WO2011040838A2 - Method for making a beam junction, and electromagnetic-radiation beam converter - Google Patents

Abstract

The invention pertains to the field of semiconductors and more precisely relates to devices and arrangements for semiconductor junctions formed when contacting two semiconductors (a p-n junction when they have a different conductivity and heterojunction when they have a different chemical structure) or when contacting a semiconductor with a metal (Schottky junction), to methods for realizing the same, to electromagnetic-radiation converters, and to other semiconductor apparatuses containing such junctions. The method for making a beam junction on a semiconductor substrate comprises forming N>1 separate single-type junctions, connecting the same into a parallel circuit using current electrodes, wherein the volume of each single-type junction is selected so as to be smaller than the volume containing the most dangerous characteristic dominant defect in the semiconducting base. The construction thus obtained and the junction structure are resistant to the influence of chaotically distributed defects in the semiconductor substrate, and the presence of such defects does not alter the electric parameters of semiconductor apparatuses.

Description

 A method of manufacturing a beam transition, a beam converter of electromagnetic radiation The invention relates to a semiconductor technique, and more particularly, to devices and constructions of semiconductor junctions formed upon the contact of two floor) conductors (ρ-n junction in case of different conductivities and heterojunctions stroke for different chemical structures) or contact of a semiconductor with a metal (Schottky transition), to methods for their implementation, as well as to electromagnetic radiation converters, as well as other semiconductors ovym apparatus containing such transitions.

At present, for the manufacture of semiconductor devices, monocrystalline silicon is used, embossed according to the Czochralski method or by the zone melting method. The specifics of the operation of these devices, as a rule, in the switching mode with a combination of high displacements and current densities, requires the use of silicon with a high degree of purification (impurity content less than 10 ^"8 ) and a low dislocation density, the so-called semiconductor - pure silicon.

 Special studies are known (see Farenbruch A., Bube 3. “Solar cells: Theory and experiment”, Moscow, Energoatomizdat, 1987, 280 p.) To single out a separate brand of “solar” silicon, the quality criterion of which is the lifetime, and not the requirements of high purification and low concentration of defects imposed on silicon going to the manufacture of semiconductor devices.

The content of "solar" silicon impurities lies in the range 10 ^"4 .. 10 ^{" 7} , which determines its cost 10-15 times lower than semiconductor-pure silicon. Within the range of "solar" silicon, the cost, depending on the degree of purification and the method of preparation, differs by more than 5 times.

 In general, the cost of silicon depends on the degree of purification exponentially. Therefore, the high cost of silicon and its processing operations stimulated the development of other methods of growing crystals in the form of ribbons, as well as the use of polycrystalline silicon and multisilicon.

The presence of various defects or impurities in a semiconductor substance (material) affects the lifetime of minority charge carriers (NEC) generated by baths under the influence of incident electromagnetic radiation (EMP), as well as on the resistance of electrophysical, including mechanical characteristics of photovoltaic converters (FEC) and other semiconductor devices (PP) made on these materials, to the influence of various factors (electromagnetic radiation, temperature, current loads, etc.). As a result, the durability and time of the guaranteed operability of FEP and other PPs are reduced. For example, the time of guaranteed operability and the longevity of highly efficient solar cells are currently estimated to be no more than 30–40 years.

 An increase in the durability and time of guarantee operability of solar electric power would lead to a significant increase in the total generated power and to a significant reduction in the cost of the generated electricity. In fact, if you increase the durability of photovoltaic converters, for example, by 10 times, then even with the same efficiency they will generate 10 times more electricity during their lifetime, which is equivalent to about 10 times cheaper energy.

 The efficiency of energy conversion by solar cells in a decisive manner depends on the presence and concentration of defects in the semiconductor base, which affect the lifetime of minority charge carriers in the active layers. With an increase in the lifetime, not only the short circuit current increases, but also the open circuit voltage, which is a consequence of a decrease in the saturation reverse current.

 In semiconductor technology, defects are conditionally classified into two groups: structural (dislocations, interstitial atoms, vacancies, twins and small-angle grain boundaries) and impurities (foreign interstitial or substitutional atoms). Often as a result of the fusion of several defects or the interaction of the fusion of foreign impurities with structural defects, large defect complexes are formed. Defects can be either electrically active or inactive.

In the general case, a semiconductor substance (material, substrate, base), for example, made of silicon, contains a set (or spectrum) of defects of large and small sizes, which are understood as all kinds of impurities, structural imperfections, continuity fractures (submicrocracks, microcracks), fractures chemical and intermolecular bonds, heterogeneity of the structure and their boundaries, dislocations, etc. Defects as a rule, they have an arbitrary shape and configuration, which are located on the edge, surface and in the volume of the sample, distributed randomly and randomly.

 According to the scale factor, the defects present in solids are conditionally divided into three classes (see, for example, Regel V.R., Slutsker A.I., Tomashevsky E.E. / Kinetic nature of the strength of solids. M: ed.Nauka, 1974, 560 pp .; Tsoi B., Kartashov EM and Shevelev VV The Statistical Nature of Strength and Lifetime in Polimer Films and Fibers. Utrecht-Boston. Brill Academic Publishers. VSP. 2004. 522 p.): submic- cracks (CMT) having a transverse size of 1-100 nm (0.001-0.1 μm) microcracks (MT) with a transverse size of 100-1000 nm (0.1-1 μm) and macrocracks (MakT) with a transverse size of 1000 - 10000 nm (1-10 microns) and more. Real solids contain a whole set or spectrum of defects in the structure of the material, which statistically have a discrete distribution of size and degree of danger. The defect distribution function is polymodal. Moreover, the most dangerous types of defects in the structure of a material are defects with the largest characteristic dimensions. The same defects are predominant or dominant in the body of the semiconductor base.

 In the aforementioned semiconductor substance (material) there are zones not only with defects or impurities, but also zones of high purity, where there are no defects. Moreover, the higher the degree of purification of such a substance, the more there will be areas with clean or ultrapure zones in which there are no defects at all. Any body has zones with defects and zones without defects. Moreover, the smaller the zone or cluster under consideration, the higher its purity. This is because large defects or impurities due to the large dimension (scale) cannot fit into them. In ideal samples of materials, there are no defects. In general