WO2021022384A1

WO2021022384A1 - Method and apparatus for cracking hydrocarbons

Info

Publication number: WO2021022384A1
Application number: PCT/CA2020/051093
Authority: WO
Inventors: Hossein HEIDARI
Original assignee: Greenbound Industrial Technologies Inc.
Priority date: 2019-08-08
Filing date: 2020-08-07
Publication date: 2021-02-11

Abstract

A reactor comprising a power source to create an arc between a tubular cathode and an anode. The arc is caused to rotate along or around the edge of the cathode tip and extend to the anode's surface due to an induced magnetic field configured to create a hollow funnel or frusto-conical shaped plasma wall. The rotating arc may form a plasma wall between the cathode and the anode and the plasma wall may define n interior region. Input feed gas may be forced through the cathode and into the interior region, where it is further caused to pass through the wall of plasma to an exterior side of the plasma wall. The plasma may cause the molecular bonds of the atoms of the feed gas to break, thereby producing, for example, one or more of: allotropes of carbon, carbon nanotubes, hydrogen gas, and hydrocarbon by-product compounds.

Description

METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR CRACKING HYDROCARBONS

Related Applications

[0001] This application claims the benefit of the priority from, and for the purposes of the United States the benefit under 35 USC 119 of, US application No. 62/884,639, filed 8 August 2019, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

Technical Field

[0002] The technology disclosed herein is related to synthesis of carbon allotropes and production of hydrogen gas and hydrocarbon compounds. Particular embodiments provide methods and apparatus for cracking hydrocarbons.

Background

[0003] Cracking is a process whereby complex organic molecules such as long-chain hydrocarbons are broken down into simpler molecules such as light hydrocarbons and/or the like, by the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds in the precursors.

[0004] It is known to employ plasma for cracking and creating new products. For example, it is known to crack air (e.g. break the molecular bonds of oxygen and nitrogen from air) to create nitrogen oxide compounds desirable for the production of nitric acid.

[0005] One method of creating plasma, commonly used for plasma torches, employs direct current electricity. Direct current electricity supplies energy to an ionisable gas for creating and maintaining plasma. Plasma can be created by a plasma torch. Plasma comes out of the nozzle of the torch and continues forward. This plasma is in the form of a long glow which protrudes out of an aperture smaller than the length of the plasma.

[0006] Employing plasma for cracking and creating new material has become increasingly important (e.g. for the production of carbon nanotubes). However, previous technologies for the production of carbon nanotubes using plasma arcs have limitations in production. In particular, previous technologies for the production of carbon nanotubes using plasma arcs cannot be run continuously. The use of graphitic anodes and cathodes requires a low pressure environment (e.g. a vacuum) which is below one atmosphere pressure in the reaction chamber (where the electrical arc is made). Further, current technologies for the production of carbon nanotubes using plasma arcs require the use of inert gases, such as helium and argon, to maintain the stability of generated plasma.

[0007] US 5874134 describes an apparatus to create nanoparticles using a direct current or alternating current plasma torch with argon, hydrogen and methane precursor gases.

[0008] WO 2015189643A describes an apparatus for plasma synthesis of graphitic products including graphene using radio frequency waves in the range of megahertz and electrical induction in the range of kilohertz to produce a plasma.

[0009] There remains a desire for energy-efficient methods and apparatus for using plasma for cracking and creating new materials. There remains a desire for methods and apparatus for using plasma for cracking and creating new materials that can be run continuously.

[0010] The foregoing examples of the related art and limitations related thereto are intended to be illustrative and not exclusive. Other limitations of the related art will become apparent to those of skill in the art upon a reading of the specification and a study of the drawings.

Summary

[0011] The following embodiments and aspects thereof are described and illustrated in conjunction with systems, tools and methods which are meant to be exemplary and illustrative, not limiting in scope. In various embodiments, one or more of the above- described problems have been reduced or eliminated, while other embodiments are directed to other improvements.

[0012] One aspect of the invention provides a reactor for cracking hydrocarbon molecules. The reactor comprises a cathode shaped to define an axially oriented bore though its center extending in a first direction, an anode extending along an anode axis, the anode spaced apart from the cathode and having a curved surface that is most proximate to the cathode.

A power source may be connected to create an electric potential difference between the anode and the cathode, the electric potential difference creating an arc of electricity between the anode and the cathode. The electric arc may create a plasma wall, the plasma wall having a generally hollow frusto-conical shape, the frusto-conical shape extending from the cathode to the anode and having a hollow region in a center of the frusto-conical shape. A feed gas under pressure may be supplied to the bore of the cathode, so that the feed gas exits the bore of the cathode into the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum, wherein the pressure applied to the feed gas forces the feed gas out from the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum through the plasma wall to a region outside of the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum.

[0013] In some embodiments, the cathode and anode are translatably movable away from one another in the first direction after the electric arc is created.

[0014] In some embodiments, the reactor comprises an actuator configured to translate the anode in the first direction. In some embodiments, the reactor comprises an actuator configured to translate the cathode in first direction.

[0015] In some embodiments, a diameter of the frusto-conical shape increases non-linearly as the frustro-conical shape extends in the first direction toward the anode.

[0016] In some embodiments, the reactor comprises one or more magnets which create a magnetic field, the magnetic field shaped to interact with the plasma in a manner which exerts a force which tends to force the plasma in a least one of: a direction transversely away from a central axis of the plasma cone frustum; and a direction transversely away from a feed gas inlet at the bore of the cathode. In some embodiments, the one or more magnets are arranged to extend around at least a portion of the cathode. In some embodiments, the one or more magnets are arranged to define a bore and at least a portion of the cathode extends in the first direction through the bore. In some embodiments, the magnets are electromagnets.

[0017] In some embodiments, the anode is rotatable about the anode axis. In some embodiments, the anode axis is orthogonal to the first direction. In some embodiments, a scraper is located for removing buildup from a surface of the anode as the anode rotates. In some embodiments, the reactor comprises a biasing member to bias the scraper against the surface of the anode as the anode rotates. In some embodiments, an edge of the anode is complementary in shape to the surface of the anode.

[0018] In some embodiments, the reactor comprises one or more gas nozzles for directing a control gas around the plasma cone frustum to, at least in part, shape the plasma wall. In some embodiments, the reactor comprises one or more gas nozzles for directing a control gas around the plasma cone frustum, to, at least in part, cause the electric arc to travel along a tip of the cathode and rotate about a longitudinal axis of the cathode. In some embodiments, the nozzles are oriented to direct the control gas tangentially to a surface of the cathode. In some embodiments, the nozzles are oriented to direct the control gas in a substantially helical flow. In some embodiments, the control gas is hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the control gas comprises hydrogen gas produced by the reactor and recirculated through the reactor.

[0019] In some embodiments, the anode is cylindrical in shape and has a cylinder axis that is co-axial with the anode axis. In some embodiments, the anode is round in cross-section and a diameter of the anode varies along the anode axis. In some embodiments, a maximum diameter of the anode, d_max, is substantially aligned with a longitudinal axis of the cathode. In some embodiments, a minimum diameter of the axis, d_mm, is spaced apart from the longitudinal axis of the cathode in a direction along the anode axis. In some embodiments, a ratio of d_max to d_min is between approximately 1.1 :1 and 5:1 .

[0020] In some embodiments, the reactor comprises one or more heating elements for heating at least the region outside of the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum.

[0021] In some embodiments, the reactor comprises a cathode cooling system shaped to move coolant fluid in a region surrounding a least a portion of the cathode. In some embodiments, the reactor comprises an anode cooling system shaped to move coolant fluid within at least a portion of the anode.

[0022] In some embodiments, a catalyst agent is integrated with the cathode. In some embodiments, a catalyst agent is integrated with the anode. In some embodiments, a catalyst agent is coated on the cathode. In some embodiments, a catalyst agent is coated on the anode. In some embodiments, a catalyst agent is supplied with the feed gas. In some embodiments, the catalyst agent comprises one or more of nickel tetra-carbonyl, iron pentacarbonyl, dicobalt octacarbonyl, ferrocene and cobaltocene.

[0023] In some embodiments, the reactor comprises a second cathode spaced apart from the cathode in a direction parallel with the anode axis, the second cathode shaped to define a second axially oriented bore though its center extending in the first direction. The anode may be spaced apart from the second cathode and having a second curved surface that is most proximate to the second cathode. The power source may be connected to create a second electric potential difference between the anode and the second cathode, the second electric potential difference creating a second arc of electricity between the anode and the second cathode. The second electric arc may create a second plasma wall, the second plasma wall having a second generally hollow frusto-conical shape, the second frusto- conical shape extending from the second cathode to the anode and having a second hollow region in a center of the second frusto-conical shape. A second feed gas under pressure may be supplied to the second bore of the second cathode, so that the second feed gas exits the second bore of the second cathode into the second hollow region in the center of the second plasma cone frustum, wherein the pressure applied to the second feed gas forces the second feed gas out from the second hollow region in the center of the second plasma cone frustum through the second plasma wall to a second region outside of the second hollow region in the center of the second plasma cone frustum.

