Classifications

• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B15/00—Operating or servicing cells
  • C25B15/02—Process control or regulation
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B1/00—Electrolytic production of inorganic compounds or non-metals
  • C25B1/01—Products
  • C25B1/02—Hydrogen or oxygen
  • C25B1/04—Hydrogen or oxygen by electrolysis of water
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B15/00—Operating or servicing cells
  • C25B15/02—Process control or regulation
  • C25B15/023—Measuring, analysing or testing during electrolytic production
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B15/00—Operating or servicing cells
  • C25B15/08—Supplying or removing reactants or electrolytes; Regeneration of electrolytes
  • C25B15/083—Separating products
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B15/00—Operating or servicing cells
  • C25B15/08—Supplying or removing reactants or electrolytes; Regeneration of electrolytes
  • C25B15/087—Recycling of electrolyte to electrochemical cell
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B9/00—Cells or assemblies of cells; Constructional parts of cells; Assemblies of constructional parts, e.g. electrode-diaphragm assemblies; Process-related cell features
  • C25B9/05—Pressure cells
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B9/00—Cells or assemblies of cells; Constructional parts of cells; Assemblies of constructional parts, e.g. electrode-diaphragm assemblies; Process-related cell features
  • C25B9/17—Cells comprising dimensionally-stable non-movable electrodes; Assemblies of constructional parts thereof
  • C25B9/19—Cells comprising dimensionally-stable non-movable electrodes; Assemblies of constructional parts thereof with diaphragms
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B9/00—Cells or assemblies of cells; Constructional parts of cells; Assemblies of constructional parts, e.g. electrode-diaphragm assemblies; Process-related cell features
  • C25B9/17—Cells comprising dimensionally-stable non-movable electrodes; Assemblies of constructional parts thereof
  • C25B9/19—Cells comprising dimensionally-stable non-movable electrodes; Assemblies of constructional parts thereof with diaphragms
  • C25B9/23—Cells comprising dimensionally-stable non-movable electrodes; Assemblies of constructional parts thereof with diaphragms comprising ion-exchange membranes in or on which electrode material is embedded
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25B9/00—Cells or assemblies of cells; Constructional parts of cells; Assemblies of constructional parts, e.g. electrode-diaphragm assemblies; Process-related cell features
  • C25B9/70—Assemblies comprising two or more cells
  • C25B9/73—Assemblies comprising two or more cells of the filter-press type
  • C25B9/77—Assemblies comprising two or more cells of the filter-press type having diaphragms
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
  • Y02E60/30—Hydrogen technology
  • Y02E60/36—Hydrogen production from non-carbon containing sources, e.g. by water electrolysis
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
  • Y02P20/00—Technologies relating to chemical industry
  • Y02P20/10—Process efficiency
  • Y02P20/133—Renewable energy sources, e.g. sunlight

Definitions

• the present invention concerns a method for the electrolysis of water at variable current densities, especially for alkaline water electrolysis.
• Alkaline water electrolysis is a particularly promising variant of water electrolysis for producing hydrogen on an industrial scale because it does not require costly noble metal-based catalysts.
• Alkaline water electrolysis is typically carried out in electrochemical cells out in a temperature range from 40 to 90 °C where an anodic compartment comprising an anode and a cathodic compartment comprising a cathode are divided by a suitable separator such as a diaphragm or a membrane.
• aqueous alkaline solution at a pH higher than 7, for instance an aqueous KOH solution is supplied as an electrolyte to the cell and an electrical current flow is established between electrodes in the cathodic and anodic compartment, respectively, i.e. between cathode and anode, at a potential difference (cell voltage) with a typical range of 1 .6 to 2.4 V.
• cell voltage cell voltage
• cathodic hydrogen evolution reaction can be summarized as follows
• hydroxide ions generated in the cathodic compartment migrate through the separator to the anodic compartment where the anodic oxygen evolution reaction can be summarized as
• a plurality of cells are usually arranged in a serial stack configuration, i.e. a multiplicity of electrolysis cells connected in series.
• the electrolyte/gas mixtures generated in each compartment are removed from each cell, the gaseous products are separated from the liquid electrolyte and the liquid electrolyte is recycled to the cell compartments of the stack so that the cells/stack can be operated in a continuous fashion.
• twice the molar equivalent of water is produced in the cathodic compartment than in the anodic compartment.
