohs scale of hardness. In some embodiments, a building material of the invention has an average hardness of at least 5 on the Mobs scale of hardness. In dome embodiments, a building material of the invention has an average hardness between 1 and 6 on the Mohs scale hardness, such as between I and 5, such as between 2 and 5, such as between I and 4, such as 10 between 2 an 6, such as between 2 and 4 on the Mohs hardness scale. [00841 In some embodiments the invention provides flowable compositions. In some embodiments, the flowable composition s pseudoplastic (i.e., viscosity of the flowable compositions decreases with increasing shear rate). In some embodiments, the flowable composition is thixotropic (i.e., viscosity decreases over time under constant shear). In some embodiments, viscosity and non-Newtonian behavior increases with increasing concentration of 15 solids. In sonie embodiments, the flowable composition that is a slurry has a viscosity at 20 C greater than 1 cP (centipoise), $uch as greater than 5 cP, greater than 10 cP, greater than 15 cP, greater than 20 cP, greater than 25 cP, greater than 30 cP, greater than 35 cP, greater than 40 cP, greater than 45 cP, greater than 50 cP, greater than 75 cP, greater than 100 cP, greater than 250 cP, greater than 500 cP, greater than 750 cP, or a viscosity at 20 C greater than 1000 cP. In lome embodiments, a flowable composition has a viscosity between 2000 cP to I cP, such as 100 cP to 20 1000 cP, incl ding 150 cP to 500 cP, for example 200 cP to 400 cP. For example, the flowable composition may have a viscos ty of 300 cP to 400 cP such as about 380 cP. In view of the pseudoplasticity of the flowable compositions viscosity may decrease with increasing shear rate. Also, in view of the thixotropic nature of some of the flowable compositions, viscosity may decrease over time with constant shear. In some embodiments, the flowable composition is a slurry comprising solid precipitates and effluent liquid from a carbon sequestration 25 process. In sich embodiments, the solid precipitates include, but are not limited to, carbonates, bicarbonates, and any combination of carbonates and bicarbonates. In some embodiments, where the solid precipitates are the result of a carbon sequestration process employing a flue gas from a fossil fuel burning process, the precipitates will have a negative a 13 C value. In such embodiments, the carbonates, bicarbonates, or any combination of carbonates and bicarbonates included in the precipitates will have a S"C value less than (i.e. more negative than) -5 0/00, such as 30 less than -64/00, less than -74/00, less than -84/00, less than -90/00, less than -10o/00, less than -154/00, less than -204/00, less than -210/00, less than -220/00, less than -230/00, less than -24o/00, less than -254/00, less than -260/00, less than -270 00, less than -284/00, less than -290/00, less than -300/00, less than -354/00, less than -400/00. In some embodiments the flowable composition will include other constituents of the industrial flue gas, such as, but not limited to: ca bon monoxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), sulfides, halides, particulate matter such 35 as fly ash andl dusts; metals and metal-containing compounds, radioactive materials, and organics. In some embodiments a flowable composition is placed in a repository. In some embodiments, a flowable composition is placed in a subterranean geological formation. In some embodiments, the geological formation was not suitable for storing super critical carbon dioxide. In some embodiments, the geological formation was the source of a component of a carbon dioxide sequestration process used to form part of the flowable composition. In some 40 embodiments the flowable composition is a pumpable composition. A pumpable composition is one such that it can be transported using conduits and pumps from one location to another. In some embodiments the invention provides a flowable co position comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or a combination thereof wherein the carbon in the -27- Docket No. CLRA-035WO carbonates, b carbonates, or combination thereof has a relative carbon isotope composition (65"C) value less than -5.00 %o and the viscosity of the composition is between I and 2000 cP, e.g., between 10 and 1000 cP. In some embodiments, the composition is a synthetic composition. In some embodiments, the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination hereof make up at least 10% w/w of the composition. In some embodiments, the C02 content of the 5 composition is at least 10%. In some embodiments, the composition has a negative carbon footprint. In some embodiments, the composition further comprisies boron, sulfur, or nitrogen wherein the relative isotopic composition of the boron, sulfur, or nitrogen is indicative of a fossil fuel origin. In some embodiments, the carbonates, b' carbonates, or combination thereof comprise calcium, magnesium or a combination thereof, e.g., where calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/200 and 200/1. 10 or 12/1 to 1/15, or 5/1 to 1/10. Other suitable Ca/Mg ratios are as described herein. The composition may further comprise SO* or a derivative thereof, such as a sulfate, sulfite, or combination thereof. The composition may further comp ise a metal, such as lead, arsenic, mercury, or cadmium or a combination thereof. [00851 Co positions of the invention find utility, for example, in uses where it is desired to use a material that is, or is likely to contain carbon of plant origin, e.g., carbon of fossil fuel origin, for example carbon that was part of 15 carbon dioxide e that would otherwise have been released into the atmosphere. In some cases an economic incentive may be provi ed for the use of such materials, e.g., a carbon offset payment. In some cases use of such material may satisfy a government regulatory and/or incentive program. [00861 Methods of making the compositions of the invention include any suitable method by which a carbon with the requisite ofVSC value may be made. Such methods are described, e.g., in US Published Patent Applications 20 Nos. 2009/0020044 and 2009/0001020, and US Patent Application No. 12/344,019, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. For example, a divalent cation-containing water may be exposed to flue gas from an industrial source, e.g., from a coal-fired power plant or other source where the flue gas contains