[0024] Another aspect of the invention provides a method of operating a reactor. The method comprises providing a cathode shaped to define an axially oriented bore though its center; providing an anode spaced apart by a distance, d, from the cathode and having a curved surface that is most proximate to the cathode; setting the distance, d ; inserting inert gas into a chamber of the reactor through the axially oriented bore; connecting a power source to the cathode and anode to create an electric potential difference between the anode and the cathode, the electric potential difference creating an arc of electricity in the chamber of the reactor between the anode and the cathode; the electric arc creating a plasma wall in the chamber of the reactor, the plasma wall having a generally hollow frusto- conical shape, the frusto-conical shape extending from the cathode to the anode and having a hollow region in a center of the frusto-conical shape; increasing the distance, d ; and supplying a feed gas under pressure to the chamber of the reactor, through the bore of the cathode, so that the feed gas exits the bore of the cathode into the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum, wherein the pressure applied to the feed gas forces the feed gas out from the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum through the plasma wall to a region outside of the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum.

[0025] In some embodiments, the chamber of the reactor has a pressure of between 0.75 and 1 .25 atmosphere.

[0026] In some embodiments, increasing the distance, d comprises increasing the distance, dby between approximately 100% and 1000%. In some embodiments, increasing the distance, d comprises the distance, dby between approximately 500% and 800%. In some embodiments, setting the distance, d comprising setting the distance, dto less than 2mm. In some embodiments, setting the distance, d comprising setting the distance, dto Omm. [0027] In some embodiments, the method comprises applying a magnetic field to the plasma wall, the magnetic field shaped to interact with the plasma in a manner which exerts a force which tends to shape the plasma wall. In some embodiments, the method comprises applying a magnetic field to the plasma wall, the magnetic field shaped to interact with the plasma in a manner which exerts a force which tends to rotate the plasma wall. In some embodiments, the method comprises applying a magnetic field to the electric arc, the magnetic field shaped to interact with the electric arc in a manner which exerts a force which tends to rotate the arc along a tip of the cathode. In some embodiments, the method comprises varying the strength of the magnetic field based at least in part on the distance, d. In some embodiments, the method comprises varying the strength of the magnetic field based at least in part on a rate of the supply of the feed gas. In some embodiments, the method comprises varying the strength of the magnetic field based at least in part on a composition of the feed gas. In some embodiments, the method comprises varying the strength of the magnetic field based at least in part on a magnitude of the electric potential difference.

[0028] In some embodiments, the method comprises flowing hydrogen around the plasma wall to cause the plasma wall to rotate. In some embodiments, the method comprises flowing hydrogen around the plasma wall to shape the plasma wall. In some embodiments, flowing hydrogen comprising re-using hydrogen produced by the reactor.

[0029] In some embodiments, reducing electric potential difference between the anode and the cathode after the plasma wall has formed. In some embodiments, the electric potential is based at least in part on the distance, d. In some embodiments, the electric potential is based at least in part on the a composition of the feed gas. In some embodiments, the electric potential is based at least in part on a rate of the supply of the feed gas.

[0030] In some embodiments, the method comprises rotating the anode about an anode axis. In some embodiments, the method comprises scraping buildup from a surface of the anode as the anode rotates.

[0031] In some embodiments, supplying a feed gas comprises supplying a catalyst gas under pressure to the chamber of the reactor through the bore of the cathode. In some embodiments, the catalyst gas comprises one or more of nickel tetra-carbonyl, iron pentacarbonyl, dicobalt octacarbonyl, ferrocene and cobaltocene. In some embodiments, the catalyst gas comprises nickel tetra-carbonyl. [0032] In some embodiments, the method comprises varying a temperature within the chamber of the reactor based at least in part on the composition of the catalyst gas.

[0033] Another aspect of the invention provides a reactor for cracking hydrocarbon molecules, the apparatus comprising an anode extending in a first direction and defining a bore extending in the first direction, wherein a bore-defining surface of the anode is curved, and a cathode extending in the first direction within the bore of the anode. A power source may be connected to create an electric potential difference between the anode and the cathode, the electric potential difference creating an arc of electricity between the anode and the cathode. The electric arc may create a plasma wall, the plasma wall having a generally hollow frusto-conical shape, the frusto-conical shape extending from the cathode to the anode and having a hollow region in a center of the frusto-conical shape. A feed gas under pressure may be supplied to the bore of the anode, so that the pressure applied to the feed gas forces the feed gas through the plasma wall and into the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum.

[0034] In some embodiments, the feed gas is supplied to the bore of the anode via one or more outlets defined by the cathode.

[0035] In addition to the exemplary aspects and embodiments described above, further aspects and embodiments will become apparent by reference to the drawings and by study of the following detailed descriptions.

Brief Description of the Drawings

[0036] Exemplary embodiments are illustrated in referenced figures of the drawings. It is intended that the embodiments and figures disclosed herein are to be considered illustrative rather than restrictive.

[0037] Figure 1 is a front view of a cross-section of a reactor according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0038] Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of a system incorporating a reactor according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0039] Figure 3 is a schematic depiction of a magnet and cathode according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention. [0040] Figure 4A is a front view of a cathode and plasma wall according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention. Figure 4B is a top view of the cathode and plasma wall of Figure 4A.

[0041] Figure 5A is a front view of a portion of an anode and a portion of a cathode according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention. Figure 5B is a front view of a portion of an anode and a portion of a cathode according to an exemplary non limiting embodiment of the invention. Figure 5C is a front view of a portion of an anode and a portion of a cathode according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0042] Figure 6 is a front view of a cross-section of a portion of a reactor according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0043] Figure 7 is a front view of a cross-section of a portion of a reactor according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0044] Figure 8 is a front view of an anode and a portion of a cathode according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0045] Figure 9 is a flow chart of a method for operating a reactor according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0046] Figure 10A is a top cross-sectional view of a cathode and a plurality of nozzles according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention. Figure 10B is a front cross-sectional view of a cathode and a nozzle according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0047] Figure 11 is a front view of a cross-section of a reactor according to another exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0048] Figure 12 is a front view of a cross-section of a reactor according to another exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0049] Figure 13 is a front view of a cross-section of a reactor according to another exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention.

[0050] Figures 14A and 14B are scanning electron microscope images of carbon nanotubes. Description

[0051] Throughout the following description specific details are set forth in order to provide a more thorough understanding to persons skilled in the art. However, well known elements may not have been shown or described in detail to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the disclosure. Accordingly, the description and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative, rather than a restrictive, sense.

[0052] Aspects of the invention provide apparatus and methods for cracking hydrocarbons, including, by way of non-limiting example, methane, to produce, for example, one or more of: allotropes of carbon, including but not limited to, carbon 60 (“C60”), buckminsterfullerene, carbon nanotubes, hydrogen gas, and hydrocarbon by-product compounds.

[0053] A reactor, according to an exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention may comprise an anode and a cathode. The cathode may comprise a tubular shaped, copper (or other conductive metal) cathode. It should be understood that the cathode is not limited to this certain shape or material. A controllable power source may be provided to create an arc between the cathode and an anode. After creating the arc, a first tip of the arc which is in contact with the cathode travels along the circular tip of the cathode such that the arc appears to rotate about an axis of the cathode. This rotation may be due at least in part to an induced magnetic field configured to create a hollow plasma wall that defines an interior region. This hollow wall may have a funnel shape or hollow frustro-conical shape that defines its interior region. The speed of rotation of the arc and/or the shape of the arc may be adjusted by adjusting the strength of the magnetic field. The arc may also be shaped and/or caused to rotate by gas flow of a control gas. The speed of rotation of the arc and/or the shape of the arc may be adjusted by adjusting the flow of the control gas. The rotating arc may form a plasma wall between the cathode and the anode and the plasma wall may define the interior region. Input feed gas may be forced through a bore of the cathode and into the interior region, where it is further caused to pass through the wall of plasma formed between the cathode and the anode from the interior region to an exterior side of the plasma wall. The plasma may cause the molecular bonds of the atoms of the feed gas to break, thereby producing, for example, one or more of: allotropes of carbon, carbon nanotubes, hydrogen gas, and hydrocarbon by-product compounds. [0054] Figure 1 depicts a schematic diagram of a cross-section of a reactor 100 according to one exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention. Reactor 100 comprises a cathode 1 and an anode 11 .