• anolyte electrochemical/electrolysis cells connected in series
• the availability and/or cost of electrical energy will fluctuate during operation so that it is desired to allow electrolysis to be conducted even at current densities well below the designed nominal load at high current densities.
• the separator used in alkaline water electrolysis still has a residual permeability for hydrogen and oxygen gases, respectively so that during operation, a concentration gradient driven diffusion of hydrogen from the cathodic into the anodic compartment and of oxygen from the anodic into the cathodic compartment occurs.
• the electrolyzer has to be operated in a manner which avoids oxygen to hydrogen (OTH) concentrations in the cathodic compartment and hydrogen to oxygen (HTO) concentrations in the anodic compartment above 4 vol.% or preferably above 2 vol.% (the lower explosive limit for the mixture in both cases being at around 4 vol.%).
• European patent application EP 3604642 A1 and Australian patent application AU 2019374584 A1 (based on international application WO 2020/095664 A1 ) describe a water electrolysis system and a water electrolysis method for hydrogen production via alkaline water electrolysis having a gas-liquid separation tank which is provided with an inflow port for a gas/electrolyte mixture which is disposed at a higher position than the liquid surface of the electrolyte inside the separation tank.
• Using distinct separation tanks for oxygen and hydrogen, respectively, and an appropriate liquid level management in the separation tanks allows to improve purity of the generated hydrogen.
• a dedicated purifier can be employed.
• US patent application US 2013/337368 A1 describes a separator for a water electrolysis cell which consists of an anodic separator element and a cathodic separator element spaced apart from each other to create an internal bypass channel. By feeding an electrolyte free of dissolved gases into the bypass channel, a back-wash flow into the anodic and cathodic compartments is established, allowing to reduce migration of the respective gaseous species through the separator.
• the present invention concerns a method for the electrolysis of water in an electrolyzer comprising at least one electrolytic cell having an anodic compartment provided with an anode, a cathodic compartment provided with a cathode, and a separator arranged between said anodic and cathodic compartments, wherein said method comprises: feeding an alkaline anolyte to said anodic compartment and an alkaline catholyte to cathodic compartments, conducting water electrolysis by applying a variable electrical current at a variable operating current density to said electrolytic cell to generate hydrogen gas at said cathode and oxygen gas at said anode, discharging a mixture of said catholyte and said hydrogen gas from said cathodic compartment and a mixture of said anolyte and said oxygen gas from said anodic compartment, separating said hydrogen gas from said catholyte and said oxygen gas from said anolyte, wherein a threshold current density is selected and the water electrolysis is conducted such that at operating current densities up to said
• the current density will vary between a minimum operating current density and a maximum operating current density.
• the present invention suggests defining a threshold current density within the range of operating current densities, i.e. above said minimum operating current density and below said maximum operating current density of the electrolyzer which subdivides the operating current density range into two ranges, namely a low current density range extending from minimum operating current density to threshold current density and a high current density range extending from above threshold current density to maximum current density.
• the present invention further suggests that the gas migration through the separator shall be actively influenced, specifically limited, in different manners in the low current density range and the high current density range, respectively.
• the low current density range safety considerations are of particular concern and the invention suggests actively limiting the migration of hydrogen generated in the cathodic compartment through the separator into said anodic compartment as compared to a purely concentration gradient driven migration in order to avoid the HTO ratio in the anodic compartment reaching a critical level.
• safety considerations are less concerning and the operation can be optimized in terms of purity of the produced hydrogen. Therefore, the present invention suggests actively limiting the migration of oxygen generated in the anodic compartment through the separator into the cathode he compartment as compared to a purely concentration gradient driven migration as much as possible.
• the active limitation of gas migration through the separator during operation can be achieved with various means.
• the oxygen and hydrogen permeabilities of the separator are influenced by mechanical and electrochemical properties of the separator.
• such solutions tend to be costly by increasing the complexity of the cell design. Therefore, it is preferred to leave the separator unchanged.
• the present inventors have observed that in addition to the migration of gases through the separator driven by a concentration gradient, the gas migration can additionally be actively influenced by increasing the hydraulic pressure of the electrolyte in one compartment over the hydraulic pressure in the other compartment.
• a hydraulic pressure exerted on said separator in said anodic compartment is higher than a hydraulic pressure exerted on said separator in said cathodic compartment, thus leading to a limitation of hydrogen migration from the cathodic compartment into the anodic compartment.