CO

2 containing carbon primarily or entirely of fossil fuel origin. The divalent cation-containing water may be, e.g., seawater, brlije, and/or water that has been enriched in divalent cations. Protons are removed from the water by 25 addition of bse (e.g., a hydroxide such as sodium hydroxide or base from industrial waste, brines, minerals, or other sources) and/4r by electrochemical methods, as further detailed in US Published Patent Applications Nos. 2009/0020044 and 2009/0001020, and US Patent Application No. 12/344,019, to drive the reaction toward carbonates, e.g. magnesium and/or calcium carbonates, which may remain in solution or which may precipitate from solution. The precipitate may be further treated, e.g., by drying, pressing, crushing, forming, and the like, as 30 described in the above published patent applications. Carbon negative methods of manufacture, for example methods utili ing low-voltage electrochemical methods of base removal, e.g., electrochemical methods requiring a voltage of less than 2.0 V, or less than 1.5 V, or, in some embodiments, less than 1.0 V, are also described in the above patent applications. [00871 Som methods of producing compositions of the invention are given in more detail below, however, any 35 suitable method may be used. As described in further detail below, the methods and systems of the utilize a source of C0 2 , a source of proton-removing agents (and/or methods of effecting proton removal), and a source of divalent cations to produce the composition. 100881 Carbon Dioxide 100891 Metljods of include contacting a volume of an aqueous solution of divalent cations with a source of CO 2 , 40 and in the cas where a precipitate is desired, subjecting the resultant solution to conditions that facilitate precipitation; in some cases it is desirable to produce a solution or a slurry, e.g., a flowable composition, and precipitation conditions may be eliminated or adjusted accordingly. Methods of the invention thus further may -28- Docket No. CLRA-035WO include contting a volume of an aqueous solution of divalent cations with a source of CO 2 while subjecting the aqueous solution to conditions that facilitate precipitation. There may be sufficient carbon dioxide in the divalent cation-contailiing solution to precipitate significant amounts of bicarbonate and/or carbonate-containing precipitation material (e.g. from seawater or brine); however, additional carbon dioxide is generally used. The source of CO 2 may 5 be any conve ient CO 2 source that contains carbon of the requisite 6"C value. The CO 2 source may be a gas, a liquid, a solic (e.g., dry ice), a supercritical fluid, or CO, dissolved in a liquid. In some embodiments, the CO 2 source is a gaseous CO 2 source. The gaseous stream may be substantially pure CO 2 or comprise multiple components that include CO 2 and one or more additional gases and/or other substances such as ash and other particulates. In some embodiments, the gaseous CO 2 source is a waste gas stream (i.e., a by-product of an active 10 process of the industrial plant) such as exhaust from an industrial plant. The nature of the industrial plant may vary, the industrial plants including, but not limited to, power plants, chemical processing plants, mechanical processing plants, refine ies, cement plants, steel plants, and other industrial plants that produce CO 2 as a by-product of fuel combustion or another processing step (such as calcination by a cement plant). 100901 Waste gas streams comprising CO 2 include both reducing (e.g., syngas, shifted syngas, natural gas, 15 hydrogen anc the like) and oxidizing condition streams (e.g., flue gases from combustion). Particular waste gas streams that nay be convenient for the invention include oxygen-containing combustion industrial plant flue gas (e.g., from c al or another carbon-based fuel with little or no pretreatment of the flue gas), turbo charged boiler product gas, qoal gasification product gas, shifted coal gasification product gas, anaerobic digester product gas, wellhead nattjral gas stream, reformed natural gas or methane hydrates, and the like. Combustion gas from any 20 convenient source may be used in methods and systems of the invention. In some embodiments, combustion gases in post-combustion effluent stacks of industrial plants such as power plants, cement plants, and coal processing plants is used. 100911 ThuS, the waste streams may be produced from a variety of different types of industrial plants. Typically, waste stream, for the methods include waste streams produced by industrial plants that combust fossil fuels (e.g., 25 coal, oil, natural gas) and anthropogenic fuel products of naturally occurring organic fuel deposits (e.g., tar sands, heavy oil, oil shale, etc.). In some embodiments, a waste stream suitable for systems and methods of the invention is sourced from a coal-fired power plant, such as a pulverized coal power plant, a supercritical coal power plant, a mass burn coal pojer plant, a fluidized bed coal power plant; in some embodiments, the waste stream is sourced from gas or oil-fired boiler and steam turbine power plants, gas or oil-fired boiler simple cycle gas turbine power plants, or 30 gas or oil-fired boiler combined cycle gas turbine power plants. In some embodiments, waste streams produced by power plants that combust syngas (i.e., gas that is produced by the gasification of organic matter, for example, coal, biomass, etc. are used. In some embodiments, waste streams from integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants are use. In some embodiments, waste streams produced by Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) plants are used in accordance with systems and methods of the invention. 35 [00921 Waste streams produced by cement plants are also suitable for systems and methods of the invention so long as the S'tC value of the flue gas is in the desired range to produce products with the requisite 6 1 3C value. Cement plant waste streams include waste streams from both wet process and dry process plants, which plants may employ shaft ilns or rotary kilns, and may include pre-calciners. These industrial plants may each bum a single fuel, or may burn to or more fuels sequentially or simultaneously. Other industrial plants such as smelters and refineries 40 are also useful sources of waste streams that include carbon dioxide. [00931 Industrial waste gas streams may contain carbon dioxide as the primary non-air derived component, or may, especially in the case of coal-fired power plants, contain additional components such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), -29- Docket No. CLRA-035WO sulfur oxides (SOx), and one or more additional gases. Additional gases and other components may include CO, mercury and 4ther heavy metals, and dust particles (e.g., from calcining and combustion processes). Additional components i the gas stream may also include halides such as hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride; particulate matter such 4 fly ash, dusts, and metals including arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI, 5 cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium; and organics such as hydrocarbon dioxins, and PAH compounds. Suitable gaseous waste streams that may be treated have, in some embodiments3 CO 2 present in amounts of 200 ppm to 1,000,000 ppm, such as 200,000 ppm to 1000 ppm, including 200,000 ppm to 2000 ppm, for example 180,000 ppm to 2000 ppm, or 180,000 ppm to 5000 ppm, also including 180,000 ppm to 10,000 ppm. The waste streams, particularly various waste streams of combustion gas, may include 10 one or more additional components, for example, water, NOx (mononitrogen oxides: NO and NO 2 ), SOx (monosulfur oxides: SO, SO 2 and SO 3 ), VOC (volatile organic compounds), heavy metals such as mercury, and particulate matter (particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas). Flue gas temperature may also vary. In some embodiments the temperature of the flue gas comprising CO2 is from 0 0 C to 2000'C, such as from 60'C to 700 *C, and including 100 C to 400'C. 15 100941 In some embodiments, one or more additional components or co-products (i.e., products produced from other starting materials [e.g., SOx, NOx, etc.] under the same conditions employed to convert CO 2 into bicarbonates and/or carbo ates) are precipitated or trapped in precipitation material, or in solution or slurry, formed by contacting the waste gas stream comprising these additional components with an aqueous solution comprising divalent cations (e.g., alkaline earth metal ions such as Ca 2 1 and Mg 2 l). Sulfates, sulfites, and the like of calcium and/or magnesium 20 may be precipitated or trapped in precipitation material or solution or slurry (further comprising calcium and/or magnesium b carbonates and/or carbonates) produced from waste gas streams comprising SOx (e.g., SO 2 ). Magnesium +d calcium may react to form MgS0 4 , CaSO 4 , respectively, as well as other magnesium-containing and calcium-containing compounds (e.g., sulfites), effectively removing sulfur from the flue gas stream without a desulfurizaticn step such as flue gas desulfurization ("FGD"). In addition, CaCO 3 , MgCO 3 , and related compounds 25 may be formed without additional release of CO 2 . In instances where the aqueous solution of divalent cations contains high levels of sulfur compounds (e.g., sulfate), the aqueous solution may be enriched with calcium and magnesium sO that calcium and magnesium are available to form bicarbonate and/or carbonate compounds after, or in addition toi formation of CaSO 4 , MgSO 4 , and related compounds. In some embodiments, a desulfurization step may be staged to coincide with precipitation of bicarbonate and/or carbonate-containing precipitation material, or the 30 desulfurizatien step may be staged to occur before precipitation. In some embodiments, multiple reaction products (e.g., MgCO 3 CaCO 3 , CaSO 4 , mixtures of the foregoing, and the like) are collected at different stages, while in other embodiments a single reaction product (e.g., precipitation material comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, sulfates and/or sulfitet, etc.) is collected. In step with these embodiments, other components, such as heavy metals (e.g., mercury, mercury salts, mercury-containing compounds), may be trapped in the bicarbonate and/or carbonate 35 containing precipitation material or may precipitate separately, if precipitation is used. 100951 A portion of the gaseous waste stream (i.e., not the entire gaseous waste stream) from an industrial plant may be used to produce solutions, slurries, or precipitation material. In these embodiments, the portion of the gaseous waste stream that is employed in the process may be 75% or less, such as 60% or less, and including 50% and less of the gaseous waste stream. In yet other embodiments, substantially (e.g., 80% or more) the entire gaseous 40 waste stream produced by the industrial plant is employed in precipitation of precipitation material, solution, or slurry. In these embodiments, 80% or more, such as 90% or more, including 95% or more, up to 100% of the gaseous wasti stream (e.g., flue gas) generated by the source may be employed for precipitation of precipitation -30- Docket No. CLRA-035WO material. Methods of the invention may remove significant portions, or substantially all, of the CO 2 from a given