[0055] Cathode 1 may comprise a tubular cathode defining an axially oriented bore 2 through its center. Cathode 1 may comprise a copper cathode, although this is not mandatory. Cathode 1 may comprise tungsten, graphite, a carbon based material, or another metallic or otherwise electrically conductive compound. One or more catalyst materials may be integrated into or coated on cathode 1 , as discussed further herein. Cathode 1 may be oriented to provide an axial extension in a direction 37 which is non parallel to the most proximate surface region of anode 11 . In some embodiments, the axial extension direction 37 of cathode 1 may be orthogonal to a tangent of the most proximate surface of anode 11 and/or longitudinal axis 29 of anode 11 . The axial direction 37 in which cathode 1 extends may be oriented in a direction normal to the most proximate surface region of anode 11 or may have a component that is oriented in a direction normal to the most proximate surface regions of anode 11 . Cathode 1 may be spaced apart from anode 11 by a distance, d, in the axial extension direction 37. Distance, d, may be variable by adjusting a position of one or more of cathode 1 and anode 11 (e.g. by translating cathode 1 and/or anode 11 away from one another). A suitable actuator (not shown) may be provided and may be suitably controlled to move (e.g. controllably move) cathode 1 relative to anode 11 or vice versa. The actuator may be a pneumatic actuator, linear actuator, motor, hydraulic actuator, manual actuator, or any other suitable actuator.

[0056] A cooling system 4 may be provided to cool cathode 1 . Cooling system 4 may comprise a coolant channel 4A surrounding and/or in contact with at least a portion of a surface of cathode 1 . Coolant, such as, but not limited to, water, oil, steam and/or air may be flowed into a coolant entrance 3A, through coolant channel 4A and out of a coolant exit 3B. The coolant may then be re-cooled before being re-circulated through cooling system 4. Cooling system 4 may be configured (e.g. using a suitably configured controller 39 to control the rate of cooling, the rate of flow of coolant and/or the like) to maintain a temperature of cathode 1 (e.g. a temperature of a surface of cathode 1) below, for example, 80^eC or 60^eC for light hydrocarbon feed gas. In some embodiments, cooling system 4 may be configured (e.g. using a suitably configured controller 39 to control the rate of cooling, the rate of flow of coolant and/or the like) to maintain a temperature of cathode 1 (e.g. a surface temperature of cathode 1) below 900^eC, 500^eC or 400^eC. The acceptable temperature of cathode 1 may be dependent on the type of hydrocarbon feed gas (e.g. relatively higher temperatures may be acceptable for heavier hydrocarbon feed gases) and/or the coolant (e.g. relatively higher temperatures may be acceptable for oil-based coolants as compared to for water-based coolants). Similarly, the acceptable temperature of cathode 1 may be dependent on the composition of a catalyst introduced into or present within reactor 100. Cooling system 4 may protect permanent magnets 5 and/or other components of reactor 100 from heat generated by cathode 1 or around cathode 1 .

[0057] One or more magnets 5 may be provided near and/or around cathode 1 . Magnets 5 produce a magnetic field 18 (shown in Figure 3). In some embodiments, at least a portion of cathode 1 may pass through a bore defined by one or more magnets 5 each having an annular cross-section taken in a cross-sectional direction orthogonal to axial direction 37. In some embodiments, at least a portion of cathode 1 may pass through a bore defined by a plurality of magnets 5 arranged together to define a tubular shape. For example, a plurality of magnets 5 may be angularly spaced apart around a perimeter oriented orthogonally to axial direction 37 (e.g. a circumference) of cathode 1 . This is not mandatory. In some embodiments, a lower portion of cathode 1 (e.g. a portion of cathode 1 that is more proximate to anode 11) may pass through a bore defined by one or more magnets 5 having an annular cross-section, as shown in Figure 1 . In some embodiments, an upper portion (e.g. a portion of cathode 1 that is more distal to anode 11) may not be surrounded by magnets 5, as shown in Figure 1 . In some embodiments, cooling system 4, or a portion thereof, may also extend through the bore defined by one or more magnets 5, as shown in Figure 1.

[0058] In some embodiments, magnets 5 comprise permanent magnets. In some embodiments, magnets 5 comprise electromagnets. Where magnets 5 comprise electromagnets, the strength of the magnetic field generated by magnets 5 can be adjusted (e.g. controllably adjusted by a suitably programmed controller 39). For example, as the throughput and/or size of reactor 100 increases, it may be desirable to increase the strength of magnetic field 18. Similarly, as the distance, d, increases, it may be desirable to increase the strength of magnetic field 18. As another example, it may be desirable to adjust the strength or shape of magnetic field 18 depending on an input (e.g. feed gas 16) into reactor 100, the composition of a catalyst introduced into or present within reactor 100 or a desired output of reactor 100. As another example, the speed of rotation of the arc (discussed further herein) may be adjusted by adjusting the strength of magnetic field 18. In this way, employing electromagnets may improve the flexibility of reactor 100 to be operated under different conditions and to provide different outputs.

[0059] A pipe 33 may be provided around a lower portion 1 A (e.g. a portion 1 A relatively proximate to anode 11) of cathode 1 , as shown in Figure 1 . Pipe 33 may comprise polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), a ceramic material, or another refractory material or electric insulator. Cathode 1 may extend into a bore of pipe 33. One or more gas inlets 6 may direct control gas 17 into pipe 33 (or otherwise near cathode 1 or portion 1 A of cathode 1) through one or more nozzles 7. Control gas 17 may comprise, for example, hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide gas, helium gas, argon gas, nitrogen gas, etc. Nozzles 7 may be strategically oriented (e.g. angled relative to cathode 1) to cause a rotating stream (e.g. a stream with a helical flow direction about axial direction 37) of control gas 17 to flow around cathode 1 as depicted schematically in Figure 6.

[0060] In some embodiments, nozzles 7 are oriented to direct control gas 17 at least partially tangentially (or substantially tangentially) to a surface of cathode 1 , as shown in Figure 10A. In some embodiments, one or more nozzles 7 are equally (or substantially equally) spaced apart from one another around cathode 1 (e.g. angularly spaced around axial direction 37) and together direct control gas 17 in a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction around cathode 1 . In some embodiments, nozzles 7 are oriented to also direct control gas 17 at least partially in direction 37 toward anode 11 , as shown in Figure 10B.

For example, nozzles 7 may be oriented at an angle between approximately 45° and 90° with respect to direction 37. In some embodiments, nozzles 7 may be adjustable (e.g. controllably adjustable by a suitable controller 39) to allow for an increase/decrease in throughput of control gas 17 and/or to adjust the orientation of nozzles 17. Such adjustability of nozzles 17 may allow for reactor 100 to be reconfigured for different inputs/outputs and/or different throughput. In some embodiments, control gas 17 may be or may comprise a product of the cracking reaction itself, which is then recirculated into reactor 100.

[0061] Control gas 17 may have multiple functions in reactor 100. First, the flow (e.g. in direction 37) of control gas 17 toward anode 11 may mitigate, prevent, substantially prevent, clear or substantially clear carbon allotrope buildup extending radially outwardly (e.g. away from cathode axis 19) on the edges (e.g. outer edge 1 B) and/or outer surface of cathode 1 , as would typically occur with a relatively small distance, d, between cathode 1 and anode 11 . Second, control gas 17 may prevent, clear or substantially clear carbon allotrope buildup between cathode 1 and anode 11 , thus preventing an undesirable short circuit between cathode 1 and anode 11 , as would typically occur with a relatively small distance, d, between cathode 1 and anode 11 . Third, rotating or swirling control gas 17 (i.e. in a circumferential direction around cathode 1 (e.g. around axial direction 37)) may help establish a desired hollow funnel or frusto-conical shape and/or rotation of plasma wall 15 as discussed further herein. In this way, control gas 17 may allow reactor 100 to be operated with a relatively small distance, d, between cathode 1 and anode 11 and at relatively higher pressures (e.g. on the order of 1 atmosphere) as compared to traditional methods of cracking hydrocarbons.

[0062] As shown in Figure 1 , anode 11 may comprise a curved surface that is most proximate to cathode 1 . The curved surface of anode 11 that is most proximate to cathode 1 may have convex curvature. The curved surface of anode 11 may facilitate cleaning of anode 11 , as discussed further herein and/or may reduce interference of the flow of feed gas 16 and/or control gas 17 as it passes by anode 11 . For example, the outer surface of anode 11 may comprise a generally cylindrical shape as shown in Figure 1 . More specifically, anode 11 may comprise a hollow cylinder having closed or substantially closed ends. In other embodiments, at least a portion of anode 11 may be spherical, substantially spherical, ellipsoidal, egg-shaped or the like. In some embodiments, anode 11 is substantially round (e.g. circular) in cross-section may have a diameter that is variable along its axis 29. In some embodiments, the diameter of anode 11 varies smoothly along anode axis 29. In some embodiments, a maximum diameter, d_max, of anode 11 is aligned (or substantially aligned with) cathode axis 29 while a minimum diameter, d_mm, of anode 11 is spaced apart from cathode axis 29. In some embodiments, the ratio of d_max to d_mm is about 1 ,1 :1 , 1.5:1 , 2:1 , 3:1 5:1 or 10:1. Portions of anode 611 with a reduced diameter may have a smaller effect on the flow of feed gas 16 and/or control gas 17 thereby increasing the efficiency of reactor 600. In contrast, the portion of anode 611 nearest to cathode axis 29 may have a relatively larger diameter to facilitate achieving a desired distance, d, between cathode 1 and the surface of anode 11 nearest to cathode 1 . [0063] For example, Figure 12 depicts a portion of a reactor 600 (which is otherwise substantially similar to reactor 100) with an anode 611 of an exemplary, non-limiting shape. Anode 611 of reactor 600 is circular in cross-section and has a maximum diameter d_maxat a first axial location 611 E. First axial location 611 E may align with (or substantially align with) cathode axis 19. The diameter of anode 611 may taper away from cathode axis 19 until the diameter reaches a minimum diameter d_min at first and second axial locations 611 F and 611G of anode 611.