• a hydraulic pressure exerted on said separator in said cathodic compartment is higher than a hydraulic pressure exerted on said separator in said anodic compartment leading to a limitation of oxygen migration from the anodic compartment into the cathodic compartment.
• a differential pressure is measured as the hydraulic pressure in the cathodic compartment minus the hydraulic pressure in the anodic compartment. Consequently, a positive differential pressure means that the pressure in the cathodic compartment is higher than in the anodic compartment while a negative differential pressure means that the pressure in the anodic compartment is higher than in the cathodic compartment.
• a pressure differential between cathodic and anodic compartment can be generated by various means. For instance, recirculation of the electrolyte is usually accomplished using a catholyte pump and anolyte pump. Adjustable valves at the outlets of the cathodic and anodic compartments which are adjusted according to the current density can be employed in order to achieve the desired hydraulic pressure. As an alternative, the liquid level in the hydrogen and oxygen separation vessels can be adjusted to influence the hydraulic pressure inside the anodic and cathodic compartments via the respective discharge lines.
• a mechanical pressure is exerted on said cathode to press said cathode to said separator and consequently the separator against the anode.
• This embodiment is preferred in a classical zero-gap cell configuration where a cathodic elastic element ensures that the electrodes are firmly pressed against the separator in order to minimize cell voltage and consequently reduce energy consumption.
• a zero-gap cell configuration can also be achieved using an elastic element in the anodic compartment in order to press the anode against the separator and, in turn, the separator against the cathode.
• using a cathodic elastic element is preferred.
• the cathodic elastic element allows efficient transfer of electrical current between the cathode and the cathodic current collector or bipolar plate without requiring the elastic elements to be welded to either the cathode or the current collector/bipolar plate.
• the presence of an elastic element in the cathodic compartment may help to avoid a detachment of the separator from the anodic electrode which would otherwise spoil the performance of the cell by increasing cell voltage.
• the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen (HTO) in said anodic compartment is kept below 4 vol.%.
• the migration of hydrogen is limited to a level which keeps the HTO ratio in the anodic compartment below 2 vol.%, more preferably below 1 .5 vol.%.
• the ratio of oxygen to hydrogen (OTH) in said cathodic compartment is kept below 4 vol.%.
• the migration of oxygen is limited to a level which keeps the OTH ratio in the cathodic compartment also well below the 2 vol.%, more preferably well below 1 .5 vol.%.
• said catholyte After separating said hydrogen gas from said catholyte and said oxygen gas from said anolyte, said catholyte is recycled to said cathodic compartment and said anolyte is recycled to said anodic compartment.
• the same electrolyte is used as an anolyte and catholyte and it is desired that the alkali concentration in the electrolyte remains the same in the anodic and cathodic compartment, respectively.
• an imbalance of the alkali concentration in both compartments would result over prolonged operation.
• said catholyte and anolyte are separately recycled, i.e. said catholyte is recycled to said cathodic compartment and said anolyte is recycled to said anodic compartment, and, at operating current densities above said threshold current density, said catholyte and anolyte are at least intermittently mixed and said mixture is recycled to the cathodic and anodic compartments, respectively.
• the threshold current density, anolyte and catholyte can continuously be mixed and the mixture is divided into a recycled feed for the cathodic compartment and a recycled feed for the anodic compartment.
• the mixing of recycled catholyte and anolyte is effected only intermittently when and as long as an imbalance between catholyte and anolyte is detected. This mode of operation ensures an optimized gas purity during low current density operation by keeping the anolyte and catholyte loops separated.
• the resulting build-up of an imbalance in alkali concentration is considered acceptable because the low current density operation is usually the exception from the high current density operation mode and is associated with less water production and consumption and consequently less imbalanced as compared to the high density operation mode.
• a balanced and optimal alkali concentration is maintained in both the anodic and cathodic compartment. Gas contamination due to anolyte and catholyte mixing is considered acceptable because the high gas production rate at high current densities leads to a significant dilution of the respective undesired gas.
• the operating current densities in the method of the present invention are in a range up to 25 kA/m 2 :
• the minimum operating current density can be very low, just above 0 kA/m 2 and the maximum operating current density is at about 25 kA/m 2 .
• the operating current densities are in a range from 1 to 20 kA/m 2 .
• threshold current density value delimiting the low current density operation mode from the high current density operation mode is selected within a range from 2 to 10 kA/m 2 , preferably within a range from 3 to 6 kA/m 2 .