CO

2 source, .g., over 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or even over 99.9% of the CO 2 in the CO 2 source. 100961 Divalent Cations 5 [00971 Methods of the invention include contacting a volume of an aqueous solution of divalent cations with a source of CO2 and optionally subjecting the resultant solution to conditions that facilitate precipitation. In some embodiments, a volume of an aqueous solution of divalent cations is contacted with a source of CO 2 while optionally subjecting the aqueous solution to conditions that facilitate precipitation. Divalent cations may come from any of a number of different divalent cation sources depending upon availability at a particular location. Such sources 10 include industrial wastes, seawater, brines, hard waters, rocks and minerals (e.g., lime, periclase, material comprising metal silicate3 such as serpentine and olivine), and any other suitable source. [0098] In some locations, industrial waste streams from various industrial processes provide for convenient sources of divalent nations (as well as in some cases other materials useful in the process, e.g., metal hydroxide). Such waste streams include, but are not limited to, mining wastes; fossil fuel burning ash (e.g., combustion ash such as fly ash, 15 bottom ash, boiler slag); slag (e.g. iron slag, phosphorous slag); cement kiln waste; oil refinery/petrochemical refinery wasti (e.g. oil field and methane seam brines); coal seam wastes (e.g. gas production brines and coal seam brine); paper processing waste; water softening waste brine (e.g., ion exchange effluent); silicon processing wastes; agricultural yWaste; metal finishing waste; high pH textile waste; and caustic sludge. Fossil fuel burning ash, cement kiln dust, and slag, collectively waste sources of metal oxides, further described in U.S. Patent Application No. 20 12/486,692, filed 17 June 2009, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety. It will be appreciated that some of lhese sources, e.g., coal seam wastes, flyash, are themselves sources of carbon with a negative S8 3 C value; others may contribute carbon at a somewhat higher value than that found in fossil fuels but their addition does not necessarily significantly alter the 8"C value of the final product, e.g., change it away from the values described herein (see Eamples for specific details). Any of the divalent cations sources described herein may be mixed and 25 matched for te purpose of practicing the invention. For example, material comprising metal silicates (e.g. serpentine, olivine), which are further described in U.S. Patent Application No. 12/501,217, filed 10 July 2009, which application is herein incorporated by reference, may be combined with any of the sources of divalent cations described herin for the purpose of practicing the invention. [00991 In sme locations, a convenient source of divalent cations for preparation of a composition of the invention 30 is water (e.g., an aqueous solution comprising divalent cations such as seawater or surface brine), which may vary depending upn the particular location at which the invention is practiced. Suitable aqueous solutions of divalent cations that niay be used include solutions comprising one or more divalent cations, e.g., alkaline earth metal cations such as Ca 2 ' and Mg 2 l. In some embodiments, the aqueous source of divalent cations comprises alkaline earth metal cations. In so ne embodiments, the alkaline earth metal cations include calcium, magnesium, or a mixture thereof. In 35 some embodi nents, the aqueous solution of divalent cations comprises calcium in amounts ranging from 50 to 50,000 ppm, i0 to 40,000 ppm, 50 to 20,000 ppm, 100 to 10,000 ppm, 200 to 5000 ppm, or 400 to 1000 ppm. In some embodi nents, the aqueous solution of divalent cations comprises magnesium in amounts ranging from 50 to 40,000 ppm, $0 to 20,000 ppm, 100 to 10,000 ppm, 200 to 10,000 ppm, 500 to 5000 ppm, or 500 to 2500 ppm. In some embodi nents, where Ca" and Mg> are both present, the ratio of Ca2 to Mg> (i.e., Ca 2 :Mg 2 +) in the aqueous 40 solution of dioalent cations is between 1:1 and 1:2.5; 1:2.5 and 1:5; 1:5 and 1:10; 1:10 and 1:25; 1:25 and 1:50; 1:50 and 1:100; 1: 00 and 1:150; 1:150 and 1:200; 1:200 and 1:250; 1:250 and 1:500; 1:500 and 1:1000, or a range thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the ratio of Ca2 to Mg> in the aqueous solution of divalent cations is -31- Docket No. CLRA-035WO between 1:1 And 1:10; 1:5 and 1:25; 1:10 and 1:50; 1:25 and 1:100; 1:50 and 1:500; or 1:100 and 1:1000. In some embodiments, the ratio of Mg 2 + to Ca2+ (i.e., Mg 2 +:Ca 2 ) in the aqueous solution of divalent cations is between 1:1 and 1:2.5; 1:1.5 and 1:5; 1:5 and 1:10; 1:10 and 1:25; 1:25 and 1:50; 1:50 and 1:100; 1:100 and 1:150; 1:150 and 1:200; 1:200 and 1:250; 1:250 and 1:500; 1:500 and 1:1000, or a range thereof For example, in some embodiments, 5 the ratio of M g 2 * to Ca+ in the aqueous solution of divalent cations is between 1:1 and 1:10; 1:5 and 1:25; 1:10 and 1:50; 1:25 and 1:100; 1:50 and 1:500; or 1:100 and 1:1000. [001001 The aqueous solution of divalent cations may comprise divalent cations derived from freshwater, brackish water, seawater, or brine (e.g., naturally occurring brines or anthropogenic brines such as geothermal plant wastewaters, desalination plant waste waters), as well as other salines having a salinity that is greater than that of 10 freshwater, any of which may be naturally occurring or anthropogenic. Brackish water is water that is saltier than freshwater, but not as salty as seawater. Brackish water has a salinity ranging from about 0.5 to about 35 ppt (parts per thousand). Seawater is water from a sea, an ocean, or any other saline body of water that has a salinity ranging from about 3 to about 50 ppt. Brine is water saturated or nearly saturated with salt. Brine has a salinity that is about 50 ppt or greater. In some embodiments, the water source from which divalent cations are derived is a mineral rich 15 (e.g., calciun-rich and/or magnesium-rich) freshwater source. In some embodiments, the water source from which divalent cations are derived is a naturally occurring saltwater source selected from a sea, an ocean, a lake, a swamp, an estuary, a lagoon, a surface brine, a deep brine, an alkaline lake, an inland sea, or the like. In some embodiments, the water sou ce from which divalent cation are derived is an anthropogenic brine selected from a geothermal plant wastewater ot a desalination wastewater. 20 1001011 Freshwater is often a convenient source of divalent cations (e.g., cations of alkaline earth metals such as Ca2 and Mg2 ). Any of a number of suitable freshwater sources may be used, including freshwater sources ranging from sources relatively free of minerals to sources relatively rich in minerals. Mineral-rich freshwater sources may be naturally occurring, including any of a number of hard water sources, lakes, or inland seas. Some mineral-rich freshwater sources such as alkaline lakes or inland seas (e.g., Lake Van in Turkey) also provide a source of pH 25 modifying agents. Mineral-rich freshwater sources may also be anthropogenic. For example, a mineral-poor (soft) water may be contacted with a source of divalent cations such as alkaline earth metal cations (e.g., Ca 2 +, Mg 2 +, etc.) to produce a mineral-rich water that is suitable for methods and systems described herein. Divalent cations or precursors thereof (e.g. salts, minerals) may be added to freshwater (or any other type of water described herein) using any convenient protocol (e.g., addition of solids, suspensions, or solutions). In some embodiments, divalent 30 cations selected from Ca 2 + and Mg 2 + are added to freshwater. In some embodiments, monovalent cations selected from Na+ anq K+ are added to freshwater. In some embodiments, freshwater comprising Ca+ is combined with combustion aph (e.g., fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag), or products or processed forms thereof, yielding a solution comprising calcium and magnesium cations. [001021 In sdme embodiments, an aqueous solution of divalent cations may be obtained from an industrial plant that 35 is also providing a combustion gas stream. For example, in water-cooled industrial plants, such as seawater-cooled industrial plants, water that has been used by an industrial plant for cooling may then be used as water for producing solutions, slufries, or solid precipitation material. If desired, the water may be cooled prior to entering a system of the invention.! Such approaches may be employed, for example, with once-through cooling systems. For example, a city or agricu tural water supply may be employed as a once-through cooling system for an industrial plant. Water 40 from the industrial plant may then be employed for producing solutions, slurries, or precipitation material, wherein output water has a reduced hardness and greater purity. [00103] Proton-Removing Agents and Methods for Effecting Proton Removal -32- Docket No. CLRA-035WO [001041 Methods of the invention include contacting a volume of an aqueous solution of divalent cations with a source of CO2 (to dissolve CO 2 ) and optionally subjecting the resultant solution to conditions that facilitate precipitation. In some embodiments, a volume of an aqueous solution of divalent cations is contacted with a source of CO 2 (to dissolve CO 2 ) while optionally subjecting the aqueous solution to conditions that facilitate precipitation. 5 The dissolution of CO 2 into the aqueous solution of divalent cations produces carbonic acid, a species in equilibrium with both bicarbonate and carbonate. In order to produce bicarbonate and especially carbonate-containing material, e.g., suitable for precipitation, protons are removed from various species (e.g. carbonic acid, bicarbonate, hydronium, ec.) in the divalent cation-containing solution to shift the equilibrium toward carbonate. As protons are removed, more CO 2 goes into solution. In some embodiments, proton-removing agents and/or methods are used 10 while contacting a divalent cation-containing aqueous solution with CO2 to increase CO 2 absorption in one phase of the reaction, herein the pH may remain constant, increase, or even decrease, followed by a rapid removal of protons (e.g., by addition of a base) to, e.g., cause rapid precipitation of carbonate-containing precipitation material. Protons may je removed from the various species (e.g. carbonic acid, bicarbonate, hydronium, etc.) by any convenient approach, including, but not limited to use of naturally occurring proton-removing agents, use of 15 microorganisms and fungi, use of synthetic chemical proton-removing agents, recovery of man-made waste streams, and using eletrochemical means. [001051 Nattirally occurring proton-removing agents encompass any proton-removing agents that can be found in the wider environment that may create or have a basic local environment. Some embodiments provide for naturally occurring prcton-removing agents including minerals that create basic environments upon addition to solution. Such 20 minerals include, but are not limited to, lime (CaO); periclase (MgO); iron hydroxide minerals (e.g., goethite and limonite); and volcanic ash. Methods for digestion of such minerals and rocks comprising such minerals are provided herein. Some embodiments provide for using naturally alkaline bodies of water as naturally occurring proton-remo ing agents. Examples of naturally alkaline bodies of water include, but are not limited to surface water sources (e.g. alkaline lakes such as Mono Lake in California) and ground water sources (e.g. basic aquifers such as 25 the deep geologic alkaline aquifers located at Searles Lake in California). Other embodiments provide for use of deposits from dried alkaline bodies of water such as the crust along Lake Natron in Africa's Great Rift Valley. In some embodiments, organisms that excrete basic molecules or solutions in their normal metabolism are used as proton-removing agents. Examples of such organisms are fungi that produce alkaline protease (e.g., the deep-sea fungus Aspergillus ustus with an optimal pH of 9) and bacteria that create alkaline molecules (e.g., cyanobacteria 30 such as Lyngbya sp. from the Atlin wetland in British Columbia, which increases pH from a byproduct of photosynthesis). In some embodiments, organisms are used to produce proton-removing agents, wherein the organisms (eg., Bacillus pasteurii, which hydrolyzes urea to ammonia) metabolize a contaminant (e.g. urea) to produce proton-removing agents or solutions comprising proton-removing agents (e.g., ammonia, ammonium hydroxide). In some embodiments, organisms are cultured separately from the reaction mixture, wherein proton 35 removing agents or solution comprising proton-removing agents are used for addition to the reaction mixture. In some embodiments, naturally occurring or manufactured enzymes are used in combination with proton-removing agents. Carbonic anhydrase, which is an enzyme produced by plants and animals, accelerates transformation of carbonic acidlto bicarbonate in aqueous solution. As such, carbonic anhydrase may be used to enhance dissolution of

