WO2018208862A1 - Émetteur d'électrons pour réacteur - Google Patents

Émetteur d'électrons pour réacteur Download PDF

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Publication number
WO2018208862A1
WO2018208862A1 PCT/US2018/031703 US2018031703W WO2018208862A1 WO 2018208862 A1 WO2018208862 A1 WO 2018208862A1 US 2018031703 W US2018031703 W US 2018031703W WO 2018208862 A1 WO2018208862 A1 WO 2018208862A1
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WIPO (PCT)
Prior art keywords
reactor
electron emitter
electron
cases
electrodes
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PCT/US2018/031703
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English (en)
Inventor
Alfred Y. Wong
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Alpha Ring International, Ltd.
Priority date (The priority date is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the date listed.)
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Publication date
Priority claimed from US15/589,913 external-priority patent/US10269458B2/en
Priority claimed from US15/589,902 external-priority patent/US10319480B2/en
Priority claimed from US15/589,905 external-priority patent/US20180005711A1/en
Priority claimed from US15/679,091 external-priority patent/US20170372801A1/en
Priority claimed from US15/679,094 external-priority patent/US20180322962A1/en
Application filed by Alpha Ring International, Ltd. filed Critical Alpha Ring International, Ltd.
Publication of WO2018208862A1 publication Critical patent/WO2018208862A1/fr

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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H05—ELECTRIC TECHNIQUES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H05H—PLASMA TECHNIQUE; PRODUCTION OF ACCELERATED ELECTRICALLY-CHARGED PARTICLES OR OF NEUTRONS; PRODUCTION OR ACCELERATION OF NEUTRAL MOLECULAR OR ATOMIC BEAMS
    • H05H1/00—Generating plasma; Handling plasma
    • H05H1/02—Arrangements for confining plasma by electric or magnetic fields; Arrangements for heating plasma
    • H05H1/16—Arrangements for confining plasma by electric or magnetic fields; Arrangements for heating plasma using externally-applied electric and magnetic fields
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G21—NUCLEAR PHYSICS; NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
    • G21B—FUSION REACTORS
    • G21B3/00—Low temperature nuclear fusion reactors, e.g. alleged cold fusion reactors
    • G21B3/006—Fusion by impact, e.g. cluster/beam interaction, ion beam collisions, impact on a target
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H05—ELECTRIC TECHNIQUES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H05H—PLASMA TECHNIQUE; PRODUCTION OF ACCELERATED ELECTRICALLY-CHARGED PARTICLES OR OF NEUTRONS; PRODUCTION OR ACCELERATION OF NEUTRAL MOLECULAR OR ATOMIC BEAMS
    • H05H1/00—Generating plasma; Handling plasma
    • H05H1/02—Arrangements for confining plasma by electric or magnetic fields; Arrangements for heating plasma
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H05—ELECTRIC TECHNIQUES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H05H—PLASMA TECHNIQUE; PRODUCTION OF ACCELERATED ELECTRICALLY-CHARGED PARTICLES OR OF NEUTRONS; PRODUCTION OR ACCELERATION OF NEUTRAL MOLECULAR OR ATOMIC BEAMS
    • H05H1/00—Generating plasma; Handling plasma
    • H05H1/02—Arrangements for confining plasma by electric or magnetic fields; Arrangements for heating plasma
    • H05H1/03—Arrangements for confining plasma by electric or magnetic fields; Arrangements for heating plasma using electrostatic fields
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E30/00—Energy generation of nuclear origin
    • Y02E30/10—Nuclear fusion reactors

Definitions

  • the present disclosure relates to inter-nuclear reactions and reactors for initiating and maintaining these reactions.
  • ICF inertial confinement fusion
  • magnetic confinement fusion attempts to initiate a fusion reaction by compressing and heating fusion reactants such as a mixture of deuterium and tritium in the form of a small pellet about the size of a pinhead.
  • the fuel is energized by delivering high-energy beams of laser light, electrons, or ions to the fuel target, causing the heated outer layer of the target fuel to explode and produce Shockwaves that travel inward through the fuel pellet compressing and heating the fusion reactants, thereby initiating a fusion reaction.
  • NIF National Ignition Facility
  • solutions are needed to remove heat from the reaction chamber without interfering with the fuel targets and driver beams, and solutions are needed to mitigate the short lifetime of fusion plants due to the radioactive byproducts of the fusion reactants: deuterium and tritium reactions produce neutrons.
  • Magnetic confinement fusion attempts to induce fusion by using magnetic fields to confine hot fusion fuel in the form of a plasma. This method seeks to lengthen the time that ions spend close together and increase the likelihood that they fuse. Magnetic fusion devices apply a magnetic force on charged particles in a manner that, when balanced with centripetal force, causes the particles to move in circular or helical path within the plasma. The magnetic confinement prevents the hot plasma from contacting the walls of its reactor. In magnetic confinement, fusion occurs entirely within the plasma.
  • Neutral species or simply “neutrals” are atoms or molecules with a neutral charge, i.e., they have the same number of electrons and protons, the atomic number in the case of an atom.
  • An ion or ionized atom or other particle has a charge, i.e., it has at least one more electron than proton or at least one more proton than electron.
  • a gross energy balance for a fusion reactor, Q is defined as:
  • a reactor used to produce electricity should exhibit a Q value significantly greater than 1 to be commercially viable, since only a portion of the fusion energy can be converted to a useful form.
  • Conventional thinking holds that only strongly ionized plasmas that do not have significant quantities of neutrals present have the potential of achieving Q>1.
  • Lawson criterion As the benchmark for controlled fusion reactions— a benchmark, it is believed, that no one has yet achieved when accounting for all energy inputs.
  • the art's pursuit of the Lawson criterion, or substantially similar paradigms, has led to fusion devices and systems that are large, complex, difficult to manage, expensive, and, as yet, economically unviable.
  • a common formulation of the Lawson criterion, known as the triple product, is as follows:
  • the criterion states that the product of the particle density (n), temperature (T), and confinement time ( ⁇ ⁇ ) must be greater than a number dependent on the energy of the charged fusion products (E ch ), the Boltzmann constant (k B ), the fusion cross section ( ⁇ ), the relative velocity (u), and temperature in order for ignition conditions to be reached.
  • E ch the energy of the charged fusion products
  • k B the Boltzmann constant
  • ⁇ the fusion cross section
  • u relative velocity
  • An aspect of the Lawson criterion is based on the premise that thermal energy must be continually added to the plasma to replace lost energy, maintain the plasma temperature, and keep it fully or highly ionized.
  • thermal energy must be continually added to the plasma to replace lost energy, maintain the plasma temperature, and keep it fully or highly ionized.
  • a major source of energy loss in conventional fusion systems is radiation due to electron
  • the Lawson criterion was formulated for fusion methods where electron radiation loss is a significant consideration due to the use of hot, heavily ionized plasmas with highly mobile electrons.
  • At least one source acknowledges the believed impossibility of containing a fusion reaction with a physical structure: "The simplest and most obvious method with which to provide confinement of a plasma is by a direct-contact with material walls, but is impossible for two fundamental reasons: the wall would cool the plasma and most wall materials would melt.
  • the fusion plasma here requires a temperature of ⁇ 10 8 K while metals generally melt at a temperature below 5000 K.”
  • Primarynciples of Fusion Energy A. A. Harms et al.
  • the need for extremely high temperatures is premised on the belief that only highly energized ions with charge can fuse, and that the coulombic repulsion force limits the fusion events.
  • the present teaching in the field relies on this basic assumption for the vast majority of all research and projects.
  • a negatively charged muon replaces one of the electrons in a hydrogen molecule. Since the mass of a muon is 207 greater than an electron, the hydrogen nuclei are consequently drawn 207 times closer together than in a normal molecule. When the nuclei are this close together, the probability of nuclear fusion is greatly increased, to the point where a significant number of fusion events can happen at room temperature.
  • Indech describes the electron shielding of the positively-charged repulsive forces between two deuterons located near the tip of a microscopic cone structure when electrons concentrate at the top of the cone structure due to an applied potential. As disclosed, these cones were arrayed on a surface measuring 3 cm by 3 cm.
  • One aspect of this disclosure pertains to an apparatus that can be
  • a confining wall at least partially enclosing a confinement region within which charged particles and neutrals can rotate;
  • a plurality of electrodes adjacent or proximate to the confinement region;
  • a control system including a voltage and/or current source configured to apply an electric potential between at least two of the plurality of electrodes, where the applied electric potential generates an electric field within the confinement region that alone, or in conjunction with a magnetic field, induces and/or maintains rotational movement of the charged particles and the neutrals in the confinement region;
  • a reactant disposed in or adjacent to the confinement region such that, during operation, repeated collisions between the neutrals and the reactant produce an interaction with the reactant that gives off energy and produces a product having a nuclear mass that is different from a nuclear mass of any of the nuclei of the neutrals and the reactant; and
  • an electron emitter disposed in or adjacent to the confinement region such that, during operation, the electron emitter emits
  • the electrodes are azimuthally distributed about the confinement region
  • the control system is configured to induce rotational movement of charged particles and the neutrals in the confinement region by applying time-varying voltages to the plurality of electrodes.
  • the apparatus is configured to induce rotational movement of charged particles and the neutrals in the confinement region by an interaction between the electric field and an applied magnetic field within the confinement region.
  • the apparatus may include one or more lasers configured to direct light onto the electron emitter, and where the electron emitter exhibits the photoelectric effect.
  • the electron emitter may emit electrons due thermal and/or photonic excitation by the laser.
  • suitable lasers include pulsed lasers and CW lasers.
  • the one or more lasers are high power lasers (e.g., at least about 500mW or at least about 1W).
  • at least one of the lasers is configured to direct light onto the electron emitter via an optical fiber or an optical window.
  • the optical fiber may be arranged with respect to the inner electrode and the outer electrode such that laser light is directed along or through the inner electrode.
  • the one or more laser is configured to direct light onto the electron emitter via an optical fiber arranged with respect to the inner electrode and the outer electrode such that laser light is directed along or through the confining wall.
  • the electron emitter is configured to be replaced when the material exhibiting a photoelectric effect is substantially depleted.
  • the electron emitter may have any one of many different possible configurations based on, e.g., its shape and size and its location in the apparatus.
  • the electron emitter is a solid block of material. In other embodiments, it is a powder.
  • the electron emitter is immobilized on the apparatus; for example, it may be attached to or embedded in an apparatus component such the confining wall, an outer electrode, an inner electrode, etc. In some cases, the electron emitter is not immobilized in the apparatus.
  • the electron emitter may be a powder or granular material that circulates or otherwise moves about within the confinement region during operation.
  • This type of free-flowing electron emitter need not interact with neutrals and charged species on the confinement wall or other solid structure of the apparatus. Rather, the electron emitter can interact with these species within the confinement region, in the domain otherwise occupied by gases and/or plasma species. Note that in some cases, the electron emitter material doubles as a reactant. In the non-immobilized embodiments, the reactant/emitter material produces energy and reaction products by interactions with neutral species (and/or ions) within the confinement region. [0028] In certain embodiments, the electron emitter is attached to at least one of the electrodes via distributed attachment points. In some cases, at least one of the distributed attachment points is a mechanical fastener, frictional slot coupling, and/or adhesive.
  • the electron emitter is one of a plurality of electron emitters, and the plurality of electron emitters are equiangularly spaced on an inner surface of at least one of the plurality of electrodes. In certain embodiments, the electron emitter covers an entire inner surface of at least one of the plurality of electrodes. It may be provided as sheet, sleeve, or as a plurality of discrete pieces.
  • the electron emitter has a shaped structure that produces increased electron emission proximate at least one point on the shaped structure (e.g., at a tip).
  • the electron emitter is made from a powder that is compacted or sintered.
  • the electron emitter is less than about 1.5 cm thick.
  • the electron emitter is configured to be replaced when a material in the electron emitter is substantially depleted.
  • the electron emitter is a passive element that heats and emits electrons only in response to conditions in the apparatus (e.g., the apparatus heats up or emits radiant energy during operation).
  • the electron emitter may be configured to be heated by frictional and/or plasma heat generated during operation of the apparatus.
  • the electron emitter is an active device that emits electrons independently (or quasi -independently) of conditions in the apparatus.
  • an active electron emitter can emit electrons by resistive heating or other stimulus controlled independently of the apparatus operation.
  • the electron emitter includes an electron emitting material and an independently controllable thermal element configured to heat the electron emitting material to a temperature sufficient to emit electrons into the confinement region.
  • the thermal element is a resistive heater.
  • an electron emitting material has a filament passing through or in thermal contact with the material through which current can be passed to provide Joule heating.
  • the electron emitter is a module having insulating layers providing electrical and/or thermal isolation from the plurality of electrodes, the insulating layers including one or more ceramic materials.
  • the electron emitter is configured to be moved inward into the confinement region to increase electron emission, and to be moved out of the confinement region to decrease electron emission.
  • the electron emitter composition may be any of various suitable materials. Such materials generally provide significant fluxes of electrons upon exposure to an appropriate stimulus (e.g., heating or photonic stimulation).
  • the electron emitter is a material with a low work function that does not degrade when exposed to thermal conditions during operation of the apparatus.
  • the electron emitter is a refractory ceramic material.
  • the electron emitter includes lanthanum hexaboride, tungsten boride, cerium hexaboride, calcium hexaboride, strontium hexaboride, barium hexaboride, yttrium hexaboride, gadolinium hexaboride, samarium hexaboride, thorium
  • the electron emitter includes boron or a boron-containing material (e.g., lanthanum hexaboride or ammonia borane).
  • the electron emitter may include a material that serves as the reactant.
  • the apparatus is configured to produce an electron rich region as described elsewhere herein.
  • the electron rich region produced during operation of the reactor has one or more of the following
  • the electron rich region extends from the electron emitter into the confinement region by a distance of between about 50 nanometers and 50 micrometers.
  • Another aspect of this disclosure provides methods of operating an reactor (apparatus).
  • the methods may be characterized by the following operations: (a) introducing neutrals into a confinement region at least partially enclosed by a confining wall; (b) controlling a voltage and/or current source to apply an electric potential between at least two of a plurality of electrodes adjacent or proximate to the confinement region, where the applied electric potential generates an electric field within the confinement region that alone, or in conjunction with a magnetic field, induces and/or maintains rotational movement of charged particles and the neutrals in the confinement region; and (c) emitting electrons from an electron emitter disposed in or adjacent to the confinement region to provide electrons to an electron rich region in the confinement region.
  • the rotational movement causes a reactant disposed in or adjacent to the confinement region to undergo repeated collisions with the neutrals that produce an interaction with the reactant that gives off energy and produces a product having a nuclear mass that is different from a nuclear mass of any of the nuclei of the neutrals and the reactant.
  • the apparatus structure and/or electron emitter design and operation may be as described in the preceding apparatus aspect of the disclosure.
  • the electrodes are azimuthally distributed about the confinement region, and controlling a voltage and/or current source includes applying time-varying voltages to the plurality of electrodes.
  • the electric field interacts with the magnetic field within the confinement region to induce and/or maintain rotational movement of charged particles and the neutrals in the confinement region.
  • emitting electrons from the electron emitter involves directing light from one or more lasers onto the electron emitter, when the electron emitter includes a material exhibiting a photoelectric effect.
  • the electron emitter may be, e.g., disposed on the confining wall or the inner electrode.
  • the operation of directing light from the one or more lasers may involve directing light onto the electron emitter via an optical fiber or an optical window.
  • light from the one or more lasers is directed onto the electron emitter via an optical fiber routed along or through the inner electrode or the confining wall.
  • the electron emitter is attached to or embedded in the confining wall.
  • the electron emitter may be a boron or a boron-containing material (e.g., lanthanum hexaboride or ammonia borane).
  • the method may, in some cases, result in the electron rich region having one or more of the following characteristics: an excess of electrons over positively charged particles of at least about 10 6 /cm 3 ; an electric field strength of at least about 10 6 V/m; and neutrals having an energy of, on average, of between about 0.1 eV and 2eV.
  • the electron rich region extends from the electron emitter into the confinement region by a distance of between about 50 nanometers and 50
  • the method includes an operation of heating the electron emitting material to a temperature sufficient to emit electrons into the confinement region. This can be done, e.g., via Joule heating. For example, current can be passed through a filament passing through or in thermal contact with the emitter. If the emitter is located on the confining wall, frictional and/or plasma heating may be used to heat the emitter. In some cases, the emitter is a refractory ceramic material or a material with a low work function that does not degrade when exposed to thermal conditions within the reactor.
  • the electron emitter may be attached to at least one of the plurality of electrodes via distributed attachment points. In some cases, the electron emitter covers an entire inner surface of at least one of the plurality of electrodes. In some cases, an emitter includes a plurality of discrete pieces. In some cases, the electron emitter is one of a plurality of electron emitters that are equiangularly spaced on an inner surface of at least one of the plurality of electrodes. An electron emitter may be less than 1.5 cm thick. In some cases, the method includes an operation of replacing the electron emitter when the electron emitting material is substantially depleted.
  • an electron emitter may not be immobilized in the reactor.
  • an emitter may be a powder that is compacted or sintered.
  • the composition of an electron emitter may be, e.g., barium oxide, strontium oxide, calcium oxide, aluminum, oxide, thorium oxide, lanthanum hexaboride, cerium hexaboride, calcium hexaboride, strontium hexaboride, barium hexaboride, yttrium hexaboride, gadolinium hexaboride, samarium hexaboride, thorium hexaboride, and combinations thereof.
  • the electron emitter has a material that serves as the reactant.
  • the electron emitter is a module has insulating layers (e.g., made of one or more ceramic materials) providing electrical and/or thermal isolation from the electrodes.
  • the method includes movement of the electron emitter to control electron emission.
  • the electron emitter may be moved inward into the confinement region to increase electron emission or moved outward and away from the confinement region to decrease electron emission.
  • the electron emitter is shaped and has at least one point that produces an increased electron emission proximate at least one point
  • Figures la-c depict several views of a first embodiment reactor.
  • Figures 2a-b schematically illustrate the movement of charged particles and neutral particles rotating within a confinement wall.
  • Figures 3a-d schematically depict neutral and charged particle interactions with a confinement wall.
  • Figures 4a-e depict stages of the aneutronic proton-boron-11 fusion reaction.
  • Figures 5a-d depict a reverse electrical polarity reactor.
  • Figures 6a-f depict a hybrid reactor.
  • Figures 7a-b depict a wave-particle reactor.
  • Figures 8a-b depict various electrode configurations of a first embodiment reactor.
  • Figures 9a-c depict various cross sections of a first embodiment reactor.
  • Figures lOa-d depict a first embodiment reactor in which an axial magnetic field is applied by a superconducting magnet.
  • Figures lla-b depict a first embodiment reactor in which permanent magnets are configured to apply an axial magnetic field in a first embodiment reactor.
  • Figures 12a-b depict a first embodiment reactor in which the applied magnetic field in the confinement region is applied using permanent magnets.
  • Figures 13a-c depict a configuration of a first embodiment reactor.