[0064] Anode 11 may comprise copper or a copper alloy (e.g. a copper-nickel alloy) or other conductive metal. Anode 11 may comprise tungsten, graphite, a carbon based material, or another metallic or otherwise electrically conductive compound. One or more catalyst materials may be integrated into or coated on anode 11 , as discussed further herein. In some embodiments, the material of anode 11 may be chosen depending of the type of material being produced by reactor 100.

[0065] Anode 11 may have a cooling system 12. Cooling system 12 may circulate coolant, such as water, steam, air and/or oil, through a hollow interior 11 A of anode 11 or near a surface of anode 11. For example, a coolant inlet may be provided to allow coolant to flow into hollow interior 11 A through a first end 11 B of anode 11 (see Figure 6, for example). After the coolant has been heated (e.g. after the coolant has cooled anode 11 ), it may exit hollow interior 11 A through a coolant outlet. In some embodiments, coolant outlet is also arranged on a first end 11 B of anode 11 . In some embodiments, coolant outlet may be additionally or alternatively arranged at a second end 11C of anode 11 , opposite the first end 11 B of anode 11 (see Figure 6, for example). The cooling system of anode 11 may be configured (e.g. using a suitably configured controller 39 to control the rate of cooling, the rate of flow of coolant and/or the like) to maintain a temperature of anode 11 (e.g. a temperature of a surface of cathode 1) below, for example, 80^eC or 60^eC for light hydrocarbon feed gas. In some embodiments, the cooling system of anode 11 may be configured (e.g. using a suitably configured controller 39 to control the rate of cooling, the rate of flow of coolant and/or the like) to maintain a temperature of anode 11 (e.g. a surface temperature of anode 11) below 900^eC, 500^eC or 400^eC. The acceptable temperature of anode 11 may be dependent on the type of hydrocarbon feed gas (e.g. relatively higher temperatures may be acceptable for heavier hydrocarbon feed gases) and/or the coolant (e.g. relatively higher temperatures may be acceptable for oil-based coolants than water- based coolants). Similarly, the acceptable temperature of anode 11 may be dependent on the composition of a catalyst introduced into or present within reactor 100.

[0066] In some embodiments, anode 11 is caused to rotate about an anode axis 29 as shown in Figures 6, 7 and 8. Anode axis 29 may align with a longitudinal axis of anode 11 and may be orthogonal to the axial extension direction 37 of cathode 1 , although neither of these features is mandatory. In some embodiments, a shaft 11 D protrudes from the second end of anode 11 (as shown in Figure 6) and is operatively connected to an electric motor or the like (not depicted) to cause rotation of anode 11 . In some embodiments, shaft 11 D is connected to the electric motor by a gearbox.

[0067] A paddle or scraper 13 may be provided to remove buildup (e.g. carbon allotrope buildup or other undesirable buildup) from a surface of anode 11 . As anode 11 rotates, an active (e.g. distal) edge 13A of scraper 13 may contact or nearly contact a surface of anode 11 , thereby scraping buildup off of the surface of anode 11 . In other embodiments, anode 11 may be stationary and scraper 13 may be caused to rotate around anode 11 to remove a buildup from a surface of anode 11 . Scraper 13 may have a beveled edge to improve its scraping efficiency. Active edge 13A of scraper 13 may be complementary in shape to the outer surface of anode 11 to better remove buildup from the surface of anode 11. For example, scraper 613 of reactor 600 depicted in Figure 12 is complementary in shape to the surface of anode 611 . Scraper 13 may be spring-loaded or otherwise biased against the surface of anode 11 to ensure consistent contact of active edge 13A with anode 11 . Biasing active edge 13A toward anode 11 while allowing it to move away from anode 11 may allow scraper 13 to accommodate imperfections in the shape of anode 11 without jamming or seizing up. Buildup that is removed from a surface of anode 11 by scraper 13 may be deposited (e.g. by gravitational force) through product outlet 14 and into tank 22, as shown in Figure 2. By continuously removing buildup from a surface of anode 11 , reactor 100 may operate continuously without having to be stopped to otherwise remove such buildup.

[0068] A chamber 35 may be defined at least in part by one or more of cathode 1 , anode 11 , pipe 33, and chamber seal 8, as shown in Figure 1 . In some embodiments, one or more heating elements may be provided to heat the contents of chamber 35. For example, reactor 600 (Figure 12) comprises a plurality of heating coils 636 which may be used to heat the contents of chamber 35. Any of the other reactors described herein may be provided with similar heating coils. Chamber 35 may be elongated in axial direction 37 to increase the time for feed gas 16 to travel through chamber 35 to output 14. Such an increase in travel time provides an increase in reaction time which may allow for increased growth of carbon nanotubes or the like.

[0069] A power supply 9 may be employed and suitably controlled by a suitably programmed controller 39. Power supply 9 may employed to apply the voltage across cathode 1 and anode 11 . The power supply 9 may comprise a DC switching power supply 9. A solid state power supply 9 may be employed to create a controlled current for supply to reactor 100. The power supply 9, using switching technology and insulated-gate bipolar transistors or power MOSFET, may minimize loss of energy. The power supply 9 (in conjunction with a suitably configured controller 39) may be configured to controllably react fast and accurately according to variations in reaction conditions and/or desired reaction currents of reactor 100, thereby avoiding any disruption in plasma wall 15. Power supply 9 may also comprise a radio frequency (RF) power supply (similar to those used in TIG welding).

[0070] Figure 9 depicts an exemplary non-limiting method 300 of operating reactor 100 according to one embodiment of the invention. Method 300 may be performed by a suitably configured controller 39. Similar methods may be used to operate the other reactors described herein. To facilitate creating and/or maintaining the electrical arc to initiate and/or control the characteristics of plasma wall 15, the distance, d, between cathode 1 and anode 11 may be adjusted throughout method 300. Throughout method 300, distance, d, may be dependent on the size of reactor 100, the throughput of reactor 100, the composition of a catalyst introduced into or present within reactor 100, the voltage or current of reactor 100, the strength of the magnetic field of reactor 100, the inputs and outputs of reactor 100 and/or other factors. As discussed herein, the distance, d, may be controllably adjusted (e.g. under the control of controller 39) by effecting relative movement between cathode 1 and anode 11 .

[0071] At step 310 the distance, d, between cathode 1 and anode 11 may be set, as shown in Figure 5A. Specifically, to start method 300, the distance, d, between cathode 1 and anode 11 may be relatively small, thereby reducing the voltage used to create an arc between cathode 1 and another 11 . The relatively small distance, d, between cathode 1 and anode 11 may also facilitate the ability of reactor 100 to stabilize plasma wall 15 without employing traditional plasma-causing (traditionally ionizable) gases such as argon, helium or carbon dioxide (or other gases or mixtures thereof that may be used as those familiar in the art would appreciate). The small distance, d, in step 310 may also facilitate ionization of gas. For example, at step 310, distance, d, may be close to but greater than zero (e.g. less than 2mm or less than 1 mm in some embodiments or less than 5cm or less than 2cm in other embodiments). In some embodiments, distance, d, at step 310 starts at 0mm (e.g. cathode 1 and anode 11 are touching). When cathode 1 and anode 11 are touching, current may flow directly from cathode 1 to anode 11 (e.g. without arcing). To prevent damage of reactor 100, the current may be limited (e.g. by controller 39 controlling the power supply 9) to be relatively low (e.g. less than 10A or less than 2A) when cathode 1 contacts anode 1 .

[0072] Next, at step 320, an inert gas (such as hydrogen, carbon dioxide, helium, argon, nitrogen) is flowed through one or both of bore 2 (toward anode 11) and gas inlet 6 to purge oxygen and any other unwanted gases from reactor 100. Purging unwanted gas may reduce the likelihood of an explosion or an undesirable short circuit between cathode 1 and anode 11.