• the threshold current density may be 4 kA/m 2 .
• the alkaline water electrolysis according to the method of the present invention is conducted at an absolute hydraulic pressure in the range up to 100 bar, typically up to 50 bar.
• hydraulic pressure differential between said anodic and cathodic compartment is maintained in a range between -100 to 100 mbar, preferably in a range from -50 to 50 mbar, for instance at an value of +20 mbar or -20 mbar.
• the minimum hydraulic pressure differential as an absolute value, i.e. disregarding positive or negative sign, is 1 mbar, preferably mbar.
• said separator is a diaphragm.
• said alkaline anolyte and said alkaline catholyte comprise aqueous solutions of alkali metal hydroxides.
• said alkali metal hydroxides are selected from sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.
• the present invention also concerns an electrolyzer for carrying out the method of the invention.
• the electrolyzer is arranged to actively limit the migration of hydrogen generated in said cathodic compartment through said separator into said anodic compartment at operating current densities up to said threshold current density and to limit a migration of oxygen generated in said anodic compartment through said separator into said cathodic compartment at operating current densities above said threshold current density, e.g. by establishing suitable pressure differentials between the cathodic and anodic compartments of the cells.
• Fig. 1 is a schematic explosion view of the components of an electrolysis cell of an electrolyzer suitable for carrying out the method of the present invention.
• Fig. 2 is an overview of an electrolyzer suitable for carrying out the method of the present invention.
• Fig. 1 depicts a schematic explosion view of major components of an electrolysis cell which forms part of a stack of electrolysis cells of an alkaline water electrolyser which can be used to carry out the method of the present invention.
• the electrolyser comprises a cell stack which includes a multiplicity of individual electrolysis cells 10 which are electrically connected in series. In Fig. 1 , only the components of one electrolysis cell 10 have been depicted. In the stack, the sequence of components repeats as represented by the black dots.
• Each electrolysis cell 10 is delimited by bipolar plates 11 and comprises an anodic compartment 12 and a cathodic compartment 13 separated by a diaphragm 14.
• the anodic compartment 12 comprises a circumferential anodic frame 15, which houses an anodic current collector 16 and an anode (anodic electrode) 17.
• the anodic current collector 16 establishes a mechanical and electrical connection between the anodic side of bipolar plate 11 and anode 17.
• the anodic current collector 16 can be an elastic element but is preferably a rigid element, which can be welded to the anodic side of the bipolar platel 1 and to the backside of the anode 17
• the cathodic compartment 13 comprises a circumferential cathodic frame 18, which houses an cathodic current collector 19 and an cathode (cathodic electrode) 20.
• the cathodic current collector 19 is preferably an elastic element which presses the cathode 20 against the diaphragm 14.
• the cell components further comprises channels for feeding alkaline electrolyte to the cathodic and anodic compartments (only one channel 21 is visible in Fig. 1 ) and fluid channels 22, 23 for discharging hydrogen/catholyte and oxygen/anolyte mixtures, respectively.
• Using two channels for electrolyte feed allows one channel 21 to feed the anodic compartments 12 and one channel (not visible in Fig. 1 ) to feed the cathodic compartments 13 of stack.
• the electrolyte can be recirculated separately for each of the fluid channels 22, 23 or may be mixed before re-entering the stack of cells 10 again. As will be described in more detail below, this allows establishing separate recirculation modes depending on the actual operating conditions.
• the elements of the stack can further comprise openings for tie rods for clamping the various elements together to form the assembled stack (not shown in Fig. 1 ).
• a stack can comprise a low number of electrolysis cells, for instance 5-20, up to a large number of cells, for instance more than 100 cells.
• Fig. 2 shows a schematic overview of an electrolyzer 24 suitable for carrying out the method of the present invention.
• the electrolyzer 24 comprises a stack 25 which can comprise a multiplicity of electrolysis cells 10, for instance electrolysis cells as depicted in Fig. 1 .
• a source of electrical energy is denoted by reference sign 26.
• the source of electrical energy a can be any kind of electrical energy providing direct current (DC) at the required minimum voltage for carrying out water electrolysis.
• the DC source of electrical energy supplied to the electrolyzer 24 can be derived from a native AC or DC energy source. Usually, transformers and/or rectifiers are provided to obtain the desired DC source.
• the source of electrical energy is a source which provides a variable electrical current, for instance a source of renewable electrical energy.