CO

2 and, e.g , accelerate precipitation of precipitation material if precipitation is used. 40 [00106] Cheiical agents for effecting proton removal generally refer to synthetic chemical agents that are produced in large quantities and are commercially available. For example, chemical agents for removing protons include, but are not limite to, hydroxides, organic bases, super bases, oxides, ammonia, and carbonates. Hydroxides include -33- Docket No. CLRA-035WO chemical species that provide hydroxide anions in solution, including, for example, sodium hydroxide (NaOl), potassium hy iroxide (KOH), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2 ), or magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) 2 ). Organic bases are carbon-ccntaining molecules that are generally nitrogenous bases including primary amines such as methyl amine, secon lary amines such as diisopropylamine, tertiary such as diisopropylethylamine, aromatic amines such as 5 aniline, heter aromatics such as pyridine, imidazole, and benzimidazole, and various forms thereof. In some embodiment an organic base selected from pyridine, methylamine, imidazole, benzimidazole, histidine, and a phophazene i4 used to remove protons from various species (e.g., carbonic acid, bicarbonate, hydronium, etc.), e.g., for precipitation of precipitation material. In some embodiments, ammonia is used to raise pH to a level sufficient to precipitate pr cipitation material from a solution of divalent cations and an industrial waste stream. Super bases 10 suitable for ue as proton-removing agents include sodium ethoxide, sodium amide (NaNH 2 ), sodium hydride (NaH), butyl lithium, lithium diisopropylamide, lithium diethylamide, and lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide. Oxides including, foI example, calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide (MgO), strontium oxide (SrO), beryllium oxide (BeO), and b rium oxide (BaO) are also suitable proton-removing agents that may be used. Carbonates for use in the invention include, but are not limited to, sodium carbonate. 15 [001071 In addition to comprising cations of interest and other suitable metal forms, waste streams from various industrial processes may provide proton-removing agents. Such waste streams include, but are not limited to, mining wastes; fossillfuel burning ash (e.g., combustion ash such as fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag); slag (e.g. iron slag, phosphorous lag); cement kiln waste; oil refinery/petrochemical refinery waste (e.g. oil field and methane seam brines); coal jeam wastes (e.g. gas production brines and coal seam brine); paper processing waste; water softening 20 waste brine ( 4 .g., ion exchange effluent); silicon processing wastes; agricultural waste; metal finishing waste; high pH textile waste; and caustic sludge. Mining wastes include any wastes from the extraction of metal or another precious or useful mineral from the earth. In some embodiments, wastes from mining are used to modify pH, wherein the vaste is selected from red mud from the Bayer aluminum extraction process; waste from magnesium extraction froln seawater (e.g., Mg(OH) 2 such as that found in Moss Landing, California); and wastes from mining 25 processes involving leaching. For example, red mud may be used to modify pH as described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/161369, filed 18 March 2009, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Fossil fuel buying ash, cement kiln dust, and slag, collectively waste sources of metal oxides, further described in U.S. Patent Application No. 12/486692, filed 17 June 2009, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety, may be used in alone or in combination with other proton-removing agents to provide proton-removing 30 agents for thel invention. Agricultural waste, either through animal waste or excessive fertilizer use, may contain potassium hyilroxide (KOH) or ammonia (NH 3 ) or both. As such, agricultural waste may be used in some embodiments of the invention as a proton-removing agent. This agricultural waste is often collected in ponds, but it may also percolate down into aquifers, where it can be accessed and used. [001081 Electrochemical methods are another means to remove protons from various species in a solution, either by 35 removing protons from solute (e.g., deprotonation of carbonic acid or bicarbonate) or from solvent (e.g., deprotonatior of hydronium or water). Deprotonation of solvent may result, for example, if proton production from

CO

2 dissolution matches or exceeds electrochemical proton removal from solute molecules. In some embodiments, low-voltage electrochemical methods are used to remove protons, for example, as CO 2 is dissolved in the reaction mixture or a Orecursor solution to the reaction mixture (i.e., a solution that may or may not contain divalent cations). 40 In some embqdiments, CO 2 dissolved in an aqueous solution that does not contain divalent cations is treated by a low-voltage electrochemical method to remove protons from carbonic acid, bicarbonate, hydronium, or any species or combination n thereof resulting from the dissolution of CO 2 . A low-voltage electrochemical method operates at an -34- Docket No. CLRA-035WO average voltage of 2, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, or 1.6 V or less, such as 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1 V or less, such as I V or less, such as 0.9 V or k ss, 0.8 V or less, 0.7 V or less, 0.6 V or less, 0.5 V or less, 0.4 V or less, 0.3 V or less, 0.2 V or less, or 0.1 V or less. Low-voltage electrochemical methods that do not generate chlorine gas are convenient for use in systems and inethods of the invention. Low-voltage electrochemical methods to remove protons that do not generate 5 oxygen gas a-e also convenient for use in systems and methods of the invention. In some embodiments, low-voltage electrochemi :al methods generate hydrogen gas at the cathode and transport it to the anode where the hydrogen gas is converted 10 protons. Electrochemical methods that do not generate hydrogen gas may also be convenient. In some instances, electrochemical methods to remove protons do not generate any gaseous by-byproduct. Electrochemical methods for effecting proton removal are further described in U.S. Patent Application No. 10 12/344,019, filed 24 December 2008; U.S. Patent Application No. 12/375,632, filed 23 December 2008; International Patent Application No. PCT/US08/088242, filed 23 December 2008; International Patent Application No. PCT/US09/32301, filed 28 January 2009; and International Patent Application No. PCT/USO9/485 11, filed 24 June 2009, each of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. [001091 Alternatively, electrochemical methods may be used to produce caustic molecules (e.g., hydroxide) 15 through, for example, the chlor-alkali process, or modification thereof Electrodes (i.e., cathodes and anodes) may be present in the apparatus containing the divalent cation-containing aqueous solution or gaseous waste stream-charged (e.g., CO 2 -chnrged) solution, and a selective barrier, such as a membrane, may separate the electrodes. Electrochemical systems and methods for removing protons may produce by-products (e.g., hydrogen) that may be harvested and used for other purposes. Additional electrochemical approaches that may be used in systems and 20 methods of t: Ie invention include, but are not limited to, those described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/081,299, iled 16 July 2008, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/091,729, the disclosures of which are incorpor ed herein by reference. Combinations of the above mentioned sources of proton-removing agents and methods for effecting proton removal may be employed. [00110] Met ods of combining and processing reactants 25 [001111 A v riety of different methods may be employed to prepare the compositions of the invention. Protocols of interest include, but are not limited to, those disclosed in U.S. Patent Application Serial Nos. 12/126,776, filed 23 May 2008; l'/163,205, filed 27 June 2008; 12/344,019, filed 24 December 2008; and 12/475,378, filed 29 May 2009, as well as U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial Nos. 61/017,405, filed 28 December 2007; 61/017,419, filed 28 December 2007; 61/057,173, filed 29 May 2008; 61/056,972, filed 29 May 2008; 61/073,319, filed 17 June 30 2008; 61/079 790, 10 July 2008; 61/081,299, filed 16 July 2008; 61/082,766, filed 22 July 2008; 61/088,347, filed 13 August 2008; 61/088,340, filed 12 August 2008; 61/101,629, filed 30 September 2008; and 61/101,631, filed 30 September 2 08; the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. [001121 Corpositions of the invention include bicarbonate and carbonate compositions that may be produced in solution or slurry or by precipitating a calcium and/or magnesium bicarbonate or carbonate composition from a 35 solution of divalent cations. The bicarbonate and/or carbonate compound compositions that make up the components of the invention include metastable carbonate compounds that may be precipitated from a solution of divalent cations, such as a saltwater, as described in greater detail below. The bicarbonate and/or carbonate compound compositions of the invention include precipitated crystalline and/or amorphous bicarbonate and carbonate compounds. 40 [001131 Saltwater-derived bicarbonate and/or carbonate compound compositions of the invention (i.e., compositions derived from saltwater and made up of one or more different carbonate crystalline and/or amorphous compounds with or without one or more hydroxide crystalline or amorphous compounds) are ones that are derived from a -35- Docket No. CLRA-035WO saltwater. As such, they are compositions that are obtained from a saltwater in some manner, e.g., by treating a volume of a saltwater in a manner sufficient to produce the desired bicarbonate and/or or carbonate compound composition rom the initial volume of saltwater. The bicarbonate and/or carbonate compound compositions of certain emb4iments are produced by,e.g., precipitation from a solution of divalent cations (e.g., a saltwater) that 5 includes alkaline earth metal cations, such as calcium and magnesium, etc., where such solutions of divalent cations may be collectively referred to as alkaline earth metal-containing waters. [001141 The saltwater employed in methods may vary. As reviewed above, saltwater of interest include brackish water, seawater and brine, as well as other salines having a salinity that is greater than that of freshwater (which has a salinity of 1ess than 5 ppt dissolved salts). In some embodiments, calcium rich waters may be combined with 10 magnesium s licate minerals, such as olivine or serpentine, in solution that has become acidic due to the addition on carbon dioxi e to form carbonic acid, which dissolves the magnesium silicate, leading to the formation of calcium magnesium s licate carbonate compounds as mentioned above. [00115] In methods of producing the bicarbonate and/or carbonate compound compositions of the invention, a volume of w ter is optionally subjected to bicarbonate/carbonate compound precipitation conditions sufficient to 15 produce a sol tion of bicarbonate and/or carbonate-containing solution which can then be used to produce precipitation material and a mother liquor (i.e., the part of the water that is left over after precipitation of the bicarbonate a}d/or carbonate compound(s) from the saltwater), if desired. The resultant precipitation material and mother liquor may collectively make up the bicarbonate and/or carbonate compound compositions of the invention (e.g., as a slurry) or may be separated into precipitate and mother liquor, each or both of which may also be 20 compositions of the invention (e.g., solid and solution compositions). Any convenient precipitation conditions may be employed,J which conditions result in the production of a barcarbonate/carbonate compound composition. 1001161 For precipitated compounds, conditions that facilitate precipitation (i.e., precipitation conditions) may vary. For example, the temperature of the water may be within a suitable range for the precipitation of the desired mineral to occur. In some embodiments, the temperature of the water may be in a range from 5 to 70*C, such as from 20 to 25 50C and including from 25 to 45C. As such, while a given set of precipitation conditions may have a temperature ranging from 0 to 100 "C, the temperature of the water may have to be adjusted in certain embodiments to produce the desired precipitation material. [00117] For carbonate compounds, in normal seawater, 93% of the dissolved CO 2 is in the form of bicarbonate ions