[0073] Subsequently, at step 330 a power supply 9 may be employed to create an electric potential difference between cathode 1 and anode 11 , thereby causing a current flow therebetween. Due to the electric potential difference between cathode 1 and anode 11 , where cathode 1 and anode 11 are physically spaced apart from one another, an electric arc is produced between cathode 1 and anode 11 . Where cathode 1 is touching anode 11 at step 310, the electric arc may be formed by separating cathode 1 from anode 11 (e.g. by increasing distance, d). This may allow for formation of the arc with reduced current and increased predictability. The electric arc generates a plasma wall 15. The amount of voltage applied across cathode 1 and anode 11 in reactor 100 may be between approximately 20 V and 300V at step 330 or less than 20 V at step 330. As the distance, d, increases the voltage may be controllably increased. For example, as the distance, d, increases (e.g. at step 350 or after step 360), the voltage may be increased up to 3000V or even more in some embodiments. The electrical current supplied by the power supply 9 to reactor 100 may depend on the voltage employed to create plasma wall 15 and can be as small as less than 2A or as large as more than 600A. In some embodiments, the voltage for starting reactor 100 and forming the arc to create plasma wall 15 may be between 300V and 700V. Once reactor 100 is stabilized, the voltage may be controllably reduced to approximately 100V, while the electrical current may be adjusted to between 1 A and 10A. As the size and/or throughput of reactor 100 increases and/or the distance, d, increases, the voltage and/or current may also increase. Similarly, the voltage and/or current may be dependent on the composition of a catalyst introduced into or present within reactor 100, the strength of the magnetic field of reactor 100, etc.

[0074] In some embodiments, radio frequency power is employed to initiate the electric arc at step 330. RF power may be provided by power supply 9 or by a separate RF power supply (not shown). For example, radio frequencies can be utilized to better establish the electric arc by supplying an electromagnetic field of approximately 27.1 MHz. In some embodiments, this frequency may be in a range of 1 -100MHz. In some embodiments, this frequency is an RF frequency less than 1 MHz. In some embodiments, this frequency is an RF frequency greater than 100MHz. The RF power supply may be employed to ionize gas in a region between cathode 1 and anode 11 . Specifically, the RF power supply may be employed to ionize gas between cathode 1 and anode 11 before an arc is established between cathode 1 and anode 11 when cathode 1 and anode 11 are spaced apart (e.g. distance, d, is greater than zero).

[0075] At step 340, a tip of the arc that is in contact with cathode 1 may be caused to travel along or around an outer edge 1 B of the circular tip of cathode 1 under the influence of the magnetic field 18 produced by magnets 5, and/or the flow of control gas 17 from nozzle(s)

7. As the tip of the arc travels along outer edge 1 B, it may rotate about cathode axis 19. Similarly, plasma wall 15 may be caused to rotate about a cathode axis 19 (shown in Figure 4A). Cathode axis 19 may extend in direction 37. Cathode axis 19 may be perpendicular to anode axis 29. The arc may rotate about cathode axis 19 faster than plasma wall 15 rotates about cathode axis 19.

[0076] The rotation of the arc creates a plasma wall 15 in the shape of a hollow funnel or hollow cone frustum, as depicted schematically in Figures 4A and 4B. As can be seen from Figure 4A, plasma wall 15 may not extend linearly from cathode 1 to anode 11 . Instead, plasma wall 15 may be curved such that an outer surface of plasma wall 15 is concave. In other words, the diameter or width of the cross-section of the hollow funnel or hollow cone frustum defined by plasma wall 15 may increase in a non-linear (e.g. exponential or other form of curve) manner rather than a linear manner as plasma wall 15 extends along cathode axis 19 from cathode 1 to anode 11 . The rate of increase of this diameter or width may be dependent on a number of factors such as the geometry and orientation of cathode 1 and anode 11 , the strength and/or shape of magnetic field 18, the flow of control gas 17 and/or the like.

[0077] Plasma wall 15, cathode 1 and anode 11 together define an interior region 31 as shown in Figure 7. The thickness, w_p, of the plasma wall 15 may be controllable which enables a geometrical shape and physical properties of the plasma wall 15 to be optimized for producing the desired products (e.g. carbon allotropes and hydrogen gas). For example, the thickness , w_p, of plasma wall 15 may be controllable by increasing or decreasing the electrical current provided by power supply 9, by increasing or decreasing the force of magnetic field 18, by increasing or decreasing the flow of feed gas 16, by increasing or decreasing the flow of control gas 17, by increasing or decreasing the distance, d and/or the like. In some embodiments, plasma wall 15 has a thickness. w_p, of at least 0.5mm and less than 50mm, although this is not necessary.

[0078] Magnetic field 18 may be configured or shaped to interact with plasma wall 15 in a manner which exerts a force which tends to force plasma wall 15 transversely away from axis 19 (and transversely away from the corresponding feed gas inlet at the bore 2 of the cathode 11).

[0079] Control gas 17 fed into chamber 35 through nozzle 7 may rotate or swirl (e.g. flow in a helical shape about cathode axis 19) in the same direction as the rotating arc (solid black arrows) as shown in Figure 6. In this way, control gas 17 may facilitate shaping plasma wall 15, rotating the arc and/or keeping plasma wall 15 in a desired location.

[0080] Once the arc and/or plasma wall 15 has been formed, the distance, d, between cathode 1 and anode 11 may be increased at step 350, as shown in Figures 5B and/or 5C. For example, distance, d, may be controllably increased to between 2mm and 5mm, or close to 3mm. In larger scale reactors, distance, d, may be increased up to 30mm, 200mm or 300mm. For example, where distance, d, starts at greater than 0mm, distance, d, may be increased by 200%, 400%, 600%, 800%, 1000% or 3000%.

[0081] At step 360, feed gas 16 may be flowed through bore 2 toward anode 11 and any inert gas being fed into bore 2 can be stopped and/or flushed out by feed gas 16. Feed gas 16 may comprise hydrocarbon feed gas. After step 360, the distance, d, between cathode 1 and anode 11 may again be increased as shown in Figures 5B and/or 5C while maintaining the plasma arc in an environment of hydrocarbon feed gas 16 and any residual inert gases. [0082] At step 360, feed gas 16 is fed through bore 2 of cathode 1 and into interior region 31 through a nozzle 10 which is placed at the tip of cathode 1 . Feed gas 16, having been fed through nozzle 10, is contained in interior region 31 between cathode 1 , anode 11 and plasma wall 15 until, at step 370, the accumulated pressure of feed gas 16 forces feed gas 16 to pass through plasma wall 15 (e.g. when the pressure within interior region 31 is greater than the pressure within chamber 35). While feed gas 16 is passing through plasma wall 15, the required energy for the cracking of the molecules of feed gas 16 may be achieved and the molecular bonds of feed gas 16 may break due, by way of non-limiting example, to the high temperature, rapid collision of molecules with electrons and/or the impact of hits that ions have on the molecules of feed gas 16. The desired end products (e.g. carbon allotropes, hydrogen gas, hydrocarbon gas etc.) are formed from the cracked feed gas 16 after passing through plasma wall 15 and by the influence of the produced electrical charge in plasma wall 15 and magnetic field 18.

[0083] Since the cracking of feed gas 16 does not occur in interior region 31 but instead begins in plasma wall 15 and since plasma wall 15 extends from an outside edge 1 B of the tip of cathode 1 , cathode 1 may remain relatively free from buildup (e.g. buildup of carbon allotropes) which could otherwise hinder reactor 100.

[0084] When cracking of feed gas 16 occurs within reactor 100, hydrocarbon gas(es) may form. Such hydrocarbon gas(es) may include light hydrocarbons like methane or natural gas, and heavier hydrocarbons such as gasoline (benzene). In some scenarios, the heavier hydrocarbon gases may have a higher boiling point than a current operating temperature of reactor 100 and could be cracked in a separate apparatus before being recirculated through reactor 100.

[0085] Figure 2 is a schematic depiction of a system 200 incorporating a reactor 100 (or any of the other reactors described herein) according to one exemplary non-limiting embodiment. System 200 comprises a filter 21 for directing carbon allotropes and other solid by-products otherwise created in reactor 100 from product outlet 14 of reactor 100 to tank 22. Non-solid by-products (e.g. gases) from outlet 14 of reactor 100 may be drawn through filter 21 by a pump 23. Filter 21 may comprise a mechanical filter 21 . Pump 23 may force such non-solid by-products through a membrane 24 that allows hydrogen gas to pass through and filters larger molecules, such as hydrocarbon gases, through an outlet 28. Membrane 24 may comprise a palladium membrane. Outlet 28 may be connected to reactor 100 to optionally recirculate such hydrocarbon gases through reactor 100. Hydrogen gases that pass through membrane 24 are directed to a hydrogen gas tank 25 and/or to a valve 26 connected to a hydrogen pipe 27 that is in turn connected to gas inlet 6 (e.g. for circulation of such hydrogen gas through reactor 100).