  • Figures 14a-c depict a configuration of a first embodiment reactor.
  • Figures 15a-c depict how ring magnets may be positioned along a common axis create a magnetic field substantially pointed along that axis.
  • Figures 16a-c depict a first embodiment reactor in which the applied magnetic field in the confinement region is applied using ring magnets.
  • Figures 17a-c depict a first embodiment reactor in which the applied magnetic field in the confinement region is applied using radially offset magnets.
  • Figures 18a-d depict a first embodiment reactor in which the applied magnetic field in the confinement region is applied using an electromagnet.
  • Figures 19a-b depict various embodiments of a reverse electrical polarity reactor.
  • Figures 20a-b depict various electron emitters that may be placed on a confinement wall.
  • Figures 21a-b depict electron emitting modules that may be placed on a confinement wall of a reactor.
  • Figure 22 depicts a reactor configured with a laser increasing or controlling electron emission from an electron emitter.
  • Figures 23a-c depicts a configuration where nuclear magnetic resonance sensing is used to determine the composition of gas reactants within a reactor.
  • Figure 24 depicts how a control system may be configured to operate a reactor using closed-loop feedback.
  • Figure 25 depicts an example of a multistage process flow that may be used to operate a reactor.
  • a reactor may generate a sustained fusion reaction making it suitable as a viable energy source.
  • a sustained fusion reaction refers to a fusion reaction in which reactor may continuously operate above unity for a period of about a second.
  • the reactor in which the fusion reaction occurs is designed or configured to constrain or confine rotating species including, typically, one or more of the nuclei participating in a fusion reaction.
  • Various structures may be provided for confining the rotating species. Typically, though not necessarily, these structures define a solid physical enclosure. As explained more fully elsewhere herein, the enclosed structure may have many shapes such as a generally cylindrical shape. Examples of suitable structures that may be used for a physical enclosure are depicted in Figures 1, 7, and 6.
  • the wall of the reactor typically serves to confine species rotating in the region adjacent to and internal to the wall.
  • the wall is confining in the sense that it confines the rotating species to remain within the reactor.
  • this wall of the reactor is referred to as the wall, the confining wall, or the shroud.
  • the wall also serves other functions: notably as an electrode, as a magnet, as a source of fusion reactants (e.g., boron compounds), and/or as an electron emitter. Because the wall constrains the reactants species physically rather than by a magnetic field or a pressure wave— as are done in conventional approaches to fusion— it is unlike any conventional fusion reactor designs. Its other functions, such as being an electrode for imparting a voltage difference, being a magnet, being a source of reactant material, and being an electron emitter, provide additional distinctions from conventional fusion reactor designs.
  • the reactor contains a wall, as described, and a space interior to the wall (which may be annular in shape) where reactant species, including a substantial fraction or percentage of neutrals, rotate and repeatedly impinge on the surface of the reactor wall and sometimes fuse with species present in the wall.
  • reactant species including a substantial fraction or percentage of neutrals
  • the resulting reaction can breakeven and result in Q > 1.
  • the ratio of energy out to energy in should be significantly greater than 1. This accounts for inherent inefficiencies in using energy generated by a fusion reaction to sustain the conditions that allow fusion to occur (e.g., particular plasma densities in the confinement region).
  • the ratio should be at least about 1.2. In certain embodiments, the ratio should be at least about 1.5.
  • the ratio should be at least about 2.
  • the reactor is continuously operated under sustainable conditions for at least about fifteen minutes, or at least about one hour.
  • hydrogen atoms rotate in the reactor and impinge on boron or lithium atoms in the reactor wall to undergo fusion.
  • the reactor includes one or more electron emitters that produce an electron flux that, during operation, produce a strong field that reduces the
  • the reactants can be any species that can support a fusion reaction in the space interior to the confining wall of the reactor.
  • at least one of the reactants is a species that is rotating within the reactor interior region.
  • both of the reactants are rotating species.
  • one of the reactants is a rotating species and the other is a species that is held stationary, such as when a reactant is embedded in a part of the reactor wall that confines the rotating species.
  • there is some combination of reactants that are rotating and stationary such that fusion may occur between rotating species or between a rotating species and a stationary species. In cases where the reacting species are
  • the physical structure of the reactor may be configured such that the rotating species need not substantially impinge on the inner surface of a wall of the reactor to support a fusion reaction.
  • the rotating species are constrained by a force such as a force that prevents them from substantially striking the reactor wall.
  • two rotating species fuse in the region interior to the confining wall (e.g., the confinement region) or along the surface of the wall.
  • a rotating species may fuse with a stationary species (e.g., a target material) located within the confinement region.
  • the reactants are species that react aneutronically. In other embodiments, the reactants are species that react neutronically. One or both of the reactants may also be a neutral, or uncharged, species. Sometimes the species present in the reactor are referred to as "particles.” However, such species are only particles at the molecular or atomic scale.
  • the disclosed small-scale, e.g., table-top, aneutonic reactors require relatively little or no biological shielding from neutron radiation. Fusion reactions in reactors described herein may be characterized as "warm fusion,” e.g., where fusion occurs in the temperature range of about 1000K to 3000K, and as such are much easier to handle compared to "hot fusion reactors" (e.g. those in tokamak reactors). Since the fusion is substantially aneutronic and "warm,” materials and thus costs associated with "warm fusion" reactors may be significantly reduced. For instance, in some cases, a prototype reactor has been built for less than $50,000.
  • the disclosed small-scale reactors may also have a small weight and footprint.
  • the rotational motion of the species in the reactor may be imparted by a number of mechanisms. One mechanism imparts rotation via the application of interacting electric and magnetic fields. The interaction is manifest as a Lorentzian force that acts on charged particles in the reactor. Examples of reactor designs that can produce a Lorentzian force to act on charged species are depicted in Figures la-c and 6. Figures la-c depict a Lorentzian driven reactor where the reactor has inner electrode 120, and where the shroud (confining wall) is an outer electrode 110.
  • rotational motion is imparted to charged species by applying a potential or a change in potential sequentially to a plurality of electrodes arranged azimuthally around a wall of the reactor.
  • An example of a suitable reactor design is shown in Figure 7.
  • the reactor is operated in a manner such that the rotating charged species interact with neutral species and impart angular momentum to those neutral species, thereby setting up rotational motion of the neutral species as well as the charged species within the reactor.
  • the majority of rotating species are neutrals and the charged species are ionized particles such as a proton (p + ). As described herein, this process may be referred to as ion-neutral coupling.
  • Figure 2a schematically illustrates the ion-neutral coupling process in which a few charged particles 204 impart motion to the surrounding neutral particles 206.
  • the reactor is designed to emit electrons in an internally localized region of the reactor where fusion events are expected to occur.
  • these electrons may form an electron-rich region 232 near the confining wall 210.
  • the presence of excess electrons lowers the Coulomb barrier and thereby increases the probability of fusion.
  • emitting electrons in this manner can produce an electron-rich region that reduces the intrinsic Coulombic repulsion between two positively charged nuclei, which are candidates for fusion.
  • the electron emission occurs at or adjacent to the wall that confines the rotating species within the reactor.
  • electron emission is provided by passive structures such as boron-containing coupons or strips embedded in or attached to the confining wall of the reactor.
  • Such passive structures emit electrons when the localized temperatures increase during operation of the reactor.
  • electron emission is implemented using active structures that are controlled independently of the heating produced during normal operation of the reactor.
  • An example of an active structure for electron emission is depicted in Figures 21a and 21b and includes separately controlled resistive elements for heating the individual electron emitters.
  • Another aspect of this disclosure relates to structures or systems for capturing and converting energy produced by a fusion reaction within the reactor.
  • One class of energy capture systems provides for direct capture of electrical energy produced by traveling alpha particles generated by the fusion reaction. This may be done by generating an applied electric field in the path of emitted alpha particles which causes the alpha particles to decelerate and generates an electric current in a circuit connected to the electrodes used to produce the electric field.
  • Another class of energy capture systems provides for energy capture using heat engines such as those including a turbine, heat exchanger, or other conventional structure employed to convert thermal energy produced from the fusion reaction into mechanical energy.
  • Neutral species interacting with the wall of a reactor provide a different type of interaction than has been employed in conventional fusion studies.
  • the repeated interactions take place over a relatively large volume, which may be the annular space next to the inner wall of or the inner surface of the confinement wall.
  • Figure 2b illustrates an example trajectory path a neutral 206 may have as it moves along the surface of the confinement wall 210.
  • Figure 3d depicts an inelastic collision of a charged particle, e.g., a proton, with the confining wall. This situation contrasts with the frequent elastic collisions that neutrals such as atomic hydrogen have with the confining wall (previously depicted in Figure 3a).
  • a charged particle approaches and departs from the confining wall, the particle may experience Bremsstrahlung energy loss. This energy loss is caused by electrostatic interaction between the charged particle and electrons in the electron-rich region. As a result of the electrostatic forces, some kinetic energy is lost, and high energy electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays are emitted.
  • conventional fusion reactors that focus on trying to fuse ionized particles,
  • Bremsstrahlung radiation may result in significant energy loss.
  • a weakly ionized plasma having a high proportion of neutrals to ions these losses are largely avoided.
  • FIG. 4a depicts the stages of the aneutronic fusion reaction that occurs when a hydrogen atom or proton fuses with a boron 11 atom.
  • a proton traveling at high velocity collides with a boron 11 atom, and the two nuclei fuse to form an excited carbon nucleus, depicted in 483.
  • the excited carbon nucleus is short-lived, however, and decomposes into a beryllium nucleus and an alpha particle that is emitted having a kinetic energy of 3.76 MeV, as seen in 484.
  • Figures 4b-e depict the various stages of the same proton-boron 11 fusion reaction shown in Figure 4a in relation to the surface of the confining wall 412.
  • Figure 4a depicts a proton traveling at high velocity towards a surface of boron 11 atoms on the confining wall.
  • Figure 4c depicts the stage at which the neutral hydrogen has fused with a boron atom to form a carbon nucleus.
  • the carbon nucleus has decomposed into a beryllium nucleus one alpha particle.
  • the beryllium nucleus decomposes, emitting two additional alpha particles. Because the potential reactants are neutral species rather than ions, most of their interactions with atoms in the surface of the confinement wall are elastic collisions. In contrast, a positively charged particle entering the wall will be deflected by electrostatic repulsive forces at a distance from other nuclei in the wall. These electrostatic interactions cause the charged particle to lose energy; i.e., the collisions are inelastic.
  • a neutral particle which has a positively charged nucleus screened to a degree by the orbital electrons, does not experience the same repulsive force. As a consequence, the neutral is more likely to directly impact another atom in the wall.
  • the rotating neutral particles undergo many repeated interactions with the wall and those that are unproductive in producing a fusion reaction elastically rebound with relatively little energy loss.
  • the neutrals tend to reemerge from the wall and with sufficient energy that they can enter into a next interaction with the wall which might be productive in creating a fusion reaction.
  • Each of the interactions with the wall has a probability of resulting in a fusion reaction between the neutral nucleus and the nucleus of an atom in the wall.
  • ni and n 2 are the densities of the respective reactants
  • ⁇ is the fusion cross section at a particular energy
  • v is the relative velocity between the two interacting species.
  • the values of the densities of the species may be on the order of 10 20 cm “3 for the rotating species and 10 23 cm “3 for the immobilized species (e.g., boron)
  • the values of the fusion cross section may be on the order of 10 "32 cm 2
  • the relative velocity of the interacting species may be on the order of 10 3 m/s.
  • each reactant is a nucleus having an intrinsic positive charge which must first be overcome to allow some probability of a fusion reaction.
  • Certain embodiments of the present disclosure employ much lower temperatures; e.g., on the order of 2000K (0.17eV) in fusion reactions. These embodiments employ neutral species as one or more reactants and/or modify the reaction environment to reduce the strong Coulombic repulsive force between reactant nuclei. Reduction of the Coulombic force may be accomplished in various ways including, for example, (i) providing an electron rich field in the region of the reaction and/or (ii) aligning the quantum mechanical spins of reactant nuclei.
  • the apparatus and methods for reducing Coulombic repulsion may take many forms. The following description assumes that the reactor includes an annular space with an outer confining wall or shroud. Other reactor structures can likewise produce reduced Coulombic repulsion environments that support fusion, but they may accomplish this in manners different than the one that follows.
  • the emitted electrons will diffuse away from the location where they are emitted, e.g., away from the wall and toward an interior space.
  • the centrifugal force of the neutrals constrains the electrons to the region near the inner surface of the outer electrode.
  • a resulting thin region of balanced forces adjacent to the inner surface of the electrode possesses a strong field that reduces the Coulombic repul si on b etween reactant nucl ei .
  • the force balance may be expressed mathematically as the equilibrium of (i) the gradient (in a direction away from the wall surface in which electrons are emitted) of the product of the temperature and the density of electrons and neutrals, and (ii) the centrifugal force exerted toward the inner surface.
  • the centrifugal force is
  • r is the radial direction away from the inner surface of the confining electrode
  • K is the Boltzmann constant
  • T e and T 0 are the electron and neutral temperatures in Kelvin
  • n e and n 0 are the densities of electrons and neutrals
  • n 0 is the density of neutral species
  • m 0 is the mass of one rotating neutral species (e.g., a hydrogen atom)
  • ⁇ 2 is the square of the angular velocity of the rotating neutral species.
  • the free electrons create a strong electrical field (see the schematic representation of electron-rich region 232 adjacent confining wall 210 in Figures 2a-b).
  • the high concentration of neutrals limits the mean free path of the electrons, preventing them from following ballistic trajectories and thus obtaining sufficient kinetic energy to significantly ionize the neutrals.
  • there are relatively few positive ions available for recombination because the neutrals have a significantly higher density than the ions.
  • the prevalence of ions to neutrals may be in the ranges of less than about 1 : 10, less than about 1 : 100, less than about 1 : 1000, or less than about 1 : 10000.
  • the neutrals are frequently positioned between the electrons and positive ions. This set of conditions produces a high concentration of excess electrons near the confining wall's inner surface and hence a strong electric field.
  • the electron-rich region may be characterized by any combination of the following parameter values:
  • Density of positive ions about 10 15 - 10 16 /cm 3 (about 10 "5 to 0.01% of neutrals)
  • Thickness (radial) of free electron-rich region (region where most of the electron density gradient exists) about 1 micrometer
  • Electric field strength in the electron-rich region about 10 6 to 10 8 V/m
  • Electron temperature about 1800-2000 K. (about 0.15 to 0.17 eV)
  • the free electrons in such systems may be viewed as collectively catalyzing the fusion reaction of two nuclei.
  • one or more muons in association with protons and deuterons are sometimes described as catalyzing the fusion of hydrogen and deuterium atoms.
  • the free electrons in the vicinity of fusing nuclei catalyze fusion reactions described herein.
  • the electrons reduce the energy barrier that prevents the two reactants from coming close enough to react. This is very similar to the action of any catalyst in a chemical or physical context. Both muons and electrons increase the rate of reaction but do not actually participate in the reaction; they simply reduce the energy barrier required to bring the reactants in close enough proximity to react.
  • Muon and electron catalysis have few other similarities. Muon catalyzed fusion is not commercially viable for various reasons. Notably, muons have a much greater mass than electrons and hence producing them is much more energetically expensive. Further, only relatively few of them can be produced at any instant in time, which means the breakeven requirement for fusion is not
  • breakeven fusion may require approximately 10 17 successful fusion interactions per cubic centimeter per second. Only a few nuclei in a large pool would be able to benefit from muon catalyzed fusion, nowhere near the level needed to support fusion.
  • electrons can be easily produced, and in high density. For example, in accordance with the techniques disclosed herein, electrons can be generated at densities of approximately 10 20 per cubic centimeter or greater. With such high densities, the electrons act collectively to produce a high electric field, which over a relatively large volume reduces the Coulombic barrier to interaction between approaching nuclei. Such a relatively large volume permits the needed interactions to breakeven, i.e. at least about 10 17 successful fusion interactions per cubic centimeter per second.
  • a "reactor” is an apparatus in which one or more reactants react to produce one or more products, often with an accompanying release of energy.
  • the one or more reactants are provided in a reactor by continuous delivery, intermittent delivery, and/or a one-time delivery. They may be provided in the form of gasses, liquids, or solids.
  • a reactant is provided as a component of a reaction; for example, it may be included in a structure of the reactor such as a wall. Boron 11, lithium 6, carbon 12, and the like may be provided in a confining wall of a reactor.
  • a reactant is provided from an external source such as from a gas supply tank.
  • the reactor is configured to promote a nuclear fusion reaction having a Q > 1.
  • a reactor may have components for removal of products and/or energy produced during the reaction.
  • Product removal components may be ports, passages, getters, and the like.
  • Energy removal components may be heat exchangers and the like for removing thermal energy, inductors and similar structures for directly removing electrical energy, etc.
  • the reactor components may permit products and energy to be removed continuously or intermittently.
  • a reactor has one or more confining walls that contain the reactants, and in some cases, provides a source of reactant, an electrical field, etc. As illustrated throughout this disclosure, reactors suitable for providing a sustained fusion reaction may have many different designs.
  • a "rotor” is a reactor or reactor component in which one or more reactant or product species (particles) rotates in a space.
  • the space may be defined at least in part by a confining wall as described herein.
  • the rotation is induced by a magnetic force, an electrical force, and/or a combination of the two, as in the case of a Lorentz force.
  • the rotation is induced by applying an electrical and/or magnetic force to electrically charged particles in a manner that causes them to rotate in a confinement region; the rotating charged particles collide with neutrals to cause the neutrals to likewise rotate in the confinement region, a phenomenon sometimes called ion-molecule coupling.
  • the confining wall or other outer structure of the rotor may have many closed shapes as described herein.
  • the outer structure has a generally or substantially circular or cylindrical shape. In such cases, the shape need not be geometrically exact, but may exhibit certain variations such as eccentricity around an axis of rotation, non- continuous curvature such as vertices, and the like.
  • the confinement region of a rotor has an interior rod or other structure arranged concentrically with respect to the confining wall.
  • the rotor has an "annular space” where the particles rotate.
  • an "annular space” refers to a confinement region wherein the region is substantially ring-shaped. It should be understood that some rotors do not have an interior rod or other structure to define an annular space. In such cases, the confinement region of the rotor is simply a hollow structure. While an annular space may have a generally cylindrical shape, such a shape may exhibit certain variations such as eccentricity around an axis of rotation, non-continuous curvature such as vertices, and the like.
  • the "Lorentz force” is provided by a combination of electric and magnetic forces on a charge due to the resulting electromagnetic fields.
  • the magnitude and direction of the force is given by the cross product of the electric and magnetic fields; hence the force is sometimes referred to as J x B.
  • the force applied to a charged particle has a rotational direction that may be represented by the right-hand rule mnemonic.
  • aneutronic reaction is conventionally understood to be a fusion reaction in which neutrons carry no more than 1% of the total released energy.
  • an aneutronic reaction or a substantially aneutronic reaction is one that meets this criterion.