(HCO

3 ~) and is in the form of carbonate ions (C0 3 2 -). When calcium carbonate precipitates from normal 30 seawater, CO, is released. In fresh water, above pH 10.33, greater than 90% of the carbonate is in the form of carbonate ion, and no CO 2 is released during the precipitation of calcium carbonate. In seawater this transition occurs at a slightly lower pH, closer to a pH of 9.7. While the pH of the water employed in methods may range from 5 to 14 during a given precipitation process, in certain embodiments the pH is raised to alkaline levels in order to drive the precipitation of carbonate compounds, as well as other compounds, e.g., hydroxide compounds, as desired. 35 In certain of tiese embodiments, the pH is raised to a level that minimizes if not eliminates CO 2 production during precipitation, causing dissolved CO 2 , e.g., in the form of carbonate and bicarbonate, to be trapped in the precipitation material. In t 4 ese embodiments, the pH may be raised to 10 or higher, such as 11 or higher. [00118] The OH of the water may be raised using any convenient approach. In certain embodiments, a proton removing agent is employed, where examples of such agents include oxides, hydroxides (e.g., calcium oxide in fly 40 ash, potassiuri hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, brucite (Mg(OH 2 ), etc.), carbonates (e.g., sodium carbonate), and the like, many of which are described above. One such approach for raising the pH of the precipitation reaction mixture or precursor thereof (e.g., divalent cation-containing solution) is to use the coal ash from a coal-fired power plant, -36- Docket No. CLRA-035WO which contai s many oxides. Other coal processes, like the gasification of coal, to produce syngas, also produce hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide, and may serve as a source of hydroxide as well. Some naturally occurring minerals, such as serpentine, contain hydroxide and may be dissolved to yield a source of hydroxide. The addition of serpentine also releases silica and magnesium into the solution, leading to the formation of silica-containing 5 precipitation material. The amount of proton-removing agent that is added to the reaction mixture or precursor thereof will depend on the particular nature of the proton-removing agent and the volume of the reaction mixture or precursor the eof being modified, and will be sufficient to raise the pH of the reaction mixture or precursor thereof to the desired pi. Alternatively, the pH of the reaction mixture or precursor thereof may be raised to the desired level by electroche nical means as described above. Additional electrochemical methods may be used under certain 10 conditions. Fr example, electrolysis may be employed, wherein the mercury cell process (also called the Castner Kellner process); the diaphragm cell process, the membrane cell process, or some combination thereof is used. Where desire i, byproducts of the hydrolysis product, e.g., H 2 , sodium metal, etc. may be harvested and employed for other purposes, as desired. In yet other embodiments, the pH-elevating approach described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 61/081,299, filed 16 July 2008, and 61/091,729, filed 25 August 2008, may be employed, the 15 disclosures ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference. 1001191 Add tives other than pH-elevating agents may also be introduced into the water in order to influence the nature of the fnaterial that is produced. As such, certain embodiments of the methods include providing an additive in water befo e or during the time when the water is subjected to the precipitation conditions. Certain calcium carbonate polymorphs can be favored by trace amounts of certain additives. For example, vaterite, a highly unstable 20 polymorph oif CaCO 3 , which precipitates in a variety of different morphologies and converts rapidly to calcite, can be obtained a very high yields by including trace amounts of lanthanum as lanthanum chloride in a supersaturated solution of clcium carbonate. Other additives beside lanthanum that are of interest include, but are not limited to transition metals and the like. For instance, the addition of ferrous or ferric iron is known to favor the formation of disordered dolomite (protodolomite) where it would not form otherwise. 25 [001201 The nature of the precipitation material can also be influenced by selection of appropriate major ion ratios. Major ion ratos also have considerable influence of polymorph formation. For example, as the magnesium:calcium ratio in the writer increases, aragonite becomes the favored polymorph of calcium carbonate over low-magnesium calcite. At low magnesium:calcium ratios, low-magnesium calcite is the preferred polymorph. As such, a wide range of magnesiui:calcium ratios can be employed, including, for example, 100:1, 50:1, 20:1, 10:1, 5:1, 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 30 1:5, 1:10, 1:23, 1:50, 1:100, or any of the ratios mentioned above. In certain embodiments, the magnesium:calcium ratio is determined by the source of water employed in the precipitation process (e.g., seawater, brine, brackish water, fresh xvater), whereas in other embodiments, the magnesium:calcium ratio is adjusted to fall within a certain range. [001211 Rate of precipitation also has a large effect on compound phase formation. The most rapid precipitation can 35 be achieved ty seeding the solution with a desired phase. Without seeding, rapid precipitation can be achieved by rapidly increasing the pH of the seawater, which results in more amorphous constituents. When silica is present, the more rapid th- reaction rate, the more silica is incorporated in the carbonate-containing precipitation material. The higher the pH is, the more rapid the precipitation is and the more amorphous the precipitation material. 1001221 Accordingly, a set of precipitation conditions to produce a desired precipitation material from a solution of 40 divalent cations includes, in certain embodiments, the water's temperature and pH, and in some instances, the concentration of additives and ionic species in the water. Precipitation conditions may also include factors such as mixing rate, forms of agitation such as ultrasonics, and the presence of seed crystals, catalysts, membranes, or -37- Docket No. CLRA-035WO substrates. In some embodiments, precipitation conditions include supersaturated conditions, temperature, pH, and/or concentration gradients, or cycling or changing any of these parameters. The protocols employed to prepare bicarbonate and/or carbonate-containing precipitation material according to the invention may be batch or continuous px otocols. It will be appreciated that precipitation conditions may be different to produce a given 5 precipitation material in a continuous flow system compared to a batch system. [00123] In c rtain embodiments, the methods further include contacting the volume of water that is subjected to the mineral precipitation conditions with a source of CO 2 . Contact of the water with the source CO 2 may occur before and/or during the time when the water is subjected to CO 2 precipitation conditions. Accordingly, embodiments of the invention include methods in which the volume of water is contacted with a source of CO 2 prior to subjecting the 10 volume of saltwater to mineral precipitation conditions. Embodiments of the invention include methods in which the volume of saltwater is contacted with a source of CO 2 while the volume of saltwater is being subjected to bicarbonate 4d/or carbonate compound precipitation conditions. Embodiments of the invention include methods in which the volume of water is contacted with a source of a CO 2 both prior to subjecting the volume of saltwater to bicarbonate and/or carbonate compound precipitation conditions and while the volume of saltwater is being 15 subjected to b icarbonate and/or carbonate compound precipitation conditions. In some embodiments, the same water may be cycled more than once, wherein a first cycle of precipitation removes primarily calcium carbonate and magnesium eirbonate minerals, and leaves remaining alkaline water to which other alkaline earth ion sources may be added, tha can have more carbon dioxide cycled through it, precipitating more carbonate compounds. [00124] The source of CO 2 that is contacted with the volume of saltwater in these embodiments may be any 20 convenient Cb 2 source of the requisite SV 3 C value, and the contact protocol may be any convenient protocol. Where the CO 2 is a gas, contact protocols of interest include, but are not limited to: direct contacting protocols, e.g., bubbling the gas through the volume of saltwater, concurrent contacting means, i.e., contact between unidirectionally flowing gaseous and liquid phase streams, countercurrent means, i.e., contact between oppositely flowing gaseous and liquid phse streams, and the like. Thus, contact may be accomplished through use of infusers, bubblers, fluidic 25 Venturi reactr, sparger, gas filter, spray, tray, or packed column reactors, and the like, as may be convenient. For exemplary system and methods for contacting the solution of divalent cations with the source of C02, see U.S. Provisional Potent Application Nos. 61/158,992, filed 10 March 2009; 61/168,166, filed 9 April 2009; 61/170,086, filed 16 April 2009; 61/178,475, filed 14 May 2009; 61/228,210, filed 24 July 2009; 61/230,042, filed 30 July 2009; and 61/239,4f9, filed 2 September 2009, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. 