[0086] In some embodiments, multiple cathodes 1 may be provided for a single anode 11 . Each cathode 1 may have a corresponding plasma wall 15 and feed gas 16 may be fed through a bore 2 of each cathode 1 to thereby increase the overall flow rate of the reaction without compromising feed flow rates within interior region 31 . Cathodes 1 (and other elements that surround cathodes 1) may be spaced apart sufficiently such that the magnetic fields of neighbouring cathodes 1 do not substantially interfere with one another. For example, Figure 13 depicts a reactor 700 that is similar in many respects to reactor 100 except in that reactor 700 comprises multiple cathodes (e.g. 701 -1 , 701-2, 701-3) for a single anode 711. In other respects, except where the context indicates otherwise, reactor 700 may comprise features similar to those of reactor 100 described herein.

[0087] To create some of the desired products, a catalyst agent may be employed. The catalyst agent may comprise (or consist of) one or more of nickel tetra-carbonyl, iron pentacarbonyl, dicobalt octacarbonyl, ferrocene, cobaltocene, nickelocene, and or compounds or alloys of nickel, cobalt or iron (e.g. Ni(CO)₄). Nickel tetra-carbonyl may be prepared using the Mond process, for example. The catalyst agent may be in the form of, for example, nanoparticles or a powder. The catalyst may enter interior region 31 with feed gas 16. The catalyst may comprise between approximately 0.1% and 10% (by weight) of feed gas 16 or even less. In some embodiments, one or more catalyst agents are additionally or alternatively integrated with one or both of cathode 1 and anode 11. For example, cathode 1 and/or anode 11 may comprise an alloy comprising the catalyst agent(s) or cathode 1 and/or anode 11 may be coated with one or more catalyst agent(s). For example, Figures 14A and 14B are scanning electron microscope images of carbon nanotubes fabricated using an apparatus and a method as described herein wherein the catalyst was integrated into the anode and/or cathode.

[0088] In either case (e.g. whether the catalyst agent is integrated into the anode and/or cathode or introduced into reactor 100 with feed gas 16), the catalyst agent(s) may decompose within interior region 31 as decomposition temperatures for each compound are reached. Subsequent to decomposition, floating nano-scale catalyst particles are created. The floating nano-scale catalyst particles may enable or facilitate growth of carbon nanotubes or other desired carbon allotropes.

[0089] Figure 11 depicts a schematic diagram of a cross-section of a reactor 500 according to one exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention. Reactor 500 is similar to reactor 100 in many respects. For example, like reactor 100, reactor 500 comprises a cathode 501 and an anode 511 . However, in reactor 500, unlike reactor 100 where cathode 1 and anode 11 are spaced apart from one another in direction 37, cathode 501 is located within anode 511 . Accordingly, although the principal of operation of reactor 500 remains substantially the same as reactor 100, there are various modifications as follows.

[0090] Cathode 501 may be similar in many respects to cathode 1 . Like cathode 1 , cathode 501 may comprise an axially oriented bore through which feed gas 16 may be delivered. However, unlike cathode 1 which delivers feed gas through its tip, cathode 501 may comprise one or more outlets along its length for delivering feed gas 16 into reactor 500. Additionally or alternatively, feed gas 16 may be delivered into reactor 500 through one or more inlets 520, as described further herein. In some embodiments, where feed gas is delivered through inlets 520, cathode 501 may not comprise an axially oriented bore like bore 2 of cathode 1 . In such embodiments, cathode 501 may be solid. In some embodiments, cathode 501 comprises a solid tungsten cathode.

[0091] Anode 511 may be similar in many respects to anode 11 . Like anode 11 , anode 511 may comprise a curved surface that is most proximate to cathode 501 . For example, an inner surface 511 A of anode 511 may comprise a generally cylindrical shape. More specifically, anode 511 may comprise a hollow cylinder. In some embodiments, anode 511 comprises a round inner surface of reactor 500, such as a cylindrical inner surface of reactor 500. In some embodiments, anode 511 and cathode 501 are co-axial or substantially co-axial, although this is not mandatory. Like anode 11 , anode 511 may rotate about its longitudinal anode axis 29 and a scraper may be provided to remove buildup from the inner surface 511 A of anode 511 . Alternatively, anode 511 may be stationary and a scraper may move (e.g. rotate, or translate along inner surface 511 A) to remove buildup from anode 511 . Additionally, or as another alternative, one or more short bursts of high pressure gas (e.g. argon) may be employed to loosen or remove buildup from anode 511 . [0092] A chamber 535 may be defined in part by cathode 501 and anode 511 . An interior region 531 may be defined in part by plasma wall 515, cathode 501 and anode 511 .

[0093] Reactor 500 may comprise a cooling system 504 (having an inlet 504A and an outlet 504B) for cooling cathode 501 in a substantially similar manner to cooling system 4, a cooling system 512 (having an inlet 512A and an outlet 512B) for cooling anode 511 in a substantially similar manner to cooling system 12 and one or more magnets 505 substantially similar to magnets 5.

[0094] Reactor 500 may comprise one or more nozzles 507 for delivering control gas 17 into reactor 500. Nozzles 507 may be located near or integrated with inlets 520. In some embodiments, control gas 17 is delivered through inlets 520. Like reactor 100, nozzles 507 (or inlets 520) may be strategically oriented (e.g. angled relative to cathode 501) to cause a rotating stream (e.g. a stream with a helical flow direction) of control gas 17 (and/or feed gas 16) to flow around cathode 501 . Control gas 17 may serve similar functions in reactor 500 as in reactor 100.

[0095] While cathode 501 and anode 511 may be differently shaped and/or oriented as compared to cathode 1 and anode 11 , the resultant plasma wall 515 may have a substantially similar shape to that of plasma wall 15 due at least in part to magnets 505 and/or control gas 17.

[0096] Method 300 may employ reactor 500 in a substantially similar manner to reactor 100. For example, at step 360, feed gas 16 is fed through inlets 520 and into interior region 531 . Feed gas 16, having been fed through inlets 520, is contained in interior region 531 between cathode 501 , anode 511 and plasma wall 515 until, at step 370, the accumulated pressure of feed gas 16 forces feed gas 16 to pass through plasma wall 515 (when the pressure within region 531 is greater than the pressure within chamber 535). While feed gas 16 is passing through plasma wall 515, the required energy for the cracking of the molecules of feed gas 16 may be achieved and the molecular bonds of feed gas 16 may break due, for example, to the high temperature, rapid collision of molecules with electrons, the impact of hits that ions have on the molecules of feed gas 16 and/or the like. The desired end products (e.g. carbon allotropes, hydrogen gas, hydrocarbon gas etc.) are formed from the cracked feed gas 16 after passing through plasma wall 515 and by the influence of the produced electrical charge in plasma wall 515 and the magnetic field. [0097] However, in some embodiments, unlike with reactor 100, the distance between cathode 501 and anode 511 is non-adjustable, and, consequently, method 300 may not include steps 310 and 350 when employing reactor 500. In some embodiments, the distance between cathode 501 and anode 511 is adjustable and method 300 may include steps 310 and 350.

[0098] Some of the products from reactors described herein and methods of operating reactors described herein may comprise new carbon allotropes which are made out of bonding between carbon atoms (such as carbon nanotubes), hydrogen gas, and also new hydrocarbons which are made from bonding between atoms of carbon, hydrogen and available hydrocarbons.

[0099] Reactors described herein are particularly valuable for cracking hydrocarbon gases but are not to be limited to cracking only hydrocarbon gases.

[0100] The described methods and apparatus are more economically valuable compared to other methods and apparatus for creating hydrogen, as these methods and apparatus produce valuable carbon nanostructures and other valuable carbon allotropes, substantially increasing economic viability. In addition, reactors described herein are economically efficient due the ability of the reactors to re-use use hydrogen gas produced by the reactor to stabilize the plasma wall. Additionally, reactors described herein may crack hydrocarbons without producing significant amounts of carbon dioxide.

[0101] Elements of particular embodiments of the invention (e.g. controller 39) may be implemented using specifically designed hardware, configurable hardware, programmable data processors configured by the provision of software (which may optionally comprise “firmware”) capable of executing on the data processors, special purpose computers or data processors that are specifically programmed, configured, or constructed to perform one or more steps in a method as explained in detail herein and/or combinations of two or more of these. Examples of specifically designed hardware are: logic circuits, application-specific integrated circuits (“ASICs”), large scale integrated circuits (“LSIs”), very large scale integrated circuits (“VLSIs”), and the like. Examples of configurable hardware are: one or more programmable logic devices such as programmable array logic (“PALs”), programmable logic arrays (“PLAs”), and field programmable gate arrays (“FPGAs”)). Examples of programmable data processors are: microprocessors, digital signal processors (“DSPs”), embedded processors, graphics processors, math co-processors, general purpose computers, server computers, cloud computers, mainframe computers, computer workstations, and the like. For example, one or more data processors in a control circuit for a device may implement methods as described herein by executing software instructions in a program memory accessible to the processors.