  • aneutronic reactions examples include:
  • neutronic reactions examples include
  • the coulombic repulsion force is the electrostatic force experienced by two or more particles of the same charge. For two interacting particles, it is proportional to the reciprocal of the square of the separation distance (Coulomb's law). Thus, the repulsion becomes significantly stronger as charged particles approach one another.
  • the repulsive force experienced by a charged particle in an electric field produced by multiple charged particles is given by the superposition of the contributions of all charged particles in the vicinity.
  • Lowering the coulombic barrier means that the commonly known and understood coulombic repulsion force typically calculated or experienced between two isolated particles is "lowered” or reduced by some calculable degree when the particles are in some proximity to a sufficient number of electrons or other charged particles to reduce the repulsive force that isolated particles would otherwise experience.
  • the presence of excess electrons at a density of XX reduce the coulombic repulsive force between two positively charged YY particles in the domain of the electrons by ZZ%.
  • Figures la-c depict a first embodiment of a reactor in which charged particles, charged species, or ions are rotated by the Lorentz force.
  • Figure la is a cross-section view of a reactor, while Figure lb provides an isometric cutout view of the same reactor along of section A-A from Figure la.
  • directionality using the r, ⁇ , and z coordinates pertains to a cylindrical coordinate system as shown in Figure lb.
  • a Lorentzian driven rotor has outer wall 110, which also serves as the outer electrode, and concentric inner electrode 120, sometimes referred to as a discharge rod, that is separated from the outer electrode by annular space 140.
  • An electric field is formed across the annular space by applying an electric potential between the inner electrode 120 and the shroud 140.
  • a sufficient electric potential is applied between the electrodes, a portion of the gas in the annular space is ionized, and a radial plasma current across the annular space is generated.
  • the inner electrode is held at a high positive potential while the shroud is grounded such that the electric field, and the flow of current, is substantially in the positive r-direction.
  • Figure lc depicts how the Lorentzian force is used to drive charged particles azimuthally within the confining wall 110.
  • the discharge rod has been removed and the axis has translated in the z-direction to improve clarity.
  • a magnet such as a permanent magnet or a superconducting magnet is used to generate an applied magnetic field that is substantially parallel to the z-axis
  • the magnetic field is substantially perpendicular to the direction of the electrical current causing the moving charged particles, charged species, and ions to experience a Lorentz force in the azimuthal (or ⁇ ) direction.
  • the discharge rod has a positive potential vis-a-vis the outer electrode (e.g., the discharge rod has an applied positive potential while the outer electrode is grounded), thereby producing an electric field in the r-direction (144).
  • positively charged ions will move in the r-direction towards the outer electrode through the annular space 140.
  • the ions will experience a Lorentz force in the - ⁇ direction, or clockwise direction as viewed from the perspective shown in Figure lb and lc.
  • the electric field and magnetic field may be at an angle that differs from the perpendicular yet is not parallel, such that perpendicular components, to a lesser or greater extent, are present in sufficient strength to create a sufficiently strong azimuthal Lorentz force.
  • This azimuthal force acts on charged particles, charged species, and ions, which in turn couple with neutrals such that neutrals in the annular space between the central discharge rod and outer electrode also are made to move at high rotational velocity.
  • the lack of any moving mechanical parts means that there is little limitation to the speed at which rotation can occur, thus providing rotation rates of neutrals and charged particles that are in excess of, for example, 100,000 RPS.
  • Figures 5a-d depict another embodiment in which a reactor may utilize a Lorentzian force to drive ions and neutrals, through ion-neutral coupling, into rotation.
  • Reactors configured for reverse electrical polarity differ from the reactors depicted in Figures la-c in that the electric field, and the flow of current (by convention in the direction of positive charge movement), is substantially in the negative r-direction.
  • Figure 5a is a cross-section view of a reactor, while Figure 5b provides an isometric cutout view of the same reactor along of section A-A from
  • a reverse electrical polarity rotor has outer electrode 510 and concentric inner electrode 520 that is separated from the outer electrode by annular space 540, sometimes referred to herein as a confinement region.
  • a radial electric field directed towards the inner electrode may be formed in the annular space by applying an electric potential to the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode. When a sufficient electric potential is applied between the electrodes, a portion of the gas in the annular space is ionized, and a radial plasma current across the annular space is generated.
  • Figure 5c depicts how the Lorentzian force is used to drive charged particles azimuthally within the reactor.
  • the inner electrode has been removed from view, and the depicted axis has been translated in the z-direction to improve clarity.
  • a magnet such as a permanent magnet or a superconducting magnet is used to generate an applied magnetic field that is substantially parallel to the z-axis (i.e., in a substantially axial direction) within the annular space.
  • the magnetic field is substantially perpendicular to the direction of the electrical current causing the moving charged particles, charged species, and ions to experience a Lorentz force in the azimuthal (or ⁇ ) direction.
  • the inner electrode has an applied negative potential while the outer electrode is grounded (or held at a positive potential) producing an electric field in the negative direction (544).
  • positively charged ions will move in the negative r-direction towards the inner electrode through the annular space 540.
  • a magnetic field concurrently points in the z-direction (546)
  • the ions will experience a Lorentz force in the + ⁇ direction or counterclockwise direction as viewed from the perspective shown in Figure 5b and 5c.
  • the electric field and magnetic field may be at an angle that differs from the perpendicular yet is not parallel, such that perpendicular components, to a lesser or greater extent, are present in sufficient strength to create a sufficiently strong azimuthal Lorentz force.
  • This azimuthal force acts on charged particles, charged species, and ions, which in turn couple with neutrals such that neutrals in the annular space are also made to move at high rotational velocity.
  • the lack of any moving mechanical parts means that there is little limitation to the speed at which rotation can occur, thus providing rotation rates of neutrals and charged particles that are in excess of, for example, 100,000 RPS.
  • Figures 6a-d depict multiple views of another reactor embodiment that utilizes a Lorentzian force to drive ions and neutrals, through ion-neutral coupling, into rotation.
  • the reactor of this embodiment operates using a reverse fields configuration.
  • Reactors having this configuration differ from the reactors depicted in Figures la-c and Figures 5a-d in that the orientation of the electric field and the magnetic field within the confinement region are reversed.
  • the magnetic field instead of being substantially parallel to the z-axis, is directed radially in the positive or negative r-direction.
  • the electric field rather than being directed radially, is substantially parallel to the z-axis.
  • Figure 6a is an isometric view of the reactor
  • Figure 6b is a view of the reactor in the z-direction
  • Figure 6c is an isometric section view of the reactor (corresponding to line A-A in Figure 6b)
  • Figure 6d provides a side view of the reactor.
  • the depicted embodiment includes an inner ring magnet 626 and a concentric outer ring magnet 616 that also serves as the confining wall.
  • the ring magnets have their poles oriented in the same direction, such that corresponding surfaces of the inner and outer ring magnets are the same.
  • the exterior surface is a north pole 658
  • the interior surface is a south pole 659.
  • the region between concentric magnets forms the annular space 640 which is bound in the z-direction by electrodes on one end of the confinement region 660a and electrodes on the other end of the confinement region 660b. Generally, all the electrodes on either side of the confinement region
  • electrodes 660a (corresponding to electrodes 660a or to electrodes 660b) are given a similar electric potential.
  • electrodes 660a may be a single contiguous electrode forming, for example, a ring or a disk shape. If electrodes 660a are grounded and electrodes on the other side of the annular space 660b are given a positive potential then an electric field is applied through the confinement region in the positive z-direction. If the magnetic field points in the direction (as depicted) the orthogonal electric and magnetic fields cause ions to rotate azimuthally in the ⁇ direction (see, e.g., Figure 6c). Alternatively, if an electric field was pointed in the negative z-direction by applying a positive potential to electrodes 660a while grounding electrodes 660b, ions would rotate in the - ⁇ direction.
  • FIG. 7 a and 7b A second embodiment of a controlled fusion device is shown in Figures 7 a and 7b in which ions rotate as a result of oscillating electrostatic fields.
  • ions are accelerated azimuthally by electric fields produced from multiple discrete wall electrodes714 located on, or forming, an outer ring, optionally in combination with interior electrodes 724 located on, or forming, an inner ring to generate localized, azimuthally-varying electric fields within an annular space 740.
  • the wall electrodes collectively form the confining wall, and in some cases, the wall electrodes may be disposed on or within a portion of a confining wall or scaffold.
  • the electric field advances azimuthally in a controlled sequence such that the electrostatic force applied to ions proceeds sequentially in a substantially azimuthal direction (in the ⁇ or - ⁇ direction).
  • An oscillatory potential may be applied to the electrodes.
  • the oscillations may vary in phase or other parameter from one electrode to the next to induce or maintain rotational movement of ions.
  • Ions present in the annular space experience an electrostatic force as a result of electric fields, and only a relatively small number or percentage of ions are needed to drive large numbers or percentages of neutrals through the principle of ion-neutral coupling.
  • Ions used to drive the neutrals into rotation may be generated by any suitable mechanism such as inductive or capacitive coupling.
  • ions are generated when an RF charge sequence is applied to the wall and/or interior electrodes.
  • the wall and/or interior electrodes may first undergo an initial charge sequence to ionize some of the neutral gas in the annular space and then transition to a different charge sequence that drives the rotation of ions.
  • a charge profile used to ionize a gas might simply involve grounding the confining wall electrodes 714 while applying a high potential to the interior electrodes 724.
  • a gas that is already partially ionized may be introduced into the annular space740.
  • an electrode may be, for instance, held at a ground potential for a duration of time or may have a charge sequence that is asymmetrical (e.g., a positive potential is held for twice the duration of a negative potential).
  • this system does not require a magnetic field such as an axial static magnetic field.
  • Figure 7a depicts an example of this embodiment taken at a first point in in time when the electrodes are provided with a first potential profile such that ions (e.g., a cloud or a grouping of ions) 704 experiences a force in the -& direction.
  • Figure 7b depicts the embodiment of Figure 7a at a later point in time when the electrodes are provided with a different potential profile such that ions 704 continue to experience an azimuthal force in the - ⁇ direction.
  • a reactor includes features for producing both Lorentzian force and an oscillating electrostatic field to drive ions and neutrals, through ion-neutral coupling, into rotation. At any stage of operation, the reactor may use one or both of these mechanisms.
  • Figure 6a is an isometric view of the reactor
  • Figure 6b is a view of the reactor in the z-direction
  • Figure 6c is an isometric section view of the reactor (corresponding to line A-A in Figure 6b)
  • Figure 6d provides a side view of the reactor
  • Figures 6e and 6f are section views (corresponding to line B-B in Figure 6d) at different points in time.
  • the depicted embodiment includes an inner ring magnet 626 and a concentric outer ring magnet 616 that also serves as the confining wall.
  • the ring magnets have their poles oriented in the same direction, such that corresponding surfaces of the inner and outer ring magnets are the same.
  • the exterior surface is a north pole 658
  • the interior surface is a south pole 659.
  • the region between concentric magnets forms the annular space 640 which is bound in the z-direction by one or more pairs of electrodes 660a and 660b.
  • an electric field substantially parallel to the z-direction is generated in the annular space, for example, by applying a positive potential to electrodes 660a while grounding electrodes 660b.
  • the orthogonal electric and magnetic fields cause them to rotate azimuthally in the - ⁇ direction (see, e.g., Figure 6c). If a positive potential were applied to electrodes 660b while electrodes 660a were grounded, ions would rotate in the ⁇ direction.
  • a plurality of electrodes 660a and 660b are distributed radially along the annular space.
  • the reactor may be driven in a fashion similar to that of the reactor in Figures 7a and 7b.
  • each electrode pair is driven with a substantially similar electric potential that differs from the potential of an adjacent electrode pair such that a localized electric field is generated in the ⁇ direction.
  • the voltages applied to electrode pairs can be modulated in a controlled sequence so that the electrostatic force applied to ions presents a substantially continuous azimuthally (in the ⁇ or - ⁇ direction) varying component.
  • a reactor may be configured to operate in a manner that initially drives ions and neutrals by a Lorentzian force and then transitions to driving ions and neutrals using the just described alternating electrostatic fields.6.
  • reactors may be classified into groups by the power output they provide. In this manner reactors of the present disclosure are, for purposes of this discussion, divided into small, medium and large scale reactors. Small scale reactors are typically capable of generating between about 1-1 OkW of power. In some embodiments, these reactors are used for personal applications such as powering automobiles or providing power to a household. The next classification is medium scale reactors which typically deliver between about lOkW -50MW of power.
  • Medium scale reactors may be used for larger applications such as server farms, and large vehicles such as trains, and submarines.
  • Large scale reactors are reactors that are designed to output between about 50MW -10GW of power and may be used for large operations such as powering portions of a power grid and/or industrial power plants. While these three general classifications provide practical categories to which the present disclosure may relate, reactors disclosed herein are not tied to any of these categories.
  • the surface area (product of the perimeter and axial direction) of a shroud or confining wall typically limits the maximum power that may be generated by a reactor.
  • a shroud having a large surface area supports fusion reactions over the large area of an interior surface (e.g., 122 in Figure la).
  • the radius of the interior surface of the shroud is typically about 1 centimeter to about 2 meters and the surface area of the interior surface is typically between about 5 cm 3 and 20 cm 3 .
  • the radius of the interior surface of the shroud is typically about 2 m to about 10 m and the surface area of the interior surface is typically between about 25 m 3 and 150 m 3 .
  • the radius of the interior surface of the shroud is typically about 10 meters to about 50 meters and the surface area of the interior surface is typically between about 125 m 3 and 628 m 3 . In some cases the radius of the interior surface may be on the order of kilometers, having a similar footprint to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) run the CERN laboratory in Switzerland.
  • LHC Large Hadron Collider
  • Figures la-c depict the structure of a reactor having concentric electrodes that utilizes a Lorentzian rotor to drive charged particles and fusion reactants into rotation.
  • This embodiment has an inner electrode 120, an outer electrode 110, and an annular space 140 between the two electrodes. During operation, an applied potential between these electrodes creates an electric field 144 that is substantially in the r- direction. While not shown, this embodiment also includes permanent magnets or an electromagnet (e.g., a superconducting magnet) that generates a magnetic field 146 in the z-direction between the inner and outer electrodes.
  • an electromagnet e.g., a superconducting magnet
  • the reactor depicted in Figure la has a gap 142 that radially separates the outer surface of the inner electrode 112 and the interior surface of the outer electrode 122. While the surface areas of the facing surfaces of the inner and outer electrodes may dictate the scale of a reactor, the radial gap may remain relatively constant across a wide range of applications. In some cases, the upper limit of a gap may be limited by the power available to ionize gas in the annular space and generate a plasma current, while the lower limit of the gap may be limited to manufacturing tolerances. When a gap is very small, e.g. less than 0.1 mm, any misalignment between the electrodes may cause the electrodes to touch creating a short circuit.
  • the gap may be between about 1 mm and about 50 cm, and in some embodiments, the gap may be between about 5 cm and about 20 cm.
  • the gap may vary along the r-direction and/or the z- direction of a reactor.
  • the radius of the inner electrode may vary as a function of position along the z-axis while the radius of the inner surface of the outer electrode is constant.
  • the length in the z-direction of the confining wall created by the outer electrode may be determined by the radial dimensions and the power generation requirements of the reactor.
  • the length of the outer electrode in the z-direction may be limited by the type and configuration of magnets used to create the magnetic field. For example, if permanent magnets are placed on either end of the annular space along the z-direction (as depicted in Figure 11), the outer electrode may be limited to about 5 or about 10 cm in the z-direction.
  • the length of the outer electrode in the z-direction may be much longer.
  • the outer electrode may be between about 1 meter and about 10 meters.
  • the outer electrode 110 is of a similar length to the inner electrode 120, however, this need not always be the case.
  • the inner electrode may extend beyond the outer electrode in one or both directions.
  • the length of the outer electrode may exceed the length of the inner electrode such that the outer electrode extends beyond the inner electrode in one or both directions.
  • Figures la-lb depict one configuration in which a solid, circular inner electrode is used in conjunction with circular outer electrodes
  • electrode shapes there are many permutations of electrode shapes that may be used in this configuration.
  • Several non- limiting examples of alternate embodiments will be apparent to those of skill in the art and are discussed with reference to Figures 8a-b and Figures 9a-c. While several illustrative examples are provided, one can easily understand how many additional electrode shapes are feasible.
  • the inner electrode 820 may be a ring-like structure that is not solid all the way through. Providing a cavity or an open space within the inner electrode may be useful for heat dissipation, the use of internal magnets such shown in Figures 17a-c, or the use of other components within the reactor.
  • the radius of the inner and outer electrodes may vary along the z-direction of a reactor. For example, as shown in Figure 8a, an inner electrode 820 may have a larger circumference at some locations along the z-direction, reducing the gap 842 at those locations.
  • a uniform inner electrode may be used with an outer electrode having an inner radius that changes or even fluctuates along the z-direction.
  • both the radius of the inner electrode 820 and the radius on the inner surface of the outer electrode 810 vary in the z-direction such that the gap 842 is maintained along the z-direction of the reactor.
  • Figures 9a-c depict cross sections of reactors that have non-circular cross sections.
  • the inner electrode 920, and the outer electrode 910 may have a radius that varies azimuthally, i.e., in the ⁇ direction.
  • the surfaces of the inner and outer electrodes (912 and 922) may have an elliptical cross section as shown in Figure 9a.
  • the major and minor axis of an ellipse-shaped cross section electrode may only be off by a small percentage, for example, less than 1%.
  • surface 912 and/or 922 may form a polygonal cross section, such as the reactor shown in Figure 9b having a cross section that forms a heptagon.
  • surfaces 912 and 922 may have 4 or more sides; in some embodiments more than 8 sides, and in some embodiments more than 16 sides. Having corners on surface 912 may be
  • the radius of the inner or outer electrodes, defined by surfaces 912 and 922 may vary in the ⁇ direction such that the cross section of either surface has a patterned edge; e.g., an edge that is sinusoidal, saw-tooth shaped, or square- wave shaped.
  • the inner and outer electrodes in the depicted embodiments are co-axial, in some embodiments the axes of the inner and outer electrodes are offset, e.g., the annular space is eccentric, such that the inner and outer electrodes have z- direction axes that are substantially parallel but not collinear.
  • Materials for inner and outer electrodes may depend on the reactor size, selected fusion reactants, and other parameters that govern the operation of a fusion reactor. In general, there are many trade-offs such as ranges in cost, thermal properties, and electrical properties that determine which materials are selected for reactors. Refractory metals (e.g., tungsten and tantalum) may be chosen for small scale reactors because of their extremely high melting points and relatively high electrical conductivity at high temperatures; however using these materials in a large scale reactor may significantly increase the cost of a reactor.
  • Refractory metals e.g., tungsten and tantalum
  • the electrode materials have a sufficiently high melting temperature to withstand the thermal energy released during operation of the reactor.
  • the material of the outer electrode should have a melting temperature that is in excess of temperatures reached by the electrodes during operation of the reactor. In some cases the material chosen for an electrode is greater than about 800 °C, in some cases the melting temperature of an electrode is greater than about 1500C, and in other cases the melting temperature is greater than about 2000°C.