• a variable electrical current in the sense of the present invention is not an alternating current (AC) but a direct current (DC) having a strength which can vary over time but maintains the same polarization so that essentially the current density at the electrode level can vary during operation.
• the electrical current is fed to the stack 25 via electrical lines 27, 28.
• the current density j is continuously or periodically monitored with a suitable sensor 29 and a control unit 30 compares the measured current density with a pre-defined threshold current density jr. In a low current density operating mode, i.e.
• This can for instance be accomplished by controlling, e.g. via control unit 30, suitable valves 31 , 32 provided at the outlets of gas containing fluid channels 22, 23 (Fig. 1 ), i.e. where the fluid channels 22, 23 discharge into initial sections of recirculation lines 22a, 23a for catholyte and anolyte, respectively.
• the migration of hydrogen is limited ensuring an optimal oxygen purity.
• This operation mode may be associated with a small penalty in production capacity in instances where high H2 purity is required because the oxygen migrating into the cathodic compartment results in an initially poorer hydrogen purity due to some migration of oxygen into the cathodic compartment which can subsequently be eliminated in a hydrogen purification step by catalytic combination of hydrogen and oxygen with an associated small loss in production capacity.
• a double circulation mode for the electrolyte can be established by maintaining separate circuits for the catholyte, i.e. the electrolyte fed to the cathodic compartments and the anolyte, i.e. the electrolyte fed to the anodic compartments.
• the associated electrolyte unbalance between the cathodic and anodic compartments is acceptable in this low current density regime because at low current densities, any unbalance takes much longer to be established and because the steady state at equilibrium is "less unbalanced" than at high current density.
• the double circulation regime does, however, maintain an optimal gas purity because anolyte and catholyte are kept separately.
• FIG. 2 the recirculation of anolyte and catholyte is schematically depicted by recirculation lines having line sections 22a, 22b, 22c, 22d and 23a, 23b, 23c, 23d, respectively, into which the respective channels electrolyte channels 18, 19 (Fig. 1 ) lead.
• a pump preferably separate pumps 33, 34 for catholyte and anolyte, respectively, can be provided to effect the recirculation.
• the hydrogen/catholyte and the oxygen/anolyte mixtures discharged from the stack via line sections 22a, 23a, respectively, are fed into I iqu id/gas- separators 35, 36 from which hydrogen is discharged via line 37 and oxygen is discharged via line 38.
• the hydrogen-depleted catholyte is discharged via line section 22b of the catholyte recirculation line, while the oxygen-depleted anolyte is discharged via line section 23b of the anolyte recirculation line.
• the electrolyte concentrations in the cathodic and anodic compartments can be measured, for instance via conductivity sensors 39, 40 provided at the inlets 41 , 42 of electrolyte channels for catholyte (shown at “21” in Fig. 1 ) and anolyte (not visible in Fig. 1 ), i.e. where the line sections 22d, 23d of the respective catholyte and anolyte recirculation lines are returned to the stack 25.
• a double circulation mode similar to the low current density case can be maintained to preserve optimal gas purity.
• a mixed circulation mode can be established where catholyte and anolyte are mixed before being recirculated into the stack.
• the mixed circulation mode can also be the only circulation mode under high current density conditions.
• the mixed circulation mode can be established by suitable valves 43, 44, 45, 46 which ensure that anolyte and catholyte from stack 25 are fed into a mixing chamber 47 via lines 22e, 23e before being recirculated to the stack via lines 22f, 23f and the remaining portion 22d, 23d of the recirculation lines for catholyte and anolyte, respectively.
• the mixing chamber 47 is bridged via line sections 22c, 23c of the catholyte and anolyte recirculation lines.
• the oxygen production in the anodic compartment is high enough to ensure that the HTO ratio is kept below the safety threshold.
• HTO ratio in the anodic compartment is kept low by the fact that the net hydrogen flux from cathode to anode is minimized by a differential pressures Ap, i.e. the pure diffusive flux of hydrogen from cathode to anode is mitigated by a convective flux (mainly oxygen but also hydrogen) from anode to cathode.
• the associated moderate increase of OTH ratio in the cathodic compartments is acceptable because OTH is less critical than HTO for safety purposes.
• elastic elements c.f. Fig. 1
• elastic elements can be provided in the cathodic compartment which ensure that even with moderate negative differential pressures Ap, a zero gap cell design can be maintained.

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• 2021
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