[0102] Processing may be centralized or distributed. Where processing is distributed, information including software and/or data may be kept centrally or distributed. Such information may be exchanged between different functional units by way of a communications network, such as a Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), or the Internet, wired or wireless data links, electromagnetic signals, or other data communication channel.

[0103] For example, while processes or blocks are presented in a given order, alternative examples may perform routines having steps, or employ systems having blocks, in a different order, and some processes or blocks may be deleted, moved, added, subdivided, combined, and/or modified to provide alternative or subcombinations. Each of these processes or blocks may be implemented in a variety of different ways. Also, while processes or blocks are at times shown as being performed in series, these processes or blocks may instead be performed in parallel, or may be performed at different times.

[0104] In addition, while elements are at times shown as being performed sequentially, they may instead be performed simultaneously or in different sequences. It is therefore intended that the following claims are interpreted to include all such variations as are within their intended scope.

[0105] Software and other modules may reside on servers, workstations, personal computers, tablet computers, data encoders, data decoders, PDAs, and other devices suitable for the purposes described herein. Those skilled in the relevant art will appreciate that aspects of the system can be practised with other communications, data processing, or computer system configurations, including: Internet appliances, hand-held devices (including personal digital assistants (PDAs)), wearable computers, all manner of cellular or mobile phones, multi-processor systems, microprocessor-based or programmable electronics, network PCs, mini-computers, mainframe computers, and the like. [0106] In some embodiments, the invention may be implemented in software. For greater clarity, “software” includes any instructions executed on a processor, and may include (but is not limited to) firmware, resident software, microcode, and the like. Both processing hardware and software may be centralized or distributed (or a combination thereof), in whole or in part, as known to those skilled in the art. For example, software and other modules may be accessible via local memory, via a network, via a browser or other application in a distributed computing context, or via other means suitable for the purposes described above.

[0107] Where a component (e.g. a software module, processor, assembly, device, circuit, etc.) is referred to above, unless otherwise indicated, reference to that component (including a reference to a “means”) should be interpreted as including as equivalents of that component any component which performs the function of the described component (i.e., that is functionally equivalent), including components which are not structurally equivalent to the disclosed structure which performs the function in the illustrated exemplary embodiments of the invention.

[0108] Where a component is referred to above, unless otherwise indicated, reference to that component (including a reference to a “means”) should be interpreted as including as equivalents of that component any component which performs the function of the described component (i.e. that is functionally equivalent), including components which are not structurally equivalent to the disclosed structure which performs the function in the illustrated exemplary embodiments of the invention.

[0109] Unless the context clearly requires otherwise, throughout the description and any accompanying claims (where present), the words “comprise,” “comprising,” and the like are to be construed in an inclusive sense, that is, in the sense of “including, but not limited to.” As used herein, the terms “connected,” “coupled,” or any variant thereof, means any connection or coupling, either direct or indirect, between two or more elements; the coupling or connection between the elements can be physical, logical, or a combination thereof. Additionally, the words “herein,” “above,” “below,” and words of similar import, shall refer to this document as a whole and not to any particular portions. Where the context permits, words using the singular or plural number may also include the plural or singular number respectively. The word “or,” in reference to a list of two or more items, covers all of the following interpretations of the word: any of the items in the list, all of the items in the list, and any combination of the items in the list.

[0110] While processes or blocks of some methods are presented herein in a given order, alternative examples may perform routines having steps, or employ systems having blocks, in a different order, and some processes or blocks may be deleted, moved, added, subdivided, combined, and/or modified to provide alternative or sub-combinations. Each of these processes or blocks may be implemented in a variety of different ways. Also, while processes or blocks are at times shown as being performed in series, these processes or blocks may instead be performed in parallel, or may be performed at different times. In addition, while elements are at times shown as being performed sequentially, they may instead be performed simultaneously or in different sequences. It is therefore intended that the following claims are interpreted to include all such variations as are within their intended scope.

[0111] Various features are described herein as being present in “some embodiments”.

Such features are not mandatory and may not be present in all embodiments. Embodiments of the invention may include zero, any one or any combination of two or more of such features. This is limited only to the extent that certain ones of such features are incompatible with other ones of such features in the sense that it would be impossible for a person of ordinary skill in the art to construct a practical embodiment that combines such incompatible features. Consequently, the description that “some embodiments” possess feature A and “some embodiments” possess feature B should be interpreted as an express indication that the inventors also contemplate embodiments which combine features A and B (unless the description states otherwise or features A and B are fundamentally incompatible).

[0112] Specific examples of systems, methods and apparatus have been described herein for purposes of illustration. These are only examples. The technology provided herein can be applied to systems other than the example systems described above. Many alterations, modifications, additions, omissions, and permutations are possible within the practice of this invention. This invention includes variations on described embodiments that would be apparent to the skilled addressee, including variations obtained by: replacing features, elements and/or acts with equivalent features, elements and/or acts; mixing and matching of features, elements and/or acts from different embodiments; combining features, elements and/or acts from embodiments as described herein with features, elements and/or acts of other technology; and/or omitting combining features, elements and/or acts from described embodiments.

[0113] While a number of exemplary aspects and embodiments have been discussed above, those of skill in the art will recognize certain modifications, permutations, additions and sub-combinations thereof. It is therefore intended that the following appended claims and claims hereafter introduced are interpreted to include all such modifications, permutations, additions and sub-combinations as are consistent with the broadest interpretation of the specification as a whole.

Claims

CLAIMS:

1 . A reactor for cracking hydrocarbon molecules, the reactor comprising: a cathode shaped to define an axially oriented bore though its center extending in a first direction; an anode extending along an anode axis, the anode spaced apart from the cathode and having a curved surface that is most proximate to the cathode; a power source connected to create an electric potential difference between the anode and the cathode, the electric potential difference creating an arc of electricity between the anode and the cathode; the electric arc creating a plasma wall, the plasma wall having a generally hollow frusto-conical shape, the frusto-conical shape extending from the cathode to the anode and having a hollow region in a center of the frusto-conical shape; a feed gas under pressure, the feed gas supplied to the bore of the cathode, so that the feed gas exits the bore of the cathode into the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum, wherein the pressure applied to the feed gas forces the feed gas out from the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum through the plasma wall to a region outside of the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum.

2. A reactor according to claim 1 or any other claim herein wherein the cathode and anode are translatably movable away from one another in the first direction after the electric arc is created.

3. A reactor according to claim 2 or any other claim herein comprising an actuator configured to translate the anode in the first direction.

4. A reactor according to any one of claims 2 and 3 comprising an actuator configured to translate the cathode in first direction.

5. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 4 or any other claim herein wherein a diameter of the frusto-conical shape increases non-linearly as the frustro-conical shape extends in the first direction toward the anode.

6. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 5 or any other claim herein comprising one or more magnets which create a magnetic field, the magnetic field shaped to interact with the plasma in a manner which exerts a force which tends to force the plasma in a least one of: a direction transversely away from a central axis of the plasma cone frustum; and a direction transversely away from a feed gas inlet at the bore of the cathode.

7. A reactor according to claim 6 or any other claim herein wherein the one or more magnets are arranged to extend around at least a portion of the cathode.

8. A reactor according to claim 7 or any other claim herein wherein the one or more magnets are arranged to define a bore and at least a portion of the cathode extends in the first direction through the bore.

9. A reactor according to any one of claims 6 to 8 or any other claim herein wherein the magnets are electromagnets.

10. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 9 or any other claim herein wherein the anode is rotatable about the anode axis.

11. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 10 or any other claim herein wherein the anode axis is orthogonal to the first direction.

12. A reactor according to any one of claims 10 and 11 or any other claim herein comprising a scraper located for removing buildup from a surface of the anode as the anode rotates.

13. A reactor according to claim 12 or any other claim herein comprising a biasing member to bias the scraper against the surface of the anode as the anode rotates.

14. A reactor according to any one of claims 12 and 13 or any other claim herein wherein an edge of the anode is complementary in shape to the surface of the anode.

15. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 14 or any other claim herein comprising one or more gas nozzles for directing a control gas around the plasma cone frustum to, at least in part, shape the plasma wall.

16. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 14 or any other claim herein comprising one or more gas nozzles for directing a control gas around the plasma cone frustum, to, at least in part, cause the electric arc to travel along a tip of the cathode and rotate about a longitudinal axis of the cathode.

17. A reactor according to any one of claims 15 and 16 or any other claim herein wherein the nozzles are oriented to direct the control gas tangentially to a surface of the cathode.

18. A reactor according to any one of claims 15 to 17 or any other claim herein wherein the nozzles are oriented to direct the control gas in a substantially helical flow.