  • the electrode material it is beneficial for the electrode material to have a high thermal conductivity. If heat can be extracted from an electrode (e.g., using a heat exchanger) at an equivalent rate to which heat is introduced to the electrode during steady state conditions, then a reactor may be suitable for continuous operation. When an electrode material has a high thermal conductivity, the rate at which heat be extracted may be improved and concerns of overheating are reduced. In
  • the electrode material may be beneficial for the electrode material to have a high heat capacity.
  • a high heat capacity By having a high heat capacity, an electrode increases in temperature at a slower rate during operation of the reactor.
  • the generated thermal energy may continue to be dissipated through the electrodes between pulses, preventing the electrodes from reaching their melting temperature.
  • the specific heat of the electrode should be higher than about 0.25 J/g/°C, in some cases, the specific heat should be greater than about 0.37 J/g/°C, in other cases, the specific heat should be higher than about 0.45 J/g/°C.
  • the electrode material has a relatively small coefficient of thermal expansion.
  • a reactor may have improved performance over a greater range of temperatures. For example, if a reactor has a gap that is about 1 millimeter at room temperature, the gap may be proportionally much smaller during steady state operation due to the expansion of the inner and/or outer electrodes. If a thermal coefficient is too high, the outer and inner electrodes may touch causing a short circuit. Alternatively, if a reactor is designed to have a certain gap at operating temperatures, the gap may be larger than desired when a reactor is first turned on.
  • the linear coefficient of thermal expansion of an electrode material is less than about 4.3 x 10 "6 °C " ⁇ in some cases the linear coefficient of thermal expansion of an electrode material is less than about 6.5 x 10 °C _1 , and in other cases the linear coefficient of thermal expansion of an electrode material is less than about 17.3 x 10 "6 °C " ⁇
  • the electrodes may be designed to have mechanical properties such as resistance to degradation during thermal cycling. Under certain conditions, some materials, e.g. stainless steels, become brittle and eventually experience fatigue as a result of thermal cycling. If a reactor operates in pulsed operation and an electrode is rapidly heated and cooled, internal stress may develop. In some cases, the effects of thermal loading cycles may be reduced by using an electrode having a single bulk material, or by using two or more materials having similar coefficients of expansion. Certain materials may experience deformation due to creep at high temperatures. Thus electrode materials may be chosen to maintain their strength at elevated temperatures.
  • Electrode materials may be chemically inert and not significantly affected by oxidation, corrosion, or other chemical degradation over the lifetime of a reactor. Another consideration for electrode materials is whether or not they are
  • ferromagnetic In some cases, if ferromagnetic materials are used, internal localized magnetic fields are created that may interfere with establishment or maintenance of the intended magnetic field within the annular space.
  • the inner and outer electrodes may be made from a material that is sufficiently conductive such that, during operation, an electric potential is evenly applied over the surfaces of the electrodes.
  • the resistivity of the inner or outer electrode material is less than about 7xl0 "7 ⁇ m, and in some cases less than about 1.68xl0 "8 ⁇ m.
  • the inner and outer electrodes may be conductive at higher operating temperatures. During operation the inner or outer electrode may reach temperatures of between about 600 °C to about 2000 °C. During operation, the resistivity of the outer electrode material should be no greater than about 1.7E-8 ⁇ m, and in some cases no greater than about 1E-6 ⁇ m.
  • Hydrogen embrittlement is a process by which metals such as stainless steel become brittle and in some cases fracture due to the introduction and subsequent diffusion of hydrogen atoms or molecules into the metal. Since the solubility of hydrogen increases at higher temperatures, the diffusion of hydrogen into the electrode material may increase during operation of the reactor. When assisted by a concentration gradient in which there is significantly more hydrogen outside the metal than inside, e.g., caused by the centrifugal densification of hydrogen atoms that impinge on the confining wall, the diffusion rates may be increased further.
  • an electrode may be susceptible to a process known as hydrogen attack in which hydrogen atoms diffuse into the into the steel and recombine with carbon to form methane gas. As methane gas collects within the metal, it generates internal pressure that may lead to mechanical failure of the device.
  • electrodes may include platinum, platinum alloys, and ceramics such as boron nitride, each of which resist hydrogen
  • the metallurgical structure may be modified so that the effect of hydrogen in the lattice of a metal is less detrimental.
  • a metal or metal alloy may undergo a heat treatment to achieve a desired metallurgical structure.
  • the inner and outer electrodes are primarily constructed of metals and metal alloys.
  • the inner and/or outer electrode is made at least in part from a refractory metal having a high melting temperature.
  • Refractory metals are known for being chemically inert, suitable for fabrication using powder metallurgy, and are stable against creep at very high temperatures. Examples of suitable refractory metals include niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, zirconium, hafnium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium and iridium.
  • at least the outer electrode includes tantalum.
  • one or both electrodes are made using stainless steel. Benefits of stainless steel include its machinability and resistance to corrosion.
  • electrodes are made at least in part from a non-carbon based stainless steel, such as Incoloy, which may be more resistant than carbonized stainless steels to hydrogen embrittlement.
  • an electrode may be made at least in part of a nickel alloy that maintains its strength at very high temperatures such as Inconel, Monel, Hastelloys, and Nimonic.
  • electrodes are made at least in part from copper or a copper alloy.
  • an electrode is configured with one or more channels for internal cooling to extract heat, such that materials with lower resistance to extreme temperatures may be used.
  • absorption of a fusion reactant may increase the rate of a fusion reaction
  • a rotating gas reactant such as hydrogen may collide with a fixed hydrogen atom fixed on the outer electrode (or the confining wall).
  • reactants are provided to the reactor by diffusing reactants through the inner and/or the outer electrode.
  • an electrode may include titanium, palladium, or a palladium alloy for the purpose of delivering fusion reactants or increasing the rate of collisions between fusion reactants.
  • an outer or inner electrode may include an electron emitting material having a high electron emissivity.
  • an outer electrode may include a target material that includes a fusion reactant.
  • the target material is consumed during operation as a result of a fusion reaction.
  • lanthanum hexaboride is used as a target material, and boron- 11 atoms are consumed during a proton-boron reaction.
  • the outer electrode is monolithic, being made from a single material, and in other embodiments, the outer electrode has a layered or segmented structure including two or more materials.
  • the interior surface of the outer electrode, the confining wall includes a target material (a material containing a fusion reactant), or an electron emitting material.
  • a target material or an electron emitter may cover the entire surface area of the confinement wall, and in some cases, a target material or electron emitter is located at one or more discrete locations along the confinement wall (e.g., as depicted by the electron emitters in Figures 21a-b).
  • an inner layer of the outer electrode provides one property while a more exterior layer provides a different property.
  • an interior layer that forms the surface of the confinement wall may have a high melting temperature, while an exterior layer may have a superior thermal conductivity or electrical conductivity.
  • an electrode may include a layer of material forming the confinement wall that has a higher resistance to hydrogen embrittlement than the rest of the electrode.
  • an electrode includes a ceramic coating that can prevent hydrogen atoms from penetrating into the lattice of the outer electrode or provide thermal insulation of the bulk electrode material.
  • an outer electrode may have a layer of aluminum nitride, aluminum oxide, or boron nitride. Some materials that have a low electrical conductivity at room temperature (e.g. boron nitride) may be heat treated to improve their electrical conductivity.
  • an electrode may undergo a surface treatment that adds material to the electrode surface and reduces hydrogen embrittlement.
  • embrittlement may be reduced by adding minor amounts of a noble metal to the electrode surface.
  • the noble metal may only cover a small portion of the electrode surface.
  • the noble metal may cover less than about 50%, less than about 30%, or less than 10% of the electrode surface while providing a significant reduction of hydrogen embrittlement to the electrode.
  • small amounts of platinum, palladium, gold, iridium, rhodium, osmium, rhenium, and ruthenium may be added to an electrode surface to reduce hydrogen embrittlement.
  • small spots e.g., about .5 inches in diameter
  • a noble metal powder may be added to a reactor, and during normal operation, the powder is sputtered onto the electrode surface.
  • a nobel metal may be periodically added to the surfaces of electrodes, e.g., after reactor has operated for a predetermined amount of time.
  • a sleeve is attached to the interior surface of the outer electrode, such that the interior surface of the sleeve forms the confinement wall.
  • a sleeve may be used to, e.g., provide a target material, provide an electron emitter, provide a barrier for hydrogen penetration into the outer electrode, and/or provide thermal protection to the outer electrode.
  • a sleeve is consumable and/or replaceable. For example, if the sleeve contains a target material that is consumed, the sleeve may eventually be replaced.
  • a sleeve acts as a sacrificial layer that protects the outer electrode from hydrogen embrittlement. In situations where the sleeve itself fails due to hydrogen embrittlement, it may be replaced at a much lower cost than the entire outer electrode.
  • the outer electrode may have a porous or mesh-like structure that allows high energy charged particles to pass through the electrode while still confining rotating neutrals within the annular space. Charged particles that pass through the outer electrode may be guided by magnetic fields of an exterior magnet. In some cases, escaping alpha particles are redirected towards hardware (discussed elsewhere herein) capable of converting the kinetic energy of alpha particles into electrical energy. In some cases, the pore size in and our electrode may be less than about 100 microns, in some cases, and in some cases, less than about 1 micron. In general, the construction of the inner electrode may be similar to that of the outer electrode.
  • the inner electrode may be made of a single material, or it may have a layered or segmented structure being made of two or more materials.
  • the inner electrode may be a solid body, and in other embodiments, the inner electrode has an interior space.
  • the inner electrode may include one or more pathways for internal cooling.
  • the inner electrode is connected to a power supply that provides a current that passes from the inner electrode out to a grounded outer electrode.
  • Materials for the outer electrode are generally also suitable for the inner electrode, although, in certain embodiments, an inner electrode does not include target materials or electron emitting materials.
  • Figures lOa-d depict a first embodiment in which an axial magnetic field is applied by an electromagnet such as a superconducting magnet.
  • Figure 10a shows an isometric view of a superconducting magnet that surrounds the outer electrode of the reactor. As depicted, the magnet includes an enclosure 1056.
  • Figure 10b provides the same perspective as Figure 10a, with the enclosure 1056 of the superconducting magnet removed revealing the superconductive coil windings 1054.
  • Figure 10c provides a perspective of the reactor as viewed along the z-axis and Figure lOd is an isometric section view corresponding to the section lines, A-A, shown in Figure 10c.
  • the reactor has outer electrode 1010, inner electrode 1020, and a gap lOthat defines the annular space 1040 between the two electrodes.
  • An electrical current passes through superconductive coil windings 1054 that wrap around the reactor, creating an applied magnetic field that is substantially in the z-direction through the annular space.
  • a superconducting magnet is used to generate an applied magnetic field that passes through the annular space that is between about 1-20 Tesla. In some cases, the applied magnetic field is between 1-5 Tesla.
  • Coil windings are placed in an insulated enclosure 1056 positioned around the reactor that is kept at low-temperature (e.g., less than -180 °C) and low-pressure.
  • the enclosure 1056 may be cooled by, for example, adiabatic expansion of gas (e.g., He), or a cryogenic liquid such that the temperature of the superconductive coil is kept below its critical temperature. In some cases, the enclosure may be cooled mechanically, avoiding any need for liquid cryogens.
  • the coil windings may be made from superconducting materials such as niobium - titanium, or niobium-tin, Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCC), or Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO). Coil windings may take the form of a wire or a tape that may be wrapped in an insulating material.
  • the coil windings include any of the aforementioned superconducting materials placed in a copper matrix to provide mechanical stability.
  • commercially sold superconducting magnets may be from vendors such as Cryomagnetics, Inc., or manufacturers of Magnetic Resonance Imaging devices.
  • a magnetic matrix placed in a copper matrix to provide mechanical stability.
  • commercially sold superconducting magnets may be from vendors such as Cryomagnetics, Inc., or manufacturers of Magnetic Resonance Imaging devices.
  • a magnetic Resonance Imaging devices may be from vendors such as Cryomagnetics, Inc., or manufacturers of Magnetic Resonance Imaging devices.
  • the radius of the confining wall is typically smaller than the radius of the superconducting magnet, for example, in some cases, the radius may be limited to about 20 meters.
  • an electromagnet or superconducting magnet When an electromagnet or superconducting magnet is placed around the outer electrode, there may be spacing between the outer electrode 1010 and the enclosure of the magnet 1056. This spacing may be used reduce heat transfer to the magnet. In some cases, a heat exchanger may be placed between the outer electrode 1010 and a magnetic enclosure. When the outer electrode has a porous or mesh-like structure, there may be a spacing between the outer electrode and the enclosure of a magnet that allows for charged particles that pass through the outer electrode.
  • Charged particles, e.g., alpha particles, passing through the outer electrode may be constrained in the r-direction by ion cyclotron motion so that they do not collide with the enclosure 1056.
  • the spacing between the outer electrodes is between about 3 cm to about 6cm, and in some cases, between about 6 cm and about 10 cm. Charged particles may then travel in the z-direction towards energy conversion means for generating electrical energy as described elsewhere herein.
  • Figures lla-b depict a reactor in which permanent disk-shaped magnets 1150 are placed on either end of the annular space 1140 to generate an applied magnetic field that is
  • Figure 11a provides a perspective viewed along the z-direction
  • Figure lib provides an isometric section view that corresponds to the indicated section lines in Figure 11a.
  • the reactor has an inner electrode 1120, an outer electrode 1110 forming the confinement wall 1112, and an annular space between the inner and outer electrodes.
  • Magnets 1150 are placed on either side of the annular space and have the same magnetic orientation. For example, both magnets may have a north pole facing in the positive z-direction, or both magnets may have a north pole facing in the negative z-direction.
  • the magnets 1150 may be ring-shaped such that the magnet is in proximity to the annular space 1140 and provides a substantially uniform magnetic region along the inner surface of the outer electrode 1112.
  • the ring-shaped magnets have the same pole orientation as the disk-shaped magnets depicted in Figures 11.
  • Figures 12a-b depict another embodiment in which a plurality permanent magnets 1250 having the same polarity in the z-direction (e.g., the same orientation as the disk-shaped magnets depicted in Figures 11), are placed on either side of the annular space 1240 to generate an applied magnetic field in the z-direction along the inner surface of the outer electrode 1212.
  • Figure 12a provides a perspective in the z- direction
  • Figure 12b provides an isometric section view that corresponds to the indicated section lines, A-A, in Figure 12a.
  • Some features are labeled in an enlarged view 1201, which depicts how the annular space is bound by the inner electrode 1220, the outer electrode 1210, and permanent magnets 1250.
  • Using a plurality of smaller magnets may be useful to reduce costs and physical constraints associated with larger monolithic magnets for large-scale reactors.
  • the arrangement of magnets 1250 shown in Figures 12a and 12b may be viewed as effectively creating two facing ring magnets. While not shown, in some embodiments a combination of different magnet shapes is used to generate the axial magnetic field. For example, a ring magnet may be used on one side of the annular space while a plurality of bar magnets may be used on the other.
  • Figures 13a-c depict an embodiment in which a reactor 1300 with a single inner electrode 1320 has multiple annular spaces 1340 separated by permanent magnets 1350 that are arrayed along the z-direction.
  • the reactor has inner electrode 1320, a plurality of outer electrodes 1310 that form the confinement wall 1312, which is a combination of wall segments, and an annular space 1340 between each outer electrode and the inner electrode.
  • Figure 13a provides a perspective viewed along the z-direction
  • Figures 13b and 13c provide a section view and an isometric section view, respectively, that correspond to the indicated section lines in Figure 13a.
  • the length of the annular space in the z-direction may be limited by the strength of the magnetic field that can be generated by permanent magnets.
  • the annular space may be limited to, for example, about 5 or 10 cm.
  • each magnet bordering an annular space may be made of many smaller magnets that collectively form a ringlike structure (see Figures 12a-b).
  • the outer electrode 1310 may be segmented into physically distinct parts that are electrically isolated.
  • the outer electrode may be monolithic or otherwise electrically connected, for example, such that each outer electrode segment corresponding to each annular space 1340 is grounded.
  • Figures 14a-c depict an embodiment in which a single reactor structure 1400 has multiple annular spaces 1440 separated by permanent magnets 1450 that are arrayed along the z-direction. As depicted, the reactor has a plurality of inner electrodes 1420 and a plurality of outer electrodes 1410 forming the confinement wall 1412 for the annular space 1440 between each set of electrodes.
  • Figure 14a provides a perspective in the z-direction
  • Figures 14b and 14c provide a section view and an isometric section view that correspond to the indicated section lines in Figure 14a.
  • a reactor as shown may operate using only a subset of the available annular spaces depending on energy demands. For example, in some embodiments fusion reactants are only introduced into one annular space and a voltage potential is only applied to the inner electrode adjacent to that annular space. In this manner, the energy output of a reactor may be controlled to meet energy demands, even in real time if necessary. Therefore, in some embodiments, individual inner electrodes 1420 and/or outer electrodes 1410 are independently controllable.
  • Figures 15a-15c illustrate the magnetic field generated by a series of ring that magnets 1550 are that substantially coaxial and have the same orientation.
  • Figure 15a is an isometric view of three magnets
  • Figure 15b depicts a view along the magnet's shared axis
  • Figure 15c is a section view corresponding to the line A-A in Figure 15b. While previous embodiments have made use of magnets that are offset from the annular space in the z-direction, magnets may also be offset from the annular space radially in r-direction.
  • each ring magnet when considered individually, generates a magnetic field 1545
  • the net effect can be a combined magnetic field that is a superposition of the individual magnet fields and substantially pointed along the shared axis as indicated by the solid magnetic field lines 1546.
  • This magnet configuration may be used to extend the feasible length of an annular space of a reactor while using permanent magnets.
  • Figures 16a-16c illustrate an embodiment using radially offset ring magnets 1650 to generate an axial magnetic field through the annular space.
  • the reactor has a single inner electrode 1620 and a single outer electrode 1610 that forms the confinement wall 1612 for the annular space 1640 between the electrodes.
  • Figure 16a provides a perspective of the reactor as viewed along the z-direction, while
  • Figures 16b and 16c provide a section view and an isometric section view that correspond to the indicated section line in Figure 16a.
  • Each of the magnets 1650 has the same polarity along the z-direction. For example, as depicted, each of the magnets 1650 has its south pole facing in the positive z-direction. This embodiment allows for an extended annular space in the z-direction, creating a larger surface area on the confining wall 1610 and allowing for a greater power output potential. Overlapping features from corresponding embodiments of Figures 13 and 14 may apply to the embodiments of Figures 16a-c.
  • Figures 17a-17c illustrate an embodiment using radially offset magnets (1750, 1752) to generate an axial magnetic field through a single annular space.
  • the reactor has a single inner electrode 1720 and a single outer electrode
  • Figure 1710 that forms the confinement wall 1712 for the single annular space 1740 between the electrodes.