30 [001251 The above protocol results in the production of a slurry of a precipitation material and a mother liquor. Where desire, the compositions made up of the precipitation material and the mother liquor may be stored for a period of time following precipitation and prior to further processing, or may not be processed any further or minimally processed and may be used as a slurry, e.g., as a flowable composition, for storage, disposal, or other use. If desired, the flowable composition may be pumped underground for long-term sequestration of the CO 2 contained 35 in the precipitated and/or soluble components. Alternatively, the slurry may be stored for later use. For example, the composition may be stored for a period of time ranging from I to 1000 days or longer, such as I to 10 days or longer, at a te nperature ranging from 1 to 40'C, such as 20 to 25'C. [001261 If further treatment is desired, the slurry components may then be separated. Embodiments may include treatment of tie mother liquor, where the mother liquor may or may not be present in the same composition as the 40 product. For example, where the mother liquor is to be returned to the ocean, the mother liquor may be contacted with a gaseous source of CO 2 in a manner sufficient to increase the concentration of carbonate ion present in the mother liquor Contact may be conducted using any convenient protocol, such as those described above. In certain -38- Docket No. CLRA-035WO embodiment, the mother liquor has an alkaline pH, and contact with the CO 2 source is carried out in a manner sufficient to Ifeduce the pH to a range between 5 and 9, e.g., 6 and 8.5, including 7.5 to 8.2. In certain embodiments, the treated brine may be contacted with a source of C0 2 , e.g., as described above, to sequester further CO 2 . For example, where the mother liquor is to be returned to the ocean, the mother liquor may be contacted with a gaseous 5 source of CO2 in a manner sufficient to increase the concentration of carbonate ion present in the mother liquor. Contact may be conducted using any convenient protocol, such as those described above. In certain embodiments, the mother liquor has an alkaline pH, and contact with the CO 2 source is carried out in a manner sufficient to reduce the pH to a range between 5 and 9, e.g., 6 and 8.5, including 7.5 to 8.2. 1001271 The resultant mother liquor of the reaction may be itself a solution that is a composition of the invention. 10 In some embodiments, the mother liquor may be disposed of using any convenient protocol. In certain embodiments, it may be sen to a tailings pond for disposal. In certain embodiments, it may be disposed of in a naturally occurring body of water, e.g., ocean, sea, lake or river. In certain embodiments, the mother liquor is returned to the source of feed water fo the methods of invention, e.g., an ocean or sea. Alternatively, the mother liquor may be further processed, e.1,., subjected to desalination protocols, as described further in United States Application Serial No. 15 12/163,205; e disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference. 1001281 In certain embodiments, following production of the product, the resultant product is separated from the mother liquor to produce separated product. Separation of the product can be achieved using any convenient approach, including a mechanical approach, e.g., where bulk excess water is drained from the product, e.g., either by gravity alone or with the addition of vacuum, mechanical pressing, by filtering the product from the mother liquor to 20 produce a filt ate, etc. Separation of bulk water produces, in certain embodiments, a wet, dewatered precipitation material. In s me embodiments, the dewatered precipitation material is more than 5% water, more than 10% water, more than 20O water, more than 30% water, more than 50% water, more than 60% water, more than 70% water, more than 80 o water, more than 90% water, or more than 95% water. 1001291 The resultant dewatered precipitation material may then be dried, as desired, to produce a dried product. 25 Drying can be achieved by air drying the wet precipitation material. Where the wet precipitation material is air dried, air drying may be at room or elevated temperature. In yet another embodiment, the wet precipitation material is spray dried tc dry the precipitation material, where the liquid containing the precipitation material is dried by feeding it through a hot gas (such as the gaseous waste stream from the power plant), e.g., where the liquid feed is pumped through an at nizer into a main drying chamber and a hot gas is passed as a co-current or counter-current to the 30 atomizer direction. Depending on the particular drying protocol of the system, the drying station may include a filtration element, freeze drying structure, spray drying structure, etc. Where desired, the dewatered precipitation material product may be washed before drying. The precipitation material may be washed with freshwater, e.g., to remove salts such as NaCI) from the dewatered precipitation material. [00130] In certain embodiments, the precipitation material is refined (i.e., processed) in some manner prior to 35 subsequent u e. Refinement may include a variety of different protocols. In certain embodiments, the product is subjected to mechanical refinement, e.g., grinding, in order to obtain a product with desired physical properties, e.g., particle size, etc. Examples: Example 1. 17easurement of 1 3 C value for a solid precipitate and starting materials 40 [001311 This Example demonstrates precipitation of carbonate material from saline solution using bottled carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and a magnesium rich industrial waste material and determination of 6 3 C values for materials and product. The procedure was conducted in a container open to the atmosphere. -39- Docket No. CLRA-035WO [001321 The starting materials were commercially available bottled CO 2 gas, seawater, and brucite tailings from a magnesium Hydroxide production site as the industrial waste source of base. The brucite tailings were approximately 85% Mg(OH) 2 , 12% CaCO 3 and 3% Si0 2 as determined by a Rietveld analysis of the x-ray diffraction pot tem of a dry aliquot of the tailings. 5 1001331 A container was filled with locally available seawater (around Santa Cruz, CA). Brucite tailings were added to the seawater, providing a pH (alkaline) and divalent cation concentration suitable for carbonate precipitation and CO 2 gas was sparged into the alkaline seawater solution. Sufficient time was allowed for interaction of the components of the reaction, after which the precipitate material was separated from the remaining seawater sohtion, also known as the supernatant solution. The precipitate carbonate material was dried at 40'C in 10 air. See Figure 3. The resulting powder was suitable, with further processing, for use, e.g., as a material in the built environment such as aggregate for use in a road bed, concrete, or the like. The powder could also have been stored as it was produced, as a carbon-sequestering storage material. Alternatively, the material could have been left in the supernatant solution and stored, optionally after equilibration with atmospheric air, as a slurry, where both the precipitate ard the carbonates and bicarbonates in solution serve as carbon-sequestering materials. Other uses for 15 the material ore as described herein, and would be apparent to one of skill in the art. The carbonate material was characterized using V 1 C analysis, x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). [00134] S3 C values for the process starting materials, precipitate carbonate material and supernatant solution were measured. Tie 6 3 C value for the atmospheric air was not measured, but a value from literature is given in Table 2. The analysis ;ystem used was manufactured by Los Gatos Research and uses direct absorption spectroscopy to 20 provide "C and concentration data for dry gases ranging from 2% to 20% CO 2 . The instrument was calibrated using standard 5% CO 2 gases with known isotopic composition, and measurements of CO 2 evolved from samples of travertine and IAEA marble #20 digested in 2M perchloric acid yielded values that were within acceptable measurement error of the values found in literature. The CO 2 source gas was sampled using a syringe. The CO 2 gas was passed t rough a gas dryer (Perma Pure MD Gas Dryer, Model MD-I 10-48F-4 made of Nafion @ polymer), 25 then into the ench-top commercially available carbon isotope analysis system. Solid samples, such as the brucite tailings and precipitate, were first digested with heated perchloric acid (2M HClO 4 ). CO 2 gas was evolved from the closed digestion system, and then passed into the gas dryer. From there, the gas was collected and injected into the analysis system, resulting in SVC data. This digestion process is shown in Figure 2. Similarly, the supernatant solution was fligested to evolve CO 2 gas that was then dried and passed to the analysis instrument resulting in SVC 30 data. [001351 Meaurements from the analysis of the CO 2 source, industrial waste (brucite tailings), carbonate precipitate, and supernatant solution are listed in Table 2 and illustrated in Figure 7. The SVC values for the precipitate and supernatant solution were -31.98%o and -38.59%o, respectively. The V"C values of both products of the reaction reflect the incorporation of the CO 2 source (6 13 C = -41.39 %o) and the influence of the brucite tailings that included 35 some calcium carbonate (61 3 C = -6.73 %o). This Example illustrates that V"C values may be used to confirm the primary source of carbon in a carbonate composition as well as in a solution produced from the carbon dioxide. -40- Docket No. CLRA-035WO TABLE2 EXPERIMENTAL SOURCE MATERIALS AND VALUES MEASURED FOR ISOTOPIC FRACTIONATION CHARACTERIZATION