19. A reactor according to any one of claims 15 to 18 or any other claim herein wherein the control gas is hydrogen gas.

20. A reactor according to any one of claims 15 to 18 or any other claim herein wherein the control gas comprises hydrogen gas produced by the reactor and recirculated through the reactor.

21 . A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 19 or any other claim herein wherein the anode is cylindrical in shape and has a cylinder axis that is co-axial with the anode axis.

22. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 20 or any other claim herein wherein the anode is round in cross-section and a diameter of the anode varies along the anode axis.

23. A reactor according to any one of claim 22 or any other claim herein wherein a maximum diameter of the anode, d_max, is substantially aligned with a longitudinal axis of the cathode.

24. A reactor according to claim 23 or any other claim herein wherein a minimum diameter of the axis, d_min, is spaced apart from the longitudinal axis of the cathode in a direction along the anode axis.

25. A reactor according to claim 24 or any other claim herein wherein a ratio of d_max to d_min is between approximately 1.1 :1 and 5:1 .

26. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 25 or any other claim herein comprising one or more heating elements for heating at least the region outside of the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum.

27. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 26 or any other claim herein comprising a cathode cooling system shaped to move coolant fluid in a region surrounding a least a portion of the cathode.

28. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 27 or any other claim herein comprising an anode cooling system shaped to move coolant fluid within at least a portion of the anode.

29. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 28 or any other claim herein wherein a catalyst agent is integrated with the cathode.

30. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 28 or any other claim herein wherein a catalyst agent is integrated with the anode.

31 . A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 28 or any other claim herein wherein a catalyst agent is coated on the cathode.

32. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 28 or any other claim herein wherein a catalyst agent is coated on the anode.

33. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 28 wherein a catalyst agent is supplied with the feed gas.

34. A reactor according to any one of claims 29 to 34 or any other claim herein wherein the catalyst agent comprises one or more of nickel tetra-carbonyl, iron pentacarbonyl, dicobalt octacarbonyl, ferrocene and cobaltocene.

35. A reactor according to any one of claims 1 to 34 or any other claim herein comprising a second cathode spaced apart from the cathode in a direction parallel with the anode axis, the second cathode shaped to define a second axially oriented bore though its center extending in the first direction; the anode spaced apart from the second cathode and having a second curved surface that is most proximate to the second cathode; the power source connected to create a second electric potential difference between the anode and the second cathode, the second electric potential difference creating a second arc of electricity between the anode and the second cathode; the second electric arc creating a second plasma wall, the second plasma wall having a second generally hollow frusto-conical shape, the second frusto-conical shape extending from the second cathode to the anode and having a second hollow region in a center of the second frusto-conical shape; a second feed gas under pressure, the second feed gas supplied to the second bore of the second cathode, so that the second feed gas exits the second bore of the second cathode into the second hollow region in the center of the second plasma cone frustum, wherein the pressure applied to the second feed gas forces the second feed gas out from the second hollow region in the center of the second plasma cone frustum through the second plasma wall to a second region outside of the second hollow region in the center of the second plasma cone frustum.

36. A method of operating a reactor, the method comprising: providing a cathode shaped to define an axially oriented bore though its center; providing an anode spaced apart by a distance, d, from the cathode and having a curved surface that is most proximate to the cathode; setting the distance, d ; inserting inert gas into a chamber of the reactor through the axially oriented bore; connecting a power source to the cathode and anode to create an electric potential difference between the anode and the cathode, the electric potential difference creating an arc of electricity in the chamber of the reactor between the anode and the cathode; the electric arc creating a plasma wall in the chamber of the reactor, the plasma wall having a generally hollow frusto-conical shape, the frusto-conical shape extending from the cathode to the anode and having a hollow region in a center of the frusto-conical shape; increasing the distance, d ; and supplying a feed gas under pressure to the chamber of the reactor, through the bore of the cathode, so that the feed gas exits the bore of the cathode into the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum, wherein the pressure applied to the feed gas forces the feed gas out from the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum through the plasma wall to a region outside of the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum.

37. A method according to claim 36 or any other claim herein wherein the chamber of the reactor has a pressure of between 0.75 and 1 .25 atmosphere.

38. A method according to any one of claims 36 and 37 or any other claim herein wherein increasing the distance, d comprises increasing the distance, d by between approximately 100% and 1000%.

39. A method according to any one of claims 36 and 37 or any other claim wherein increasing the distance, d comprises the distance, d by between approximately 500% and 800%.

40. A method according to any one of claims 36 to 39 or any other claim herein wherein setting the distance, d comprising setting the distance, dto less than 2mm.

41 . A method according to any one of claims 36 to 39 or any other claim herein wherein setting the distance, d comprising setting the distance, dto 0mm.

42. A method according to any one of claims 26 to 41 or any other claim herein comprising applying a magnetic field to the plasma wall, the magnetic field shaped to interact with the plasma in a manner which exerts a force which tends to shape the plasma wall.

43. A method according to any one of claims 36 to 40 or any other claim herein comprising applying a magnetic field to the plasma wall, the magnetic field shaped to interact with the plasma in a manner which exerts a force which tends to rotate the plasma wall.

44. A method according to any one of claims 36 to 41 or any other claim herein comprising applying a magnetic field to the electric arc, the magnetic field shaped to interact with the electric arc in a manner which exerts a force which tends to rotate the arc along a tip of the cathode.

45. A method according to any one of claims 42 to 44 or any other claim herein comprising varying the strength of the magnetic field based at least in part on the distance, d.

46. A method according to any one of claims 42 to 45 or any other claim herein comprising varying the strength of the magnetic field based at least in part on a rate of the supply of the feed gas.

47. A method according to any one of claims 42 to 46 or any other claim herein comprising varying the strength of the magnetic field based at least in part on a composition of the feed gas.

48. A method according to any one of claims 42 to 47 or any other claim herein comprising varying the strength of the magnetic field based at least in part on a magnitude of the electric potential difference.

49. A method according to any one of claims 36 to 48 or any other claim herein comprising flowing hydrogen around the plasma wall to cause the plasma wall to rotate.

50. A method according to any one of claims 36 to 48 or any other claim herein comprising flowing hydrogen around the plasma wall to shape the plasma wall.

51 . A method according to any one of claims 49 and 50 or any other claim herein wherein flowing hydrogen comprising re-using hydrogen produced by the reactor.

52. A method according to any one of claims 36 to 51 or any other claim herein comprising reducing electric potential difference between the anode and the cathode after the plasma wall has formed.

53. A method according to any one of claims 36 to 52 or any other claim herein wherein the electric potential is based at least in part on the distance, d.

54. A method according to any one of claims 36 to 53 or any other claim herein wherein the electric potential is based at least in part on the a composition of the feed gas.

55. A method according to any one of claims 36 to 54 or any other claim herein wherein the electric potential is based at least in part on a rate of the supply of the feed gas.

56. A method according to any one of claims 37 to 55 or any other claim herein comprising rotating the anode about an anode axis.

57. A method according to claim 56 or any other claim herein comprising scraping buildup from a surface of the anode as the anode rotates.

58. A method according to any one of claims 36 to 57 or any other claim herein wherein supplying a feed gas comprises supplying a catalyst gas under pressure to the chamber of the reactor through the bore of the cathode.

59. A method according to claim 58 or any other claim herein wherein the catalyst gas comprises one or more of nickel tetra -carbonyl, iron pentacarbonyl, dicobalt octacarbonyl, ferrocene and cobaltocene.

60. A method according to claim 58 or any other claim herein wherein the catalyst gas comprises nickel tetra-carbonyl.

61 . A method according to any one of claims 58 to 60 or any other claim herein comprising varying a temperature within the chamber of the reactor based at least in part on the composition of the catalyst gas.

62. A reactor for cracking hydrocarbon molecules, the reactor comprising: an anode extending in a first direction and defining a bore extending in the first direction, wherein a bore-defining surface of the anode is curved, a cathode extending in the first direction within the bore of the anode; a power source connected to create an electric potential difference between the anode and the cathode, the electric potential difference creating an arc of electricity between the anode and the cathode; the electric arc creating a plasma wall, the plasma wall having a generally hollow frusto-conical shape, the frusto-conical shape extending from the cathode to the anode and having a hollow region in a center of the frusto-conical shape; a feed gas under pressure, the feed gas supplied to the bore of the anode, so that the pressure applied to the feed gas forces the feed gas through the plasma wall and into the hollow region in the center of the plasma cone frustum.

63. A reactor according to claim 62 or any other claim herein wherein the feed gas is supplied to the bore of the anode via one or more outlets defined by the cathode.

64. A reactor according to any one of claims 62 and 63 comprising one or more of the features of any one of claims 1 to 35.

65. Methods comprising any features, combinations of features and/or sub-combinations of features described herein or inferable therefrom.

66. Apparatus comprising any features, combinations of features and/or sub-combinations of features described herein or inferable therefrom.

67. Kits comprising any features, combinations of features and/or sub-combinations of features described herein or inferable therefrom.