  • Figure 17a provides a perspective of the reactor as viewed in the z- direction
  • Figure 17b and 17c provide a section view and an isometric section view that correspond to the indicated section line in Figure 17a.
  • the embodiment of Figures 17a-c goes beyond the embodiment described with relation to Figures 16a-c in that additional magnets 1752 are placed in the interior region of the inner electrode 1620. As depicted, the additional magnets 1752 have the same orientation along the z- direction as the exterior magnets 1750.
  • the inner ring magnets 1752 are aligned with the outer ring magnets 1750 in the z-direction.
  • the inner ring magnets may be offset from the outer ring magnets, or the spacing between magnets may differ from the spacing of the outer magnets.
  • the interior magnets may take a different shape than the exterior magnets, e.g. the interior magnets may be bar magnets.
  • permanent magnets are made from rare earth elements or alloys of rare earth elements. Examples of suitable magnets include samarium-cobalt magnets and neodymium magnets. Other strong magnets known now or later developed may be suitable for use. In some embodiments permanent magnets may be used to generate a field that that is between about 0.1 and 1.5 about Tesla in the annular space; in some embodiments, permanent magnets may generate a magnetic field between about 0.1 and about 0.5 Tesla in the annular space.
  • FIG. 18a-d depict a first embodiment in which an axial magnetic field is applied by an electromagnet. As depicted, the reactor has an inner electrode 1820 and an outer electrode 1810 that forms the confinement wall 1812 for the annular space 1840 between the electrodes.
  • Figure 18a shows an isometric view of an electromagnet that is placed over the reactor.
  • Figure 18b provides a perspective of the reactor as along the z-axis and Figures 18c and 18d depict a section view and an isometric section view corresponding to the section lines shown in Figure 18b.
  • An electrical current is passed through coil windings 1854that wrap around reactor in the z-direction to create an applied magnetic field that is substantially in the z-direction through the reactor as depicted by the magnetic field lines in Figure 18c.
  • the electrical current through the electroconductive coil may be provided by an AC or a DC power supply. In cases where the electroconductive coil is driven by an AC power supply, the inner electrode and/or outer electrode may also be driven by an AC power supply at the same frequency.
  • the coil may be made from a conductive material such as copper, aluminum, gold, or silver.
  • the coil takes the form of a wire that is wrapped around the outer electrode, in some embodiments the coil is placed in a separate enclosure that may be placed around the outer electrode.
  • a reverse electrical polarity rotor was previously described in Figures 5a to 5c.
  • the structure of electrodes corresponding to the first embodiment are also descriptive of a reverse electrical polarity rotor.
  • materials for inner and outer electrodes, the gap between electrodes (542 in Figure 5a), and the configurations of magnets used to produce a magnetic field in the z-direction may be the same as described for the concentric electrode reactors.
  • some embodiments employ different structural configurations and/or different materials (e.g., different materials on the inner electrode).
  • Figure 5d depicts a cross selection of a reverse electrical polarity rotor.
  • An electric field may be applied in the negative r-direction by applying a negative voltage to the inner electrode and grounding the outer electrode, by grounding the inner electrode and applying a positive potential to the outer electrode, or by applying a more negative potential to the inner electrode than is applied to the outer electrode.
  • an electric field is generated by applying an electric potential to the inner and/or outer electrode, positively charged particles in the annular space 540 are drawn towards the inner electrode 520. As the charged particles move inward, a Lorentz force azimuthally accelerates the particles which may result in a spiraled trajectory as illustrated by path 503.
  • this electron-rich region may reduce the Coulombic barrier between fusing nuclei. In some cases, this electron-rich region may extend out about 100 um to about 3 mm from the surface of the inner electrode.
  • a positively charged particle may orbit the inner electrode at a Larmor radius 502.
  • the concentration of positively charged particles may vary in the radial direction. For example, there may be a higher concentration of positively charged particles circling the annular space at a Larmor radius, than near the outer electrode. This gradient of charged particles may result in a velocity distribution within the annular space with particles tending to move more slowly near the outer wall where there is a higher concentration of neutrals due to a centrifugal force and fewer positively charged particles to drive the neutrals into motion.
  • an inner electrode is constructed from a single material such as tantalum, tungsten, copper, carbon, or lanthanum hexaboride.
  • an inner electrode has a conductive core 520a that is coated with an electron emitting and/or target material 520b.
  • the inner electrode may have a core made from a conductive and heat resistant material, e.g., tungsten, which is coated with lanthanum hexaboride, boron nitride, or another boron-containing material.
  • the inner electrode has a diameter that is between about 1 cm and about 3 cm, and in some cases, between about 4 cm and about 6 cm.
  • the inner electrode has a tiny cross-section, for example, it may be a filament or wire.
  • the inner electrode may have a diameter less than about 0.5 mm, less than about 0.1 mm, or less than about 0.05 mm.
  • the inner electrode may extend between about 3 cm and about 10 cm in length in the z- direction.
  • the inner electrode may be small in the z- direction, e.g., less than about 3 cm, or less than about 1 cm.
  • the inner electrode may be much longer in the z-direction, e.g., longer than about 20 cm.
  • the confinement region in the z-direction for a reverse electrical polarity reactor may be limited by the power source that applies a charge to the inner and/or outer electrode.
  • the length in z-direction may depend on the gas pressure within the confinement region.
  • the power needed to generate a plasma within the annular space may be reduced if the gas pressure is reduced to a very low pressure allowing for an increased length in the z-direction.
  • FIG 19a depicts several methods by which the inner electrode may be actively cooled.
  • inner electrode 1910 has an internal pathway 1928 through which a passing fluid removes heat. For example, water may be pumped through the internal pathways to remove heat from the inner electrode.
  • an inner electrode may be joined to a ceramic block 1923 that is thermally conductive and electrically insulating.
  • a ceramic block may be made of materials such as aluminum oxide. Heat is dissipated through the ceramic block, removing heat from the end of the inner electrode to which it is connected.
  • a ceramic block contains an opening or hole to support the inner electrode.
  • an inner electrode is fixed to the ceramic using a set screw.
  • the heat conducted through the ceramic block is used to generate electrical power, e.g., via thermoelectric generators or heat exchangers that are coupled to the ceramic block.
  • the inner electrode may be replaced if the target material is consumed or if the electrode is damaged.
  • a boron coated filament that is used as an inner electrode may be replaced when the boron coating is consumed or when the filament breaks.
  • the length of the inner electrode extends beyond the annular space (as defined by the z-direction edges of the outer electrode).
  • the position of the inner electrode is adjusted in the z-direction, e.g., via a linear actuator.
  • the wire may be drawn through the annular space during operation of the reactor to prevent the inner electrode from melting, or to replace a section of the wire where a target material (e.g., a boron coating) has been consumed.
  • the width of the inner electrode may vary in the z-direction.
  • Figure 19b depicts a configuration in which the inner electrode 1920 extends beyond the outer electrode 1910 and is held in place by a sleeve 1921 that may act as an extension of the inner electrode.
  • Sleeve 1921 may be made from conductive materials such as copper, stainless steel, and tantalum.
  • a potential may be applied to the inner electrode through the sleeve; this may reduce resistive heating to inner electrodes that have a small diameter.
  • the diameter of the sleeve may be much greater than that of the inner electrode.
  • the diameter of the sleeve may be greater than about 10 cm while the diameter of the inner electrode is less than about 0.5 mm.
  • the inner electrode may be fixed to the sleeve using set screws.
  • the sleeve may be threaded directly into the sleeve. These and other attachment mechanisms may allow the inner electrode 1920 to be replaceable, while the sleeve 1921 is permanent.
  • the sleeve may be coated with a target material such as boron.
  • a sleeve may be internally cooled as discussed in Figure 19a.
  • the gap between the inner and outer electrode may be limited by a power supply's ability to generate a plasma in the confinement region.
  • the outer electrode may be similar in construction to the outer electrode described for the first embodiment.
  • the outer electrode may have an exterior insulating layer. This may be useful, e.g., if an alternating signal is applied the electrodes of a reactor, or if the reverse electrical polarity reactor is part of a modular unit consisting of additional reactors that need to be electrically isolated from one another.
  • the supporting structure of both the inner and outer electrode may include electrically insulating materials insulate the electrodes from the housing of the reactor, and prevent alternative current paths between the electrodes.
  • the outer electrode is a metallic sheet (e.g., a copper sheet) that is confined to a cylindrical shape by being placed within a quartz tube.
  • an outer electrode is a solid tubular structure that is placed within an insulating structure.
  • the electrode is made by coating the interior surface of a quartz tube with a metallic conductive coating.
  • a reverse electrical polarity reactor is operated at a constant voltage.
  • a voltage supply may apply a potential to the inner electrode and/or outer electrode so that a constant or substantially constant potential difference between the electrodes is maintained during operation of the reactor.
  • a reverse electrical polarity reactor is operated at a constant current. Operating at constant current may be beneficial when the inner electrode is small and susceptible to failure due to resistive heating.
  • a reactor is initially operated using constant voltage and then transitioned to a constant current mode of operation.
  • an energy storage device such as a capacitor or a battery is used to apply a potential to the inner electrode and/or outer electrode to initiate a fusion reaction.
  • circuitry regulates the current and/or voltage supplied by the energy storage device.
  • an energy device e.g., a capacitor
  • an energy device is connected to the inner electrode and/or outer electrode and discharged until the energy storage device is no longer capable generating an electric field strong enough to support a fusion reaction.
  • a reactor is configured with an additional energy storage device that is charged by electrical energy generated from the fusion reaction while the first energy storage device is discharged. A controller may then operate a switch that that alternates the energy storage devices between charging and discharging modes, so that a fusion reaction may be maintained.
  • a power supply is disconnected from either the inner and/or outer electrode, and a fusion reaction may continue to occur for a period (e.g., about 10 seconds) before the potential difference between the electrodes is no longer sufficient to sustain the fusion reaction.
  • the voltage or current source may again be reconnected to apply a negative potential to the inner electrode.
  • the gas in the annular space may be at be at a pressure of about 1 atm or higher.
  • an inner electrode may have a low pressure to reduce the power needed to initiate a fusion reaction.
  • the pressure within the annular space may be reduced to less than about 1 Torr or less than about 10 mTorr before operating the reactor.
  • the pressure within the annular space may be adjusted through inlet and outlet valves to control the rate of a fusion reaction.
  • the magnetic field is not substantially perpendicular to the electric field between the inner and outer electrodes. In some embodiments, the magnetic field is not uniform through the confinement region.
  • the magnetic field in the confinement region may be tuned by adjusting the placement and orientation of magnets and/or electrodes. In some cases, a non-uniform magnetic field may increase the rate at which ions and neutrals collide with the inner electrode.
  • the applied magnetic field and/or the potential applied to electrodes may vary depending on the geometry of a reactor, the reactant gas composition, and the reactant gas pressure.
  • the concentration of particles, particularly higher mass particles, is greater near the outer wall due to the centrifugal force. This may be helpful in extracting fusion products, which have a higher mass than the rotating reactants, from the annular space.
  • alpha particles when alpha particles are produced by a fusion reaction involving a rotating hydrogen species, alpha particles may be concentrated near the outer wall where they may then be removed through an outlet valve.
  • fusion products may be pumped into another reactor in which the fusion products are used as reactants.
  • alpha particles or helium atoms produced in a reverse electrical polarity reactor may be moved to another reactor configured to support a helium-helium fusion reaction.
  • Lorentzian rotor to impart and maintain rotational movement of particles in an annular space.
  • many of the reactors described herein may be reconfigured to apply reverse fields, albeit with the orientation of the magnetic field and electric field transposed.
  • a magnetic field in the radial direction may be applied using permanent magnets (616, and 626) made from a magnetic material such as those described in relation to the first embodiment.
  • permanent magnets may be replaced with a plurality of azimuthally offset electromagnets having radially orientated axes, such that a magnetic field, oriented substantially in the r-direction, is applied throughout the annular space.
  • the surface of the confining wall may include one or more layers that protect a magnetic material.
  • a layer of aluminum or tantalum may provide protection to either an exterior or interior magnet.
  • a protective layer may include a target material containing a fusion reactant or an electron emitter.
  • a confining wall may have an internal cooling system to keep material below its melting temperature and prevent magnets from demagnetizing.
  • the gap between the inner electrode and the outer electrode is sometimes constrained by the available power to ionize gas in the annular space.
  • the confinement region in the z-direction that separates electrodes 660a and 660b may be constrained.
  • the spacing between electrodes is in the range of about 1 mm to about 50 cm, and in some cases, the spacing is between electrodes is in the range of about 5 cm to about 20 cm.
  • the length of the annular space in the z-direction may sometimes be limited by the strength of permanent magnets.
  • the gap in the r-direction may sometimes be limited by the need to create a strong magnetic field near the surface of the confinement wall.
  • the radial gap may be limited to, for example, about 10 cm or less, or about 5 cm or less.
  • the gap may be larger; for example, in some cases, the gap may be larger than about 10 cm.
  • the interior magnet may not be necessary.
  • FIG. 7a and 7b An alternative reactor configuration, sometimes referred to as the wave- particle embodiment, was briefly described previously and is depicted in Figures 7a and 7b.
  • charged particles are driven into rotation by oscillating electrostatic fields.
  • the neutral species are pushed along by the charged particles.
  • Electric fields are created by applying charge to azimuthally separated electrodes located on the confinement wall, an interior wall, or another structure in communication with the confinement region. Since this embodiment does not require a magnetic field, the structural limitations imposed by using magnets do not apply. For example, the radius of the reactor may be larger than what is feasible for ring or disk-shaped magnets. Further, because the embodiment does not require current flow between an inner and an outer electrode, structural limitations imposed by concentric electrodes do not apply.
  • the radius of a confinement wall may be greater than about 2 meters, in some cases greater than about 10 meters, and in some cases greater than about 50 meters.
  • the length of a reactor in the z-direction is not limited by the strength of permanent magnets as may sometimes be the case in concentric electrode embodiments.
  • a confinement region e.g., an annular region
  • a curvature in the z-direction of a reactor so that that the confinement wall forms a torus or torus-like shape.
  • the size limitations of a reactor may be governed energy demands of the reactor and costs associated with production.
  • a degree of control over the rotating species may be set by defining the number and size of the azimuthally offset electrodes impacting the confinement region.
  • a relatively greater number of electrodes along the confinement wall allows the electric field lines to be more finely modulated, which can improve the efficiency at which the electric field is used to move charged particles. In some cases this is because the dynamically changing electric field drives particles points primarily in the azimuthal direction rather than the radial direction.
  • a reactor will have at least three
  • Some reactors may have at least five azimuthally spaced electrodes, some reactors may have more than about 50 azimuthally spaced electrodes.
  • the number of electrodes scales with a size of a reactor. For example, a reactor having a radius of about 1 meter may have between about 20 and about 40 azimuthally spaced electrodes along the confinement wall while a reactor having a radius of about 2 meters may have about 40 to about 80 azimuthally spaced electrodes.
  • the ratio of a reactor's circumference, in meters, to the number of azimuthally spaced inner or outer electrodes is between about 3 and about 150, and in some cases the ratio is between about 20 and 100.
  • the electrodes are separated by an electrically insulating material such as aluminum nitride or boron nitride.
  • the insulating material may be sufficiently thick so that the material does not experience electrical breakdown. The minimum thickness may be determined by the dielectric strength of the insulating material and the voltage applied to electrodes.
  • an electrically insulating material contains a target material (fusion reactant such as boron-11) and/or an electron emitter.
  • the width of an electrode in the azimuthal direction is less than about 10 cm, in some cases less than about 5 cm, and in some cases less than about 2 cm.
  • the electrodes may have any of various shapes. For example, they may be circular or polygonal.
  • a reactor utilizes azimuthally separated electrodes only along the confinement wall.
  • a reactor utilizes electrodes only along an inner wall, or only electrodes that bound the confinement region in the z-direction (e.g., electrode placement may correspond to electrodes 660a and 660b of the reverse fields embodiment depicted in Figure 6c).
  • the surface of the confinement wall may be made of another material such as a target material or an electron emitter.
  • the electrodes may be separated from the confinement region by a sleeve that contains coupons made from lanthanum hexaboride.
  • the confinement-wall wall is configured with a thermal management component such as a heat exchanger (e.g., a cooling jacket).
  • a heat exchanger can be used to prevent electrodes from overheating and/or supply to provide heated fluid to a heat engine for generating electrical or heat energy.
  • heat may be dissipated from a reactor by passing a fluid such as water through passageways in the confinement wall.
  • insulating material separating azimuthally separated electrodes may have internal passages through which fluid is passed.
  • the gap between an inner electrode and outer electrode is sometimes constrained due to the limited power available to ionize gas in the confinement region.
  • the gap between adjacently located electrically isolated electrodes may also be constrained.
  • the spacing between electrodes is, on average, in the range of about 1 mm to about 50 cm, and in some case, the spacing is between electrodes is, on average, in the range of about 5 cm to about 20 cm.
  • a wave-particle reactor has more than one mode of operation.
  • a first phase may be employed to initiate or strike a plasma and a later phase may be used drive ions (and indirectly neutrals) in a rotational direction.
  • an RF electric field may be applied radially between the inner electrodes and the outer electrodes to generate a weakly-ionized plasma to prepare a reactor for operation.
  • the reactor may transition to a mode where drive signals are sequentially applied to the azimuthally distributed electrodes to drive charged particles and neutrals into rotation.
  • Oscillating signals applied to azimuthally distributed electrodes to drive rotation of ions and neutrals may be provided over a wide range of frequencies chosen based on the reactor configuration and the desired rotational velocity.
  • the drive signals may be applied at a frequency in the range of about 60 kHz to 1 THz, and in some cases in the range of about 60 kHz and 1 GHz.
  • the frequency of a drive signal may begin low and then increase, gradually or abruptly.
  • the drive signal may start at a relatively low frequency, e.g. 60 kHz and eventually ramp up to a much higher frequency, e.g., 100 Mhz.
  • a drive signal applies charge using a controlled voltage. To avoid arcing between electrodes electrodes, charge is ideally applied a high voltage and low current, rather than high current at low voltage. In some cases, a drive signal applies between about 1 kV and about 100 kV to azimuthally separated electrodes. In some cases, a drive signal may apply more than 100 kV to electrodes.
  • a wave-particle embodiment may induce rotational velocities that exceed that typically found in Lorentzian driven reactor having a similar reactor configuration (e.g., a similar confinement radius).
  • an electrostatically driven reactor may drive rotation of a gaseous species at a rate of at least about 1000 RPS, or in some cases at least about 100,000 RPS.
  • a control system may be used to direct how charges are applied to the electrodes.
  • a control system uses a detected velocity, determined using a high-speed camera or another sensor, as feedback to adjust a charge sequence that is applied to the electrodes.
  • azimuthally separated electrodes may have similar structural considerations and may be made from similar materials to those described in relation to the above embodiments that employ magnetic fields.
  • FIG. 6a Another general reactor configuration, which may be referred to as a hybrid reactor configuration, was briefly described with relation to Figures 6a to 6f.
  • This configuration employs both a Lorentzian rotor and a wave-particle driver to impart and maintain rotational movement of particles in an annular space.
  • a Lorentzian rotor When operating a Lorentzian rotor in a hybrid reactor, some aspects of the above-description of the reverse fields embodiment may apply.
  • azimuthally spaced electrodes of the hybrid reactor some aspects of the above- description of the wave-particle embodiment may apply.
  • a magnetic field in the radial direction may be applied using permanent magnets (616, and 626) which may be made from magnetic materials such as those described in relation to the first embodiment.
  • permanent magnets may be replaced with a plurality of azimuthally offset electromagnets having radially orientated axes, such that a magnetic field, oriented substantially in the r-direction, is applied throughout the confinement region.
  • the surface of the confining wall may include one or more layers that protect a magnetic material.
  • a layer of aluminum or tantalum may provide protection to either an exterior or interior magnet.
  • a protective layer may include a target material containing a fusion reactant or an electron emitter.
  • a confining wall may have an internal cooling system to keep material below its melting temperature and prevent magnets from demagnetizing.
  • the gap between the inner electrode and the outer electrode is sometimes constrained by the available power to ionize gas in the annular space.
  • the confinement region or annular space in the z-direction that separates electrodes 660a and 660b may be constrained.
  • the spacing between electrodes is in the range of about 1 mm to about 50 cm, and in some cases, the spacing is between electrodes is in the range of about 5 cm to about 20 cm.
  • the length of the annular space in the z-direction may sometimes be limited by the strength of permanent magnets.
  • the gap in the r-direction may sometimes be limited by the need to create a strong magnetic field near the surface of the confinement wall.
  • the radial gap may be limited to, for example, about 10 cm or less, or about 5 cm or less.
  • the gap may be larger; for example, in some cases, the gap may be larger than about 10 cm.
  • the interior magnet may not be necessary.
  • a control system may be used to direct how control signals are applied to the azimuthally separated electrodes.
  • a control system may receive feedback from sensors to adjust a charge sequence that is applied to the electrodes.
  • electrodes (660a and 660b) may have similar structural considerations and may be made from materials described as being suitable for electrodes in the first embodiment.
  • a hybrid reactor is configured to transition between operating modes while conducting a fusion reaction or just prior to conducting a fusion reaction.
  • the reactor may operate initially using a Lorentzian rotor before transitioning to a wave-particle driver to maintain particle rotation.
  • a Lorentzian driven rotor may be more efficient at initiating rotation of particles in the annular space.
  • the reactor may switch to a wave-particle drive mode of operation. In some cases, by transitioning to a wave-particle driving mode of operation, greater particle velocities and thus greater energy production may be achieved.
  • energy production may be modulated with greater precision by adjusting the sequence of drive signals that are applied to the azimuthally distributed electrodes (660a and 660b).
  • a current supply used to control the magnetic field may be terminated when the reactor enters a wave-particle mode of operation. This may be useful to prevent a Lorentzian force from acting on charged particles in the z-direction.
  • a confining wall is sometimes made at least in part of an electron emitting material, referred to herein as an electron emitter.
  • an electron emitter may emit electrons via thermionic emission above a certain temperature.
  • some boron based electron emitters have an emission temperature that is in the range of about 1500 K to about 2500 K.
  • an electron emitter may be in the form of a powder that is compacted, sintered, or otherwise converted to a form suitable for placement within the annular space.
  • an electron emitting material may be sintered or deposited using physical vapor deposition onto the confining wall of a reactor.
  • an electron emitter may be forged into a continuous structure that forms part of the confining wall or is attached to the confining wall.
  • Some electron emitters are materials having a low work function that do not degrade when exposed to the thermal and other conditions within a reactor.
  • Examples of electron emitters include oxides and borides such as barium oxide, strontium oxide, calcium oxide, aluminum, oxide, thorium oxide, lanthanum hexaboride, cerium hexaboride, calcium hexaboride, strontium hexaboride, barium hexaboride, yttrium hexaboride, gadolinium hexaboride, samarium hexaboride, and thorium hexaboride.
  • emitters may be carbides and borides of transition metals, e.g.
  • emitters may serve as a reactant of a fusion reaction such as 6 Li, 15 N, 3 He, and D.
  • an electron emitter may be a compound that includes a fusion reactant.
  • lanthanum hexaboride may act as both an electron emitter and a target material for proton- 1 *B fusion.
  • a fusion reaction product may serve as an electron emitter.
  • an electron emitter may be a composite of two or more materials, where at least one material has a low work function and emits electrons during operation.
  • an electron emitter is attached as a solid element in the confinement wall of a reactor.
  • electron emitters which may be provided in the form of coupons, have a thin or flat structure and are attached to the confining wall without protruding significantly into the annular space.
  • Figure 20a depicts several illustrative cross-sections of electron emitters. In some embodiments, these electron emitters may be attached to the surface of the confining wall using a mechanical fastener such as a clip, or a screw. In some cases, an electron emitter is configured to slide into a slot within the confinement wall and is held in place by, at least partially, friction.
  • a slot may have grooves or a clamping mechanism for holding an electron emitter in place.
  • emitters are attached to the confining wall by heat, adhesive, or another process.
  • the emitter structures have a thickness that is less than about 1.2 cm, in some cases less than about 6 mm, and in some cases less than about 3mm.
  • the dimensions of an electron emitter in the azimuthal direction or the z-direction may be limited by the physical dimensions of a reactor.
  • Figure 20b depicts several configurations in which electron emitters 2036 may be distributed symmetrically along the surface of the confining wall 2010, however in some configurations electron emitters may be positioned in only a few select regions.
  • emitters when emitters are disposed on the surface of the confining wall, they are heated by frictional and/or plasma heat that is intrinsic to the operation of the reactor.
  • an additional method may be used to add energy to an electron emitter to increase the rate of electron emission.
  • An additional method may be used to heat an emitter during initial operation of a reactor when it is still relatively cool.
  • additional methods of increasing electron emission may be used to control the rate of a fusion reaction.
  • an electron emitter on the confining wall is electrically connected to a power supply to enhance electron emission.
  • a current is passed through a filament within an electron emitting material to provide Joule heating.
  • a filament is made of a refractory metal such as tungsten.
  • the electron emitter may be separated from a grounded portion of the confining wall by an electrically insulating material.
  • a direct current is applied to a filament.
  • electron emission is further improved or controlled by applying an alternating current to an electron emitter; for example, a current having an RF or microwave signal.
  • Figures 21a-b depict an example in which Joule heating may be used to control electron emission in a reactor having concentric electrodes.
  • Figure 21a provides a view in the z-direction of the reactor having an inner electrode 2120, an outer electrode 2110 separated from the inner electrode by the confinement region (e.g., an annular space) 2140, and electron emitting modules 2136 placed along the confining wall 2112 that are powered by a power supply 2135.
  • Figure 21b provides an enlarged view of an electron emitting module located on the confining wall.
  • An electron emitting module includes an electron emitter material 2130, such as lanthanum hexaboride, that is heated by a filament 2134.
  • the module may include insulating layers, depicted as 2137 and 2138, which may provide electrical and/or thermal isolation from the outer electrode and/or confining wall (assuming they are different). These insulating layers may be made out of ceramic materials such as zirconium oxide, aluminum oxide, zinc nitride, and magnesium oxide.
  • the position of the electron emitting modules may be adjusted during operation of the reactor. For example, to increase electron emission caused by frictional heating of the rotating species, a module may be moved radially inward into the confinement region using an actuator. Alternatively, to limit a reaction, a module may be pulled out of the confinement region in order to limit the electrons being released.
  • electron emitters may have a sharp point or a cone shaped structure at one end for improved field electron emission.
  • a strong electric field occurring near the point as a result of the narrowing geometry may cause field electron emission focused at the location of the point.
  • one or more lasers are used to increase or otherwise control electron emission from an emitter.
  • a reactor 2200 may be configured with a laser 2231 to direct light within the confinement region 2240 onto an electron emitter 2230.
  • light from a laser may be optically directed through or along an inner electrode 2220 via an insulated optical fiber 2239.
  • lasers may be directed at emitters that are used for thermionic emission, they may also be directed at other materials such as titanium on the confinement wall that may exhibit the photoelectric effect. For example, metals and conductors may exhibit the photoelectric effect when impinging photons create a charge imbalance that is not neutralized by current flow.
  • Figure 22 depicts a first embodiment, in a reverse electrical polarity embodiment, a laser may be directed towards the inner, negatively charged electrode, to increase electron emission.
  • a reactor may have one or more gas valves that for introducing fusion reactants and removing fusion product.
  • standardized gas valves may be used.
  • gas valves used for low-pressure deposition and etching chambers may be suitable for the reactor.
  • a gas reactant is released into the confinement region at a location interior location; for example, a reactant species may be routed through an inner electrode.
  • a gas valve may be located at one end of the confinement region or annular space in the z-direction, and in other cases a gas reactant species is introduced into the confinement region through a valve located within the confining wall.
  • Outlet valves for fusion products may be placed at similar locations to the inlet valves.
  • outlet valves may be located on the confinement wall or at a location adjacent to the confinement wall, but offset from the confinement region in the z-direction. In some cases, an inlet and outlet valves may need to be electrically insulated from an electrode so as not to cause an electrical short to ground.
  • Inlet and outlet valves may also be accompanied with vacuum or pump systems to aid in the transport of gas species into and out of a reactor.
  • valves may include flow meter that controls the amount of gas species added into or removed from a reactor.
  • a flowmeter may be connected to a control system of the reactor to carefully limit the amount of hydrogen, or reactant species that is put into the chamber.
  • a gas inlet introduces neutrals near the confinement region and a gas outlet removes neutrals that have migrated beyond where fusion is occurring in the z-direction of a reactor.
  • a pumping system that controls the distribution of neutrals along the z-direction of a reactor is used to remove neutrals that might otherwise reduce the efficiency of converting the kinetic energy of fusion products (e.g., alpha particles) into electrical energy.
  • fusion reactants are introduced into the confinement region in liquid form.
  • the confinement region may be filled or partially filled with a liquid fuel.
  • a liquid fuel for example, liquids containing available or easily releasable hydrogen such as liquid hydrogen, ammonia, alkanes such as butane or methane, and liquid hydrides may be used in place of gaseous hydrogen.
  • a liquid fuel is provided in a manner that quickly vaporizes after entering a chamber.
  • adding a liquid fuel to a reactor is used to control the pressure within the reactor.
  • the pressure within the confinement region may be back-calculated using the ideal gas law.
  • the gas reactant pressure within a reactor may be carefully monitored so that a high neutral density is maintained and yet the structural integrity of the reactor is not compromised.
  • liquid fuel may be added in sufficient quantity or under thermal conditions that the liquid does not immediately evaporate upon entering the confinement region.
  • a current may be passed through the liquid fuel by applying a potential between electrodes.
  • a liquid seeded with charged particles such as potassium.
  • the Lorentzian force drives the charged and neutral components of the liquid fuel into rotation.
  • the liquid near the boundary layer along the confining wall may vaporize, releasing hydrogen gas or another reactant gas that may fuse with a target material on the confining wall.
  • proton- u B fusion may occur when hydrogen gas is released from the liquid fuel, and the confining wall contains lanthanum hexaboride.
  • the gaseous layer which develops between the rotating liquid and the confining wall may create a slip layer that allows the liquid in the confinement region to rotate even faster by decreasing the drag imposed by the liquid-wall interface.
  • a liquid may absorb heat and may reduce concerns of melting the electrodes. Since liquids may have high densities of the fusion reactant compared to gasses, the liquid may be used for extended periods without needing replacement.
  • a reactor may have a safety valve to release gas from a reactor if the pressure exceeds a threshold value.
  • a fusion reactant may be stored in liquid form and delivered to a reactor as a liquid or vaporized prior to delivery. By storing fusion reactants in a liquid form, a fuel supply may be small and compact.
  • a liquid fuel may be supplied to a reactor by pressurized tank.
  • a fusion reactant e.g. hydrogen
  • a fusion reactant e.g. hydrogen
  • hydrogen may be contained in small capsules that are provided to a reactor.
  • hydrogen may be stored in glass capsules that are provided to a reactor through a port in the confinement wall.
  • hydrogen may be provided in a pressurized form (e.g., at a pressure of at several atmospheres) and in some cases, hydrogen may be provided in liquid form.
  • the temperature within the reactor may melt the capsule container material, allowing the fuel to be released, immediately or over a delayed period (e.g., minutes).
  • a laser e.g., as depicted in Figure 22
  • a laser may be directed at a fuel capsule to break down the capsule material and release the reactant or fuel.
  • a fusion reactant such as hydrogen
  • storing small amounts of a fusion reactant such as hydrogen in capsules may add convenience by reducing or eliminating hardware (e.g., pressurized tanks) that might otherwise be required to store reactants safely.
  • a fusion reactant such as hydrogen may be introduced into the reactor as a solid compound.
  • polymer fuel pellets made of polyethylene or polypropylene may be provided to a reactor through a port in the confinement wall as hydrogen fuel is consumed in a reactor.
  • ammonia borane also known as borazane
  • a reactor reaches a temperature greater than about 100°C, the ammonia borane releases molecular hydrogen and gaseous boron-nitrogen
  • ammonia borane or the boron-nitrogen compounds may act as electron emitters, and in some cases, boron atoms from the ammonia borane may undergo a fusion reaction with hydrogen atoms during operation of a reactor.
  • solid fuels may add convenience by reducing or eliminating hardware that might otherwise be required to store gas fuels or liquid fuels safely.
  • a reactor may be cooled by full emersion in a liquid bath.
  • a reactor includes a heat sink that draws heat away from the reactor via conduction and transfers it to a fluid medium such as air or liquid coolant.
  • a heat exchanger may be used.
  • a fan or a pump may be used to control the flow conditions and aid in carrying away heat that is transferred to the fluid medium.
  • the fluid velocity may be adjusted, such that fluid flow is modulated between laminar and turbulent flow.
  • fluid is passed through a cooling jacket on the outside of a reactor and in some cases cooling tubes may be used to cool components within the reactor.
  • a heat sink may be a used to transfer heat to working fluid that is used by a heat engine for producing electrical energy.
  • liquids that may be used as working fluids for for cooling a reactor include water, liquid lead, liquid sodium, liquid bismuth, molten salts, molten metals, and various organic compounds including some alcohols, hydrocarbons, and halocarbons.
  • Reactors may include one or power supplies that are used to supply electrical current to electrodes, electromagnets, and other electrical components that needed to operate a reactor.
  • the power supply may control current and/or voltage between two terminals (e.g., concentric electrodes).
  • a power supply is capable of supplying a maximum voltage of about 200 volts to about 1000 volts.
  • a power supply can provide up to 600 volts to an electrode.
  • a small scale reactor may be able to provide about 0.1 A to about 100 A of current and/or deliver at least about 1 kW of power.
  • a reactor may be able to provide about 1 A to about 1 kA of current and/or deliver at least about 5kW of power. In some large scale in embodiments, a reactor may be able to provide about 1 A to about 10 kA of current and/or deliver at least hundreds of kilowatts of power.
  • a power supply may be used to provide direct current or an alternating current.
  • an alternating current is applied to electrodes to strike a plasma.
  • the voltage required to strike a plasma in the confinement region may be reduced by more than about 10% compared to when a direct current is used to strike a plasma.
  • a power source may deliver an alternating current or votage signal at frequencies greater than about 1kHz, or in some cases, greater than about 1 Mhz.
  • alternating current may be applied to both the electromagnet and the electrodes.
  • alternating signals may be applied to the electrodes and an electromagnet that have the same frequency but are out of phase.
  • a power supply may apply a current or voltage signal to an electrode or an electromagnet that is greater than about 500 Hz, or greater than about 1kHz.
  • an electromagnet is operated as the same frequency that an alternating current is applied to electrodes so that the rotation of particles may be maintained.
  • a commercially available power supply may be used to apply a current or voltage signal to the electrodes of a reactor or an electromagnet. Examples of vendors of suitable power supplies include Advanced Energy Industries and TDK -Lambda American Inc. Sensors
  • a variety of parameters may be monitored to control the rate of energy output, improve efficiency, prevent failure of components, and the like.
  • the temperature of a reactor may be monitored to ensure that the components of the reactor do not exceed defined maximum temperature values. If a permanent magnet gets too hot, it may demagnetize, and if an electrode or any other component gets too hot, it may yield or melt.
  • the operation of a reactor requires a relatively high temperature. For example, some electron emitters must acquire a sufficient thermal energy before electrons are released into the confinement region. Temperatures within a reactor may be monitored using sensors such as thermocouples, inferred imagery, and thermistors. In some cases,
  • temperatures at locations within a reactor may be inferred by measuring temperatures at other locations within the reactor.
  • the temperature at the interior surface of an outer electrode may be inferred by monitoring the temperature at the exterior surface of the outer electrode.
  • low-cost temperature sensors such as silicon bandgap temperature sensors may be used.
  • the gas pressures within the reactor may be monitored. By monitoring the pressure in front of an electron emitter, information may be gained about the density of electrons as they are pressed tightly against the confining wall. Pressure measurements from within the chamber may be used by a controller to regulate the flow rates of gas species entering and exiting the
  • rotational speeds within the confinement region or annular space may be monitored using a camera that captures hundreds or thousands of images per second. In some cases, measuring the rotation of species within a reactor may be aided by introducing species that will fluoresce or have a detectable optical signature such as argon or quantum dots. In some embodiments, the gas composition with the confinement region may be monitored for fusion products such as 4 He and 3 He or for low quantities Deuterium within a reactant gas.
  • the detection of fusion products and reactants may be performed using an in situ mass spectrometer (e.g., a qRGA from Hiden Analytical that is capable of detecting low quantities of Deuterium in a gas sample), optical spectroscopy, or an NMR sensor.
  • a reactor may be equipped with Geiger counters to detect levels of radiation.
  • Figures 23a-c depict an example of how nuclear magnetic resonance sensing may be used to determine the composition of gas reactants in a concentric electrode embodiment.
  • Figure 23a depicts a reactor having inner electrode 2320, outer electrode 2310, and a substantially uniform and time-invariant magnetic field the z-direction 2391 that passes through the confinement region.
  • the axially applied magnetic field may be used to align the nuclear spins of the rotating species and may be applied by a superconducting magnet as described elsewhere herein.
  • an axial magnetic field is greater than about .1 Tesla, in some cases, an axial magnetic field is greater than about 0.5 Tesla, and in some cases, an axial magnetic field is greater than about 2 Tesla through the confinement region.
  • FIG. 23b depicts how an azimuthally, time-varying magnetic field 2392 is generated by applying an alternating current in the z-direction of the inner electrode.
  • the alternating current passing through the center electrode has a frequency of between about 60 Hz to about 1 MHz, and in some cases about 1 MHz to about 1 GHz.
  • a detection coil 2390 is substantially perpendicular to the major axis (the z-axis) of the reactor and monitors current passing through the coil as a result of the electromagnetic radiation that was absorbed and re-emitted by the rotating species. In some cases, detection coils similar to that used in a medical NMR system may be used.
  • Monitored parameters may be provided as inputs to a control system that operates the reactor in a regime that maintains system component integrity and supports fusion.
  • the control system may control any and all parameters of the fusion reaction, and in some cases other operations such as heat energy gathering or utilization processes and conversion to electrical or other useful forms of energy.
  • the control system maintains a balance between heat generation and heat extraction.
  • control system may control application of electrical energy to electrodes in the reactor (e.g., by modulating electrical pulses, e.g., lengthening or shortening the time period between each pulse and/or changing the voltage applied to create the plasma), changing the magnetic field, for example, with an adjustable magnet in conjunction with a superconducting magnet, and changing the density of the reactants.
  • electrical pulses e.g., lengthening or shortening the time period between each pulse and/or changing the voltage applied to create the plasma
  • changing the magnetic field for example, with an adjustable magnet in conjunction with a superconducting magnet, and changing the density of the reactants.
  • a control system receives information that identifies an energy demand and adjusts process conditions accordingly.
  • a control system may also have a criterion, which when met, initiates an automated shutdown process to prevent damage to the reactor or nearby operators. For example, if the temperature of the confining wall exceeds a certain threshold, or radiation thresholds are reached, a reactor may quench the fusion reaction.
  • a control system may quench a reactor by, for example, grounding all electrodes, closing gas input valves, and/or introducing an inert gas species such as nitrogen.
  • a control system may provide closed-loop feedback as shown, for example, in Figure 24. Based upon measured input parameters from sensors 2460 and a desired energy output signal 2461, a control system 2462 may send control signals 2463 to adjust the various parameter settings of the reactor 2464 as necessary to control the energy output 2465 or meet other specifications.
  • Input parameters that are used by a controller may include parameters such as temperature, pressure, flow rates, gas composition fractions (e.g., partial pressures), particle velocities, current discharge between electrodes, and voltage.
  • the control system utilizes historical data of one or more parameters. For example, while it may be important to know a particular temperature value, it may also be important to understand the rate and/or magnitude at which temperature is fluctuating.
  • reactor settings examples include applied currents, applied voltages, applied magnetic field strength (in the case of an electromagnet), and gas flow rates (e.g., hydrogen flow rates).
  • the controller passes a control signal to a reactor component responsible for the associated setting.
  • a control signal may be passed to a power supply to instruct the power supply to apply a specified voltage.
  • a setting may also be an input parameter to the control system.
  • a controller may account for the current and/or voltage presently applied to the electrodes.
  • a controller may use machine learning to improve its decisions so that a reactor may become more efficient over time, resistant to physical changes in the device (e.g., when a part fails and is replaced), or anticipate energy demand.
  • Certain operational features of a reactor may be independently controlled.
  • the flow rate of a cooling fluid may be controlled using a system that is independent of the control system responsible for adjusting the primary operating inputs of a reactor, such as current and gas flow rates.
  • electron emitting modules e.g. as depicted in Figure 21a, may have an associated controller that receives a measured temperature of the electron emitter and determines what current should be applied to a filament to provide Joule heating.
  • control system described above may be implemented in the form of control logic using computer software in a modular or integrated manner. There are many possible ways to control operation. Based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein, a person of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate how to implement the control functions using hardware and/or a combination of hardware and software.
  • a control system may be implemented as software code to be executed by a processor using any suitable computer language such as, for example, Java, Lab VIEW, MATLAB, C++, or Python using, for example, conventional or object-oriented techniques.
  • the software code may be stored as a series of instructions, or commands on a computer-readable medium, such as a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), a magnetic medium such as a hard- drive or a floppy disk, or an optical medium such as a CD-ROM.
  • a control system may be tested and designed using a FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array), and then later manufactured through an ASIC process.
  • FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array
  • a controller may be a single chip that can securely store and execute the control logic. Any such computer readable medium may reside on or within a single computational apparatus and may be present on or within different computational apparatuses within a system or network.
  • the control system may be implemented using one or more processors, PLCs, computers, processor-memory combinations, and variations and combinations of these.
  • the control system may be a distributed control network, a control network, or other types of control systems known to those of skill in the art for controlling large plants and facilities, and individual apparatus, as well as combinations and variations of these.
  • the reactor may require little if any shielding to reduce radiation exposure.
  • the reactor may be outfitted with appropriate shielding. Neutrons readily pass through most material but interact enough to cause biological damage.
  • a reactor may be placed in an enclosure that absorbs neutrons.
  • the confinement wall of a reactor may include an external layer for absorbing neutrons.
  • shielding layers may be made of concrete having a high water content, polyethylene, paraffin, wax, water, or other hydrocarbon materials.
  • a shielding layer may include a lead or boron as a neutron absorber.
  • boron carbide may be used as a shielding layer where concrete would be cost prohibitive.
  • the ends of a reactor in the z-direction may include a material such as boron nitride that not only absorbs neutrons but is thermally and electrically insulating.
  • an electron emitter such as lanthanum hexaboride, serves the additional function of providing shielding from neurotic radiation.
  • tanks of water, oil, or gravel may be placed over a reactor to provide effective shielding.
  • the thickness of a shielding layer depends in part of what materials are used, where the reactor is located, the type of fusion reaction, and the size of the reactor. In some embodiments a shielding layer is greater than about 10 centimeters, in some cases, a shielding layer is greater than about 100 centimeters, and in some cases, a shielding layer is greater than about 1 meter.
  • Electrodes Due to the aggressive nature of the plasma and fusion products within a reactor, electrodes may become damaged, distorted, embrittled, etc. Under normal operating conditions, some components of a reactor may eventually fail and need to be replaced. Further, when operating conditions exceed certain thresholds (e.g., high temperatures, pressures, plasma potentials, or reactant concentrations), components may be damaged or wear out more quickly. In cases where hydrogen is used as a reactant, electrodes may, over time, suffer from hydrogen embrittlement. If an embrittled electrode is not replaced, it is possible for the electrode to convert into a powder. In some cases, a reactor may be inadvertently operated outside its normal operating conditions resulting in increased wear or structural damage to one or more electrodes or other components.
  • thresholds e.g., high temperatures, pressures, plasma potentials, or reactant concentrations
  • the temperature of an electrode may near its melting temperature causing the electrode to deform. In some cases, thermal stresses may cause micro-fractures to appear on or within an electrode. If an electrode has an internal cooling system that breaches to allow water vapor to enter into the confinement region, the reactor may experience a spike in the pressure.
  • Fusion reactors as described herein may be highly configurable and modular. In certain embodiments, one or more components may be replaced and/or
  • Some components are permanent and are designed to not wear out during a reactor's lifetime, and some components are expected to be replaced after a certain number of operation cycles or time in operation.
  • For each replaceable component there may be a designated procedure for the removal, handling, refurbishment, and/or replacement of the component.
  • replaceable components include one or more electrodes in the reactor, fusion reactants, containers fusion reactants (e.g. hydrogen gas canisters), and energy conversion devices associated with the reactor.
  • fusion reactants e.g. hydrogen gas canisters
  • energy conversion devices associated with the reactor.
  • Examples of indicators that a component should be replaced include a decrease in electrical conductivity of an electrode, the time the component has been in operation, and the optical properties of the component (e.g., changes to the surface of a component may be detected optically).
  • Mechanical failure may be determined by visual inspection, or in some cases, by monitoring measured parameters such as temperature, pressure, and conductivity of the electrodes.
  • a control system contains logic for determining a mechanical failure of an electrode or other component.
  • the conductivity and/or conductance of electrodes may decrease over time. Due to the volatile nature of plasma, there can be an electrically insulative dielectric coating that forms on the electrode. If the conductivity and/or conductance of an electrode is reduced, the reactor may become less efficient and/or require excess amounts of power. If nothing is done to mitigate the declining conductance and/or conductivity of a reactor, the reactor may become an electrical and/or thermal hazard. While much of the discussion herein concerns determining an electrode's conductivity and/or conductance, it should be understood that conductivity may vary from position-to-position in an electrode.
  • the conductivity of the reaction-facing surface of an electrode may be much lower, after a long period of operation, than the conductivity of an interior portion of the electrode.
  • the conductivity of the original material in an electrode may remain largely unchanged during operation, but a dielectric film formed on the reaction-facing surface of the electrode may significantly degrade the overall conductance of the electrode. Resistivity and/or resistance can be determined in lieu of conductivity and/or conductance.
  • the conductivity of the electrode may be determined by measuring the resistance between two points on the electrode surface when the reactor is not in operation. This measurement may be performed manually during a routine system check, e.g., by using a multimeter.
  • a reactor is configured with measurement circuitry that automatically measures the resistance of an electrode between operation cycles.
  • a reactor's control system may be configured to automatically determine the conductance of an electrode from a measured resistance.
  • an electrode's conductance may be determined by performing a diagnostic cycle in which a gaseous reactant in the confinement region is replaced with another gas, and a plasma is generated within the confinement region.
  • a gaseous reactant in the confinement region is replaced with another gas, and a plasma is generated within the confinement region.
  • hydrogen gas may be replaced with argon gas, neon gas, or nitrogen gas.
  • a control system may then monitor the electrical behavior of the plasma measuring the voltage of the electrodes and the current passing through the electrodes.
  • the conductivity of an electrode may be determined.
  • the conductivity of each electrode may be determined by comparing the measured electrical behavior of the argon plasma (or another plasma) to an expected electrical behavior.
  • the expected electrical behavior of a plasma such as an argon plasma, may be determined via simulation, or by measuring the electrical behavior on a new reactor that does not have a dielectric coating.
  • a reactor electrode may be assigned a predetermined threshold of low conductivity or conductance value that triggers service or replacement of an electrode. For example, if the conductivity of an electrode falls below about 80% of its expected value, the electrode may be replaced or treated to restore conductivity to an appropriate level.
  • a cleaning cycle when an electrodes conductivity or conductance falls below and acceptable level, a cleaning cycle is performed.
  • a cleaning cycle may involve introducing a cleaning gas, e.g. argon, into the confinement region and operating the reactor to generate a plasma that removes some or all of the dielectric coating.
  • a weakly ionized plasma may be sufficient to remove the dielectric coating.
  • the argon gas may be fully ionized during a cleaning cycle.
  • a chemically restorative treatment may be employed. For example, if the electrode degradation results from the formation of a hydride or other form of hydrogen- mediated reduction, the compromised electrode may be treated with an oxidizing agent, such as an oxygen-containing plasma.
  • the reactor may be determined to be unsafe to operate. This may be indicative that a thick dielectric film has formed and the reactor will require dangerous levels of power from a power source.
  • a control system or associated safety system may shut down operation until replacement or restoration of an affected electrode.
  • a reactor's control system contains logic for determining a mechanical failure of an electrode or other component and then triggering an alert or automatic shutdown of the reactor.
  • one or more of the electrodes or magnets in a reactor include a protective or sacrificial layer.
  • this sacrificial layer is a sleeve (e.g., a sleeve that forms the interior surface of the confining wall) that may be replaced at scheduled intervals.
  • a metal component such as an electrode or a sleeve may be removed to undergo a restorative process, e.g. an annealing process to remove internal stresses that may have arisen due to thermal cycling.
  • a restorative process e.g. an annealing process to remove internal stresses that may have arisen due to thermal cycling.
  • the component may be removed and the material of the component may be reprocessed to make a new part.
  • an embrittled component e.g. a tantalum electrode
  • an embrittled component may be restored to a ductile condition by annealing under a vacuum.
  • an embrittled component may be restored by annealing at around 1200 °C under a vacuum.
  • Target materials may eventually be consumed and need to be replaced.
  • some embodiments employ lanthanum hexaboride which contains boron- 11 as a reactant required for a proton-boron-11 fusion reaction. Once depleted, this material needs to be replaced. Due to thermal cycling, lanthanum hexaboride may also become brittle and fail. Destruction or degradation of lanthanum hexaboride will reduce the fusion reaction output.
  • a control system may notify an operator of a power drop-off that would correspond to a target material being depleted or moved out of the confinement region.
  • a control system may alert an operator when a consumable material like lanthanum hexaboride had reached a predetermined use limit and should be replaced.
  • the outer electrode sometimes called the "shroud” includes a cylindrical metal ring with multiple points of attachment for the lanthanum hexaboride or other target material.
  • the composition of the shroud is typically a refractory metal, such as tantalum (Ta) or tungsten (W), due to the high thermal resistance of refractory metals; however, certain embodiments of the reactor use lower temperature metals such as Alloy 316 Stainless Steel. These embodiments may include a liquid cooling circuit that prevents the shroud from reaching the critical melting temperature of the composition metal.
  • the outer electrode may be either the more negative or the more positive electrode.
  • the plasma in the reactor is struck between the positive electrode and the negative electrode by utilizing electrical power from an external power supply. This event is mediated by the electrical voltage across the two electrodes and the electrical current traveling through the electrodes and the plasma.
  • the voltage required to strike the plasma and initiate the fusion process may be directly related to the electrical conductivity of the two electrodes. As mentioned, there can be a dielectric
  • a field-implementable diagnostic for determining conductivity of the outer electrode is a resistance measurement between two points using a digital multimeter. In some implementations, once the resistance is measured, its value is entered into QA software, which will indicate the conductivity and operational status of the outer electrode.
  • a second diagnostic for determining conductivity would involve the striking of an glow discharge argon plasma in the reactor. This is done via control software, which will subsequently monitor the electrical behavior of the argon plasma (voltage and current). By an automatic comparison to an internal calibration, the control software can determine the conductivity of the electrode and send the data to QA software.
  • the AR unit is said to be outside of the optimal operation regime and into the non-optimal operation regime. If the conductivity falls below 50% of the standard rating, then the AR unit is said to be in the unsafe operation regime, as this will draw too much power from the power supply and provide a potential electrical and thermal hazard. If the conductivity is 0%), this indicates that a complete insulative layer has formed on the negative electrode and the system is non-operational.
  • Non-optimal operation Run Argon Cleaning Cycle on AR unit using provided control software. Repeat until conductivity enters Optimal operation' zone. If conductivity does not improve, perform the 'unsafe operation' below.
  • Unsafe operation The outer electrode should be cleaned.
  • a field-implementable diagnostic for detecting defects in structural integrity is visual inspection prompted by an abnormal temperature alert from the control software.
  • the control software may monitor the temperature of several different components of the unit, and check that each component remains within safe operating parameters. If the temperature of any such component travels outside the safe operating parameters, it may trip a temperature indicator alarm. In extreme cases (such as a prolonged duration of an overheated component), the system may shut itself down and require a mandatory visual inspection of the integrity of the shroud. If the shroud is damaged, it may be sent to a QA team for inspection and analysis.
  • the inner electrode may includes a cylindrical metal disk and hollow metal cylinder attached to a high-voltage ceramic feedthrough on the back of the chamber. These two components are known as the 'head' and the 'rod.'
  • the composition of the center electrode head is typically a refractory metal, such as tantalum (Ta) or tungsten (W), due to the high thermal resistance of refractory metals; however, different embodiments of the reactor use lower temperature metals such as Alloy 316 Stainless Steel. Higher-temperature center heads will operate longer and thus will warrant replacement less frequently.
  • the center electrode rod is typically made of Alloy 316 Stainless Steel, since it does not experience the same extreme temperatures as the head.
  • the center electrode rod is cooled with liquid water to prevent overheating.
  • the head is attached to the rod with a Molybdenum (Mo) set screw.
  • Mo Molybdenum
  • the head is also water cooled, and it is welded or soldered to the rod such that the cooling circuit is continuous. Electrical Conductivity
  • the electrical conductivity of the inner electrode mediates the electrical behavior of the plasma.
  • a change in the conductivity will result in the change of the voltage required to strike and sustain the plasma for the fusion reaction.
  • the volatile nature of the plasma and fusion reactions taking place inside the reactor can lead to the build-up of a dielectric coating on the surface of the inner electrode, thus affecting its electrical conductivity.
  • the inner electrode has the same operational risks as the outer electrode (or shroud) with regards to the structural integrity of the component. It can be damaged, distorted, or embrittled; however, since there is a liquid cooling channel inside the inner electrode, there are additional methods for failure detection other than the thermal monitoring of specific components by the control system.
  • the outer surface of the rod (or head) may be breached, allowing a combination of water vapor and liquid water into the vacuum chamber. This can occur due to a failure of or improper use of the cooling system, as well as the appearance of a sustained plasma arc on the center electrode rod (or head) itself. Once this occurs, there will be an instantaneous rise in pressure due to the preponderance of water vapor entering the chamber through the breach. The control system will detect this pressure rise and immediately shut the system down with an error fault that warrants an immediate and required visual inspection.
  • LaB Intel® Lanthanum Hexaboride, commonly referred to as LaB Bi, is a refractory ceramic material that is used in the scientific industry as an electron emitter due to its low work function.
  • the LaBrome is attached to the negative electrode via uniformly distributed attachment points along the inner wall.
  • the LaBrome contains the solid boron fuel required for a fusion reaction, and will need to be replaced once the fuel is depleted.
  • ICP-OES inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry
  • TMS thermal ionization mass spectrometry
  • SEVIS secondary ion mass spectrometry
  • ICP-MS inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
  • One field-implementable diagnostic for determining the structural integrity (and lack thereof) of the LaBvalent fuel is by visual inspection. There are certain indicators provided by the control software that warrant the need for a visual inspection of the LaBrada. Because the fusion reactions occur at the LaBvalent sites, the entirety of the output power (as measured by the control software) is extracted from these sites. If the steady-state power output of the reactor drops by more than 20%, it could indicate a problem with one of the LaB Crow pieces and trip a power indicator alarm on the software. This type of alarm would warrant the need for a visual inspection of the LaBvalent pieces.
  • Reactors as described herein produce energy in one or more forms; typically they produce multiple forms of energy simultaneously. When operating, most reactors produce thermal energy. They may also produce radiant energy over a broad or narrow range of frequencies. For example, excited species within the reactor (e.g., electronically excited hydrogen atoms) emit radiation in one or more frequency bands. Often the reactor operates in modes that require plasma and/or produce a plasma, and when the plasma exists it produces radiant energy. Still further, many reactions produce charged species (e.g., ions such as alpha particles) with high levels of kinetic energy. Reactors may also produce mechanical energy through pressure variations or oscillations.
  • excited species within the reactor e.g., electronically excited hydrogen atoms
  • the reactor operates in modes that require plasma and/or produce a plasma, and when the plasma exists it produces radiant energy.
  • many reactions produce charged species (e.g., ions such as alpha particles) with high levels of kinetic energy.
  • Reactors may also produce mechanical energy through pressure variations or oscillations.
  • an energy conversion device or component is coupled to an associated reactor.
  • the energy conversion device converts thermal energy from the reactor to electrical energy (e.g., a thermoelectric device).
  • the energy conversion device converts thermal energy from the reactor to mechanical energy (e.g., a heat engine).
  • the energy conversion device converts electromagnetic radiation from the reactor to electrical energy (e.g., a photovoltaic device).
  • the energy conversion device converts the kinetic energy of charged reaction products (e.g., alpha particles) or ionized fusion reactants (e.g., protons) to electrical energy.
  • the energy conversion device converts mechanical energy from the reactor to electrical energy (e.g., a piezoelectric device).
  • thermoelectric generator may be thermally coupled to a reactor to generate electrical energy.
  • a thermoelectric generator may be thermally coupled to the reactor by, for example, being placed on the confinement wall of the reactor or having thermal energy from the reactor delivered via a heat transfer device such as a heat pipe.
  • a reactor may convert thermal energy into mechanical energy (e.g., a moving piston or a rotating crankshaft) via a heat engine.
  • a reactor is outfitted with a Stirling engine.
  • the reactor may be outfitted with a heat engine, e.g., a heat engine that uses the Rankine cycle, where the working fluid experiences cyclic phase changes.
  • a heat engine may be configured with an electric generator that converts, for example, a rotating crankshaft or an oscillating piston into electrical energy.
  • Some energy conversion devices may convert electromagnetic radiation or radiant energy produced by reactor into electrical energy.
  • a reactor may have photovoltaic cells on either end of the confinement region to convert radiant energy into electrical energy.
  • the reactor may include a transparent barrier to provide thermal protection and/or optical devices to concentrate the radiant energy onto a photovoltaic cell.
  • a photovoltaic cell may have a tuned bandgap corresponding to a narrowband wavelength of radiant energy (e.g., corresponding to hydrogen) emitted from the reactor.
  • the reactor may also be configured with components that convert the kinetic energy of charged particles emitted from a reactor into electrical energy.
  • positively charged particles e.g. alpha particles
  • the reactor may be configured with a
  • magnetohydrodynamic generator that converts the kinetic energy of a plasma generated as a result of a nuclear reaction into electrical energy.
  • the reactor may use a single energy conversion device (or energy conversion modules) to convert energy produced by the reactor into mechanical and/or electrical energy.
  • the reactor may use a plurality of energy conversion devices (or energy conversion modules) to convert energy produced by the reactor into mechanical and/or electrical energy. Since the reactor may produce various forms of energy, different types of energy conversion devices may be combined to increase the total mechanical and/or electrical energy that is generated.
  • the addition of a second energy conversion device may not reduce the energy output of a first energy conversion device because the energy conversion devices convert different forms of energy produced by the reactor.
  • the reactor may generate electrical energy from both a photovoltaic cell which converts radiant energy and a thermoelectric generator which converts thermal energy.
  • a reactor may be outfitted with multiple energy conversion devices that convert the same type of energy produced by the reactor.
  • a reactor may be outfitted with a Stirling engine as well as a thermoelectric generator both of which make use of thermal energy.
  • a thermoelectric generator may simply capture the thermal energy that was not converted to mechanical and/or electrical energy by the Stirling engine.
  • any combination of energy conversion devices or modules described in herein may be used to generate mechanical and/or electrical energy from a reactor.
  • a reactor may include an enclosure that walls off the confinement region from the ambient environment.
  • the dimensions of an enclosure are governed in part by the outer dimensions of a confining wall.
  • the confining wall defines the boundary of the enclosure in the direction, and the confinement region is isolated from the external environment using flanges on both ends of the confinement wall in the z-direction.
  • an entire system including control systems, power supplies, magnets, and energy conversion apparatuses is placed within an enclosure.
  • Materials chosen for an enclosure may depend on the enclosure's intended purpose. For example, enclosures may be needed to provide biological shielding, thermal isolation, and/or to enable low-pressure operating conditions.
  • an enclosure may have a layered structure in which each layer provides a different function.
  • an enclosure may include a hydrocarbon material for biological shielding and a ceramic layer to provide thermal insulation.
  • more than one enclosure may be used.
  • a first enclosure may include flanges that seal off the confinement region in the z-direction creating a vacuum chamber while a second, exterior enclosure encompasses the entire reactor.
  • a reactor may have one or more
  • preparatory stages that prime the conditions within a reactor for conducting a fusion reaction.
  • preparatory stages in a multistage process may be used to increase the temperature of electron emitters, cool the temperature of a confining wall, generate a plasma within the confinement region, or modify the gas pressure within the confinement region.
  • Figure 25 depicts an example of a multistage process flow that may be used to operate a reactor.
  • electron emitters are heated until they reach a prescribed temperature for emitting electrons.
  • an alternating current is applied between the electrodes of the reactor to strike a weakly ionized plasma.
  • the reactor may transition to a stage used to rotate charged particles in the reactor and sustain a fusion reaction.
  • this may mean applying a direct current to the electrodes when a uniform magnetic field is applied.
  • an alternating magnetic field may be applied in the z-direction of a reactor, this may mean applying an alternating current to the electrodes at the same frequency that the magnetic field oscillates.
  • an alternating magnetic field may be applied by applying an alternating current to an electromagnet (e.g. a superconducting magnet) or physically moving permanent magnets by, e.g., by having rotors having magnets with alternating magnetic orientations on either side of the confinement region.
  • the rotation of neutrals and charged particles is maintained in the same direction by alternating the electric field and the magnetic field at the same frequency.
  • the both the electric and magnetic field may be oscillated at a frequency that is between about 0.1 Hz and 10 Hz, in some cases, about 10Hz to about 1 kHz, and in some cases greater than 1 kHz.
  • a sequence of electrode charges, or a drive signal may be applied to the electrodes bordering the confinement region to initiate rotation.
  • a drive signal may be started a low frequency, e.g. about 60 Hz and then ramp up to a higher frequency e.g. about 10 MHz.
  • a reactor may include a similar multistage process for terminating a fusion reaction.
  • a reactor may have an idle stage of operation that occurs between when fusion reaction is halted and then resumed. During operation of a reactor, the parameters may be closely monitored.
  • the current density in the confinement region or annular space near the confining wall may be in the range of about 150 A/m 2 to about 10 kA/m 2 , e.g., about 150 current density near a confining to about 700 2 , an d in some cases in the range of about 400 ? to about 6000 2 .
  • a reactor is operated to maintain a sufficient electric field near the confining wall.
  • the electric field is greater than about 25 ⁇ / m , in some cases greater than about 40 ⁇ / m , and in some case greater than about 30 ⁇ / m .
  • a reactor may periodically alternate the direction in which charged particles are rotated. In some cases, by alternating the direction that charged particles rotate, the rate of collisions between two rotating fusion reactants may be increased. In some cases, the direction of rotation may be alternated to increase or control the rate of fusion in a reactor. In some embodiments, by alternating the direction of rotation the rate of fusible events on a confinement wall may be reduced due to fusible events occurring within the annular space rather than on the confinement surface. This may be beneficial to, for instance, reduce heat imparted to a confinement wall if the confinement wall becomes too hot.
  • the direction of rotation may be alternated by alternating an applied electric field and/or magnetic field.
  • an applied electric field and or an applied magnetic field is alternated at a frequency between about 0.1 Hz to about 10 Hz, in some cases, about 10Hz to about 1 kHz, and in some cases greater than about 1 kHz. This may have the effect of concentrating electrons in the electron-rich region, concentrating rotating particles in close proximity, and in some cases, increasing the number of fusion reactions.
  • a reactant gas in cases where gas is introduced into the confinement region, e.g. a hydrogen or helium reactant gas, it may be beneficial for the reactant gas to have certain purity.
  • impurities in a reactant gas volume may decrease the rate of fusion and the overall energy output.
  • deuterium a naturally occurring isotope of hydrogen
  • a hydrogen reactant gas may be found within a hydrogen reactant gas.
  • deuterium may be present within the impurities of a hydrogen tank, and as such, present a potential hazard when present in sufficient quantities within the reactant gas. If there is too much deuterium in the fuel, fusion reactions other than proton-boron 11 may occur within the reactor. In some instances, these other reactions may emit radioactive byproducts.
  • a reactor may be equipped with sensors, such as the qRGA from Hiden Analytical mass spectrometer, for monitoring the amount of deuterium within a hydrogen reactant gas.
  • a reactor Prior to ignition, a reactor may contain a mole fraction of ions to neutrals that is close to 0%. After striking a plasma, the reactor may be operated having a mole fraction of ions to neutrals in the rotating gas species that is about 1 : 1000 to about 1 : 1,000,000. In some cases, the mole fraction of ions to neutrals in a reactant gas may vary depending on the particular stage of a multistage process flow. For example, in the process flow of Figure 25, a gas may have a higher mole fraction of ions to neutrals after initiating a plasma in stage 2502 than while the reactor is operating at steady state in stage in 2503.
  • reactors may be equipped with gas inlet and exit valves.
  • the flow through a gas inlet valve and/or a gas outlet valve may be controlled to maintain a desired gas composition or gas pressure within the confinement region.
  • the gas volume in the confinement region may be replaced at a rate that is less than about once a minute, or about once an hour.
  • gas valves may be sealed, so there is no fluid flow during operation of the reactor.
  • a reactant gas is maintained at standard temperature and pressure before generating a plasma in the confinement region.
  • a vacuum pump may be used to lower the pressure to less than about lxlO "2 Torr, and in some cases less than about lxlO "6 Torr prior to striking a plasma in the confinement region.
  • a reactant gas feedline may increase the pressure within a reactor to more than about 0.1 Torr, and in some cases more than about 10 Torr before striking a plasma in the confinement region or during operation of a reactor.
  • the gas pressure and/or density along the confinement wall may be monitored during operation of the reactor. If the pressure induced the rotating species is not sufficient near the confining wall, the electron rich region may diffuse farther into the confinement region and not provide the desired electron screening effect. In some cases, the gas pressure near the confinement wall may be monitored in real time.
  • the temperature of a gas Prior to initiating a plasma the temperature of a gas may be approximately at room temperature, in some cases a gas is initially heated. In some cases, the gas is heated to greater than about 1,800 °C, and in some cases the gas is heated to greater than about 2,200 °C. During steady operation of the reactor the gas temperature may me heated such that the gas in the confinement region is in the range of about 400 °C to about 800 °C, and in some cases in the range of about 900 °C to about 1,500 °C.
  • a reactant gas may be delivered into a reactor by a variety of mechanisms.
  • a gas reactant may be delivered from a gas canister or pressurized tank.
  • a reactant gas such as hydrogen may be delivered into the confinement region by being out- diffused from the confinement wall or a hydrogen absorbing material such as titanium or palladium.
  • the rate of fusion per volume per unit time may be expressed by
  • ni and n 2 are the densities of the respective reactants
  • ⁇ is the fusion cross section at a particular energy
  • v is the relative velocity between the two interacting species.
  • the product ( ⁇ v) may be increased by reducing the coulombic barrier.
  • the fusion cross section may be between about 10 "30 cm 2 and
  • a reduction to the coulombic barrier may result in a reaction rate that is about 10 17 to about 10 22 fusion reactions per second per cubic centimeter along the confinement wall.
  • an electron-rich region may be formed near the confinement wall to provide a screening effect between colliding nuclei.
  • electron emitters may be used to provide free electrons to this region. Emitters may be energized optically (e.g., using a laser), by frictional heating of the rotating particles, and/or by Joule heating.
  • the density of electrons may be on order of about 10 10 cm “ 3 to about 1023 cm “ 3 , and in some cases, the density of electrons is on the order of about 10 23 cm “3 within this region.
  • the density of neutrals in the electron-rich region may be about 10 16 cm “3 to about 10 18 cm “3 , and in some cases, the neutrals density within the confinement region is on the order of about 10 20 cm “3 .
  • Positive ions may be found at a much lower density than neutrals within the electron-rich region. In some cases, the density of positive ions is about 10 15 cm “3 to about 10 16 cm “3 . In some cases the ratio of electrons to positive ions within the electron-rich region is in the range of about 10 6 : 1 to about 10 8 : 1.
  • the radial thickness of the electron-rich region may be characterized as the region in where most of the electron gradient exists.
  • the electron-rich region is in the range of about 50 nm to about 50 um, in some cases, the electron rich is about 500nm to about 1.5 um.
  • the electric field within the electron-rich region is greater than 10 6 V/m, and in some cases, the electric field is greater than about 10 8 V/m.
  • the temperature of electrons in this region is about 10,000 K to about 50,000 K, and in some cases about 15,000 K to about 40,000 K.
  • the parameters of the electron-rich region may depend in part on the fusion reaction that is targeted. For example, the parameter ranges are different in a p + U B reaction vs. a D + D reaction.
  • Another approach to increasing the probability of fusion events is by aligning the spin of the fusion reactants.
  • the nuclear force has a spin-dependent component.
  • spins are aligned, between two nuclei, e.g., those of a deuteron and a deuteron, the coulombic barrier is reduced.
  • Nuclear magnetic moments play a role in quantum tunneling. Specifically, when the magnetic moments of two nuclei are parallel, an attractive force between the two nuclei is created. As a result, the total potential barrier between two nuclei with parallel magnetic moments is lowered, and a tunneling event is more likely to occur. The reverse is true when two nuclei have antiparallel magnetic moments, the potential barrier is increased, and tunneling is less likely to occur.
  • nucleus When the magnetic moment of a particular type of nucleus is positive, the nucleus tends to align its magnetic moment in the direction of an applied magnetic field. Conversely, when the moment is negative, the nucleus tends to align antiparallel to an applied field. Most nuclei, including most nuclei which are of interest as potential fusion reactants, have positive magnetic moments (p, D, T, 6 Li, 7 Li, and U B all have positive moments; 3 He and 15 N have negative moments). In certain embodiments, a magnetic field is provided that aligns the magnetic moments in approximately the same direction at every point within the device where a magnetic field is present. This results in a reduction of the total potential energy barrier between nuclei when the first and second working materials have nuclear magnetic moments which are either both positive or both negative.
  • the spin states of fusion reactants in the confinement region and along the confining wall may be aligned by applying a magnetic field in the range of 1-20 T.
  • the magnetic field may also align the spin states of the fusion reactants.
  • the combination of a reduced coulombic barrier through, e.g., electron screening and a spin polarization (enabled by a strong magnetic field acting on the reactant nuclei) may produce a significant enhancement in the rate fusion.
  • the electrostatic attraction between two nuclei includes a spin-dependent term that becomes dominate at short distances (e.g., less than 1 fm).
  • Fusion reactors as described herein have abundant applications that may resolve many societal issues such dependence on fossil fuels. In some cases, the use of fusion reactors may make feasible and/or practical energy intensive applications that were not feasible or practical with conventional power generation methods. A few applications of fusion reactors are now briefly discussed.
  • fusion reactors may be used to retrofit a fossil fuel power plant such as a power plant which burns coal, natural gas, or petroleum to produce electricity.
  • fusion reactors described herein may be used to retrofit a fission power plant.
  • a coal power plant may be retrofitted by replacing a coal-fired boiler with a fusion boiler that utilizes a reactor described herein.
  • a fission power plant may be retrofitted by replacing the control rods and uranium fuel with a fusion reactor as described herein.
  • a fusion reactor has a modular design that employs a plurality of smaller reactors.
  • the power output of a plant may be modulated to meet energy demand by varying the number of reactors in operation. Additionally, if individual reactors can be serviced or replaced while other reactors remain operable, the overall power output of the plant may not be significantly affected.
  • a fusion reactor may be used as a heating interface for industrial processes such as fiberglass manufacture.
  • a reactor is configured as the heat source for a steam generator (e.g., a steam generator used for steam cleaning or metal cutting).
  • a reactor is used as a source of helium where helium is produced as a result of a fusion reaction (e.g., when the reactor conducts proton-boron- 11 fusion).
  • the reactor may be used as part of a water heater, such as a home-sized water heater.
  • the reactor may be placed within a water tank or may be thermally coupled to a water tank such that heat emanating from the reactor is used to heat water.
  • a fusion- based water heater may be paired with a water radiator to provide indoor heating.
  • a fusion reactor is used for transportation applications.
  • a fusion reactor may be used to power and automobiles, planes, trains, and boats.
  • An automobile for instance, may be outfitted with a reactor having one or more energy conversion modules configured to generate electrical and/or mechanical energy.
  • electrical energy produced by a reactor may be used to charge a battery or capacitor which is used to provide power to an electric motor.
  • a reactor may be operated to charge a car battery whenever the battery's state of charge falls below a certain threshold value.
  • mechanical energy is produced by, for example, a Stirling engine which is used to provide the driving power for a car.
  • a fusion reactor may be used to provide power to outer space vehicles.
  • Some designs for outer space vehicles use a fission reactor such as a radioisotope thermoelectric generator. Such designs suffer from use and generation radioactive isotopes. They also require carrying relatively large amounts of radioactive fuel. Since reactors described herein may be aneutronic or substantially aneutronic, these reactors may be much more preferable for spacecraft designed to carry human occupants. Additionally, the energy densities of fusion reactants used for reactors described herein are significantly higher than fuels required by a fission reaction or a chemical reaction to produce the same amount of energy.

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  • Physics & Mathematics (AREA)
  • Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
  • Plasma & Fusion (AREA)
  • Optics & Photonics (AREA)
  • Spectroscopy & Molecular Physics (AREA)
  • General Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
  • High Energy & Nuclear Physics (AREA)
  • Physical Or Chemical Processes And Apparatus (AREA)

Abstract

La présente invention concerne des procédés, des appareils, des dispositifs et des systèmes pour produire et contrôler des activités de fusion de noyaux. Des atomes d'hydrogène ou d'autres espèces neutres (neutres) sont induits dans un mouvement de rotation dans une région de confinement en conséquence d'un couplage ion-neutre, dans lequel 5 ions sont entraînés par des champs électriques et magnétiques. Les activités de fusion contrôlées couvrent un spectre de réactions comprenant des réactions aneutroniques telles que des réactions de fusion proton-bore-11. Des émetteurs d'électrons peuvent être utilisés pour fournir, pendant une opération, une région riche en électrons.
PCT/US2018/031703 2017-05-08 2018-05-08 Émetteur d'électrons pour réacteur WO2018208862A1 (fr)

Applications Claiming Priority (14)

Application Number Priority Date Filing Date Title
US201715589886A 2017-05-08 2017-05-08
US15/589,913 US10269458B2 (en) 2010-08-05 2017-05-08 Reactor using electrical and magnetic fields
US15/589,902 US10319480B2 (en) 2010-08-05 2017-05-08 Fusion reactor using azimuthally accelerated plasma
US15/589,905 US20180005711A1 (en) 2013-06-27 2017-05-08 Reactor using azimuthally varying electrical fields
US15/589,905 2017-05-08
US15/589,886 2017-05-08
US15/589,913 2017-05-08
US15/589,902 2017-05-08
US201762504420P 2017-05-10 2017-05-10
US62/504,420 2017-05-10
US15/679,091 US20170372801A1 (en) 2013-06-27 2017-08-16 Reactor using azimuthally varying electrical fields
US15/679,094 2017-08-16
US15/679,091 2017-08-16
US15/679,094 US20180322962A1 (en) 2017-05-08 2017-08-16 Reactor using electrical and magnetic fields

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US20240062921A1 (en) * 2021-03-16 2024-02-22 Austin Lo Structured Plasma Cell Energy Converter For A Nuclear Reactor

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