CO

2

SUPER

ATMOS- BASE SOURCE NATANT PRECIPITATE PHERE 5" 3 C CO 2 BASE S" 3 C EXAMPLE 81 3 C SOLUTION 8'"C VALUE VALUE SOURCE SOURCE VALUE 13 C VALUE [%oJ [%I1VALUE " 1%V[ [%%I [%%o Mg(OH) 2 bottled gas, 1 -8 -41.39 + Ca(CO) 3 -6.73 -38.59 -31.98 source 1 tailings bottled gas 2 -8 onfomingMg(OH) 2 2 -8oni -41.56 + Ca(CO) 3 -6.73 -34.16 -30.04 to NIST RM8563 4 tailings flue gas from Mg(OH) 2 3 -8 -25.00 + Ca(CO) 3 -6.73 -24.8 -19.92 burner tailings 0 2 /CO2 4 -8 bottled gas -12.45 fly ash -17.46 -11.70 -15.88 mix 3. Zeele, R.E. and Wolf-Galdrow, E., CO 2 in Seawater: Equilibrium, Kinetics, Isotopes (2005) Elsevier, San Diejo, g. 169. 4. FRCM NIST SPECIFICATION RM8563, CO 2 Light Isotopic Gas Standard 10 Example 2: VIeasurement of S 13 C value for a solid precipitate and starting materials [001361 This precipitation was conducted in a 250,000 gallon container. The starting materials were commercially available bottled CO 2 gas, seawater (from around Santa Cruz, CA), 50% NaOH solution, and brucite tailings as the industrial walte. The brucite tailings were approximately 85% Mg(OH) 2 , 12% CaCO 3 and 3% Si0 2 as determined 15 by a Rietveld analysis of the x-ray diffraction pattern of a dry aliquot of the tailings. The 250,000 gallon container was partially Filled with locally available seawater. The carbon dioxide gas was sparged into the sea water through diffusers located at the bottom of the container. After CO 2 sparging, the pH of the sea water reached approximately 5.5. Brucite tailings were added to the seawater, providing an increase in magnesium concentration and alkalinity suitable for tle precipitation of carbonate solids without releasing CO 2 into the atmosphere. The CO 2 gas sparging 20 and brucite tailings addition ceased. Sodium hydroxide solution was then added to achieve a pH of approximately 9.5. Sufficie:t time was allowed for interaction of the components of the reaction, after which the precipitate material was eparated from the remaining seawater solution, also known as the supernatant solution. Hot, dry air in a spray drying apparatus was used to dry this material. Over 500 kg of material was produced. See Figure 4. The resulting pow der was suitable, with further processing, for use, e.g., as a material in the built environment, such as -41- Docket No. CLRA-035WO aggregate forj use in a road bed, concrete, or the like. The powder could also have been stored as it was produced, as a carbon-seqestering storage material. Alternatively, the material could have been left in the supernatant solution and stored, emotionally after equilibration with atmospheric air, as a slurry, where both the precipitate and the carbonates and bicarbonates in solution serve as carbon-sequestering materials. Other uses for the material are as 5 described herein, and would be apparent to one of skill in the art. The carbonate material was characterized using

S

13 C analysis, x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). [001371 513C values for the process starting materials, resulting materials and supernatant solution were measured. The V"C valiie for the atmospheric air was not measured, but a value from literature is given in Table 2. The analysis system used was manufactured by Los Gatos Research as described in Example 1. 10 [001381 Measurements from the analysis of the CO 2 source, industrial waste (brucite tailings), carbonate precipitate, and supernatant solution are listed in Table 2 and illustrated in Figure 8. The S 13 C values for the precipitate and supernatant solution were -30.04%o and -34.16%o, respectively. The V"C values of both products of the reaction reflect the incorporation of the CO 2 source (V"C = -41.56%o) and the influence of the brucite tailings that included some calcium carbonate (6 1 'C = -6.73%o). The precipitated carbonate material was more likely to incorporate 15 calcium carb mate from the brucite tailings than the supernatant solution, so the S8"C value of the precipitate reflects that by being less negative than that of the supernatant solution. This Example illustrates that V"C values may be used to confirm the primary source of carbon in a carbonate composition as well as in a solution produced from the carbon dioxide. 20 Example 3: |Measurement of S 13 C value for a solid precipitate and starting materials [001391 This experiment was performed using flue gas resulting from burning propane and a magnesium rich industrial waste material. The procedure was conducted in a container open to the atmosphere. 1001401 The starting materials were flue gas from a propane burner, seawater (from around Santa Cruz, CA), and brucite tailings as the industrial waste. The brucite tailings were approximately 85% Mg(OH) 2 , 12% CaCO 3 and 3% 25 SiO 2 as determnined by a Rietveld analysis of the x-ray diffraction pattern of a dry aliquot of the tailings. 1001411 A c ntainer was filled with locally available seawater. Brucite tailings were added to the seawater, providing a pH (alkaline) and divalent cation concentration suitable for carbonate precipitation without releasing

CO

2 into the atmosphere. Flue gas was sparged at a rate and time suitable to precipitate carbonate material from the alkaline seawater solution. Sufficient time was allowed for interaction of the components of the reaction, after which 30 the precipitat material was separated from the remaining seawater solution, also known as the supernatant solution, and spray-drijd. See Figure 5. The resulting powder was suitable, with further processing, for use, e.g., as a material in the built environment, such as aggregate for use in a road bed, concrete, or the like. The powder could also have been stored a it was produced, as a carbon-sequestering storage material. Alternatively, the material could have been left in ti e supernatant solution and stored, optionally after equilibration with atmospheric air, as a slurry, where 35 both the prec pitate and the carbonates and bicarbonates in solution serve as carbon-sequestering materials. As used herein, "CO 2 1sequestering" and "carbon-sequestering" are synonymous. Other uses for the material are as described herein, and would be apparent to one of skill in the art. [001421 S 13 C values for the process starting materials, resulting precipitate carbonate material and supernatant solution were measured. The V"C value for the atmospheric air was not measured, but a value from literature is 40 given in Tabl 2 and illustrated in Figure 9. The analysis system used was manufactured by Los Gatos Research and uses direct absorption spectroscopy to provide Si 3 C and concentration data for gases ranging from 2% to 20% C0 2 , as detailed in Example 1. -42- Docket No. CLRA-035WO 1001431 Me surements from the analysis of the flue gas, industrial waste (brucite tailings), carbonate precipitate, and supernatant solution are listed in Table 2. The SVC values for the precipitate and supernatant solution were 19.920/00 andl -24.8%o, respectively. The S 13 C values of both products of the reaction reflect the incorporation of the flue gas, CO source, (5"C = -25.00%o) and the influence of the brucite tailings that included some calcium 5 carbonate (8S"C = -6.73 %o). This Example illustrates that 5'3C values may be used to confirm the primary source of carbon in a carbonate composition when the CO 2 source for the carbonate is combustion, as well as in a solution produced froin the carbon dioxide. Example 4. l'easurement of 6 3 C value for a solid precipitate and starting materials 10 [001441 This experiment precipitated carbonated material from an aqueous solution using a bottled mixture of S02 and carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) gases and a fly ash as an industrial waste material. The procedure was conducted in a closed container. [00145] The starting materials were a commercially available bottled mixture of SO 2 and CO 2 gas (S0 2

/CO

2 gas), de-ionized water, and fly ash as the industrial waste. 15 [001461 A c ntainer was filled with de-ionized water. Fly ash was added to the de-ionized water after slaking, providing a p (alkaline) and divalent cation concentration suitable for carbonate precipitation without releasing

CO

2 into the atmosphere. S0 2

/CO

2 gas was sparged at a rate and time suitable to precipitate carbonate material from the alkaline s lution. Sufficient time was allowed for interaction of the components of the reaction, after which the precipitate m iterial was separated from the remaining solution, also known as the supernatant solution and spray 20 dried. See Finure 6. The resulting powder was suitable, with further processing, for use, e.g., as a material in the built environment, e.g., as aggregate for use in a road bed, concrete, or the like. The powder could also have been stored as it was produced, as a carbon-sequestering storage material. Alternatively, the material could have been left in the supernatant solution and stored, optionally after equilibration with atmospheric air, as a slurry, where both the precipitate and the carbonates and bicarbonates in solution serve as carbon-sequestering materials. Other uses for 25 the material are as described herein, and would be apparent to one of skill in the art. [001471 6'C values for the process starting materials, precipitate carbonate material and supernatant solution were measured as detailed in Example 1. [001481 Meaurements from the analysis of the S0 2

/CO

2 gas, industrial waste (fly ash), carbonate precipitate, and supernatant s+ution are listed in Table 2 and illustrated in Figure 10. The 13 C values for the precipitate and 30 supernatant solution were -15.88%o and -11.70%o, respectively. The P 1 C values of both products of the reaction reflect the incorporation of the S0 2

/CO

2 gas (6 3 C = -12.45%o) and the fly ash that included some carbon that was not fully combusted to a gas (6 13 C = -17.46%o). Because the fly ash, itself a product of fossil fuel combustion, had a more negative S 13 C than the CO 2 used, the overall V'C value of the precipitate reflects that by being more negative than that of tl e CO 2 itself. This Example illustrates that 5 13 C values may be used to confirm the primary source of 35 carbon in a crbonate composition, when a gas mixture that includes a SOx (SO 2 ) as well as CO 2 is used. [00149] Whi e preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to th4se skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, chjmges, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be 1iderstood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be 40 employed in practicing the invention. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods nd structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby. -43- Docket No. CLRA-035WO

Claims (82)

1. A composition comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or a combination thereof, wherein the carbon in the composition 1as a relative carbon isotope composition (6"C) value less than -26.10 %o.

2. The composition of claim 1 wherein the composition is a synthetic composition.

3. The composition of claim I wherein the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof make up at least 50% of the composition.

4. The composition of claim 1 wherein the composition has a mass of greater than 100 kg.

5. The comiPosition of claim I wherein the CO 2 content of the composition is at least 10%.

6. The compsition of claim wherein the composition has a negative carbon footprint.

7. The compsition of claim 1 further comprising boron, sulfur, or nitrogen wherein the relative isotopic composition of the boron, sulfur, or nitrogen is indicative of a fossil fuel origin.

8. The composition of claim wherein the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof comprise calcium, magnesium or a combination thereof.

9. The composition of claim 8 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/200 and 200/1.

10. The comp position of claim 8 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 12/1 to 1/15.

11. The com osition of claim 8 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 5/1 to 1/10.

12. The connosition of claim 8 further comprising SOx or a derivative thereof.

13. The co 4 osition of claim 12 wherein the composition comprises a SOx derivative and wherein the SOx derivative is 4 sulfite, a sulfate, or a combination thereof.

14. The composition of claim I further comprising a metal.

15. The composition of claim 14 wherein the metal comprises lead, arsenic, mercury, or cadmium or a combination thereof.

16. A building material comprising a component comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or a combination thereof, wherein the carbon in the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof has a relative carbon isotope composition (8 3 C) value l ss than -10.00 %o -44- Docket No. CLRA-035WO

17. The building material of claim 16 wherein the component comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof is caibon-neutral or carbon negative.

18. The building material of claim 16 wherein the component comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof is synthetic.

19. The bui ding material of claim 16 wherein the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof make up at least 50% of the component comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof.

20. The building material of claim 16 wherein the CO 2 content of the component comprising carbonates, bicarbonates or combination thereof is at least 10%.

21. The buil ling material of claim 16 further comprising boron, sulfur, or nitrogen wherein the relative isotopic composition f the boron, sulfur, or nitrogen is indicative of a fossil fuel origin.

22. The build ing material of claim 16 wherein the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof comprise calcium, ma nesium or a combination thereof.

23. The building material of claim 22 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/200 and 200/1.

24. The building material of claim 22 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 12/1 to 1/15.

25. The building material of claim 16 wherein the component comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof const itutes at least 20% of the building material.

26. The buil ing material of claim 16 wherein the building material is a cementitious material.

27. The cementitious building material of claim 26 wherein the building material is cement or concrete.

28. The builIing material of claim 16 wherein the building material is a non-cementitious material.

29. The builkbng material of claim 28 wherein the building material is an aggregate.

30. The building material of claim 28 wherein the building material is a roadway material.

31. The bui4ing material of claim 28 wherein the building material is a brick, a board, a conduit, a beam, a basin, a column, a tile, a fiber siding product, a slab, an acoustic barrier, plaster, dry-wall, stucco, a soil stabilization composition, >r insulation or combinations thereof. -45- Docket No. CLRA-035WO

32. The build ling material of claim 16 wherein the component comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof further comprises SOx or a derivative thereof.

33. The buil ing material of claim 32 wherein the component comprises a derivative of SOx and wherein the derivative is a sulfate, a sulfite, or a combination thereof.

34. The builing material of claim 16 wherein the component comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof further comprises a metal.

35. The buil ing material of claim 32 wherein the metal comprises lead, arsenic, mercury or cadmium or combination thereof.

36. A flowahle composition comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or a combination thereof wherein the carbon in the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof has a relative carbon isotope composition (5"C) value less than -5.00 %o and the viscosity of the composition is between I and 2000 cP.

37. The composition of claim 36 wherein the viscosity is between 10 and 1000 cP.

38. The composition of claim 36 wherein the composition is a synthetic composition.

39. The con position of claim 36 wherein the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof make up at least 10% w/w of he composition.

40. The coniposition of claim 36 wherein the CO 2 content of the composition is at least 10%.

41. The composition of claim 36 wherein the composition has a negative carbon footprint.

42. The composition of claim 36 further comprising boron, sulfur, or nitrogen wherein the relative isotopic composition of the boron, sulfur, or nitrogen is indicative of a fossil fuel origin.

43. The composition of claim 36 wherein the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof comprise calcium, magnesium 4 a combination thereof.

44. The composition of claim 43 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/200 and 200/1.

45. The com position of claim 43 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 12/1 to 1/15.

46. The composition of claim 43 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 5/1 to 1/10.

47. The composition of claim 36 further comprising SOx or a derivative thereof. -46- Docket No. CLRA-035WO

48. The comosition of claim 36 further comprising a metal.

49. The comosition of claim 48 wherein the metal comprises lead, arsenic, mercury, or cadmium or a combination thereof.

50. A synthetic composition comprising carbonates, bicarbonates, or a combination thereof, wherein the carbon in the composit on has a relative carbon isotope composition (6 3 C) value less than -5.00 %o and the composition is carbon negative.

51. The con position of claim 50 wherein the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof makeup at least 50% of the composition.

52. The con position of claim 50 wherein the composition has a mass of greater than 100 kg.

53. The coniposition of claim 50 wherein the CO 2 content of the composition is at least 10%.

54. The connosition of claim 50 further comprising boron, sulfur, or nitrogen wherein the relative isotopic composition >f the boron, sulfur, or nitrogen is indicative of a fossil fuel origin.

55. The composition of claim 50 wherein the carbonates, bicarbonates, or combination thereof comprise calcium, magnesium or a combination thereof.

56. The com osition of claim 55 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 1/200 and 200/1.

57. The com osition of claim 55 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 12/1 to 1/15.

58. The comosition of claim 55 wherein the calcium to magnesium (Ca/Mg) molar ratio is between 5/1 to 1/10.

59. The com osition of claim 50 further comprising SOx or a derivative thereof.

60. The com position of claim 50 further comprising a metal.

61. The composition of claim 60 wherein the metal comprises lead, arsenic, mercury, or cadmium or a combination thereof.

62. A methodI of characterizing a synthetic composition comprising determining a relative carbon isotope composition S 13 C) value for the composition.

63. The metliod of claim 62 wherein the composition is a building material, or a material for underground storage.

64. The method of claim 62 wherein the composition is a cementitious composition, or an aggregate. -47- Docket No. CLRA-035WO

65. The methIod of claim 62 wherein the composition is a composition for storage of CO 2 .

66. The metlhod of claim 62 further comprising determining the stability of the composition for release of CO 2 .

67. The method of claim 62 further comprising measuring the carbon content for the composition.

68. The method of claim 62 further comprising comparing the S1 3 C value of the composition to another V"C value.

69. The method of claim 68 where the other S6"C value is a reference SVC value.

70. The method of claim 69 wherein the other SV 3 C value is a value for a possible raw material for the composition.

71. The method of claim 69 wherein the other 6 3 C value is a value for a fossil fuel, a flue gas derived from the fossil fuel, a vater source, or a combination thereof.

72. The method of claim 69 further comprising determining whether the composition comprises sequestered CO 2 from a fossil fel source based on the comparison.

73. The metlhod of claim 62 further comprising quantifying the amount of carbon dioxide sequestered in the composition.

74. A method of fingerprinting a composition comprising determining the values for stable isotopes of a plurality of elements, or he values for the ratios of stable isotopes of a plurality of elements in the composition to determine an isotopic fing print for the composition, wherein the composition comprises carbonates, bicarbonates, or a combination thereof.

75. The meth d of claim 74 wherein the stable isotopes comprise isotopes of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen or boron or combinations thereof.

76. The metljod of claim 74 wherein the composition is a building material or a material for underground storage.

77. The metal od of claim 74 wherein the composition is a composition for storing compounds of elements of at least two of the isotopes so determined.

78. The met od of claim 74 further comprising comparing at least two of the values for stable isotopes or at least two of the va ues for the ratios of stable isotopes, or a combination thereof.

79. The met od of claim 74 further comprising determining the probable source of one or more components of the composition based on the isotopic fingerprint of the material. -48- Docket No. CLRA-035WO

80. A method of determining whether or not a composition contains an element sequestered from a fossil fuel source comprising determining an isotopic value or a ratio of isotopic values for the element, comparing the determined value with a reference isotopic value or ratio of isotopic values, and determining whether the composition contains an element s Iquestered from a fossil fuel source.

81. The method of claim 80 wherein the element is carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, or boron.

82. The metltod of claim 80 wherein the element is carbon and the comparison is a S1 3 C value. -49- Docket No. CLRA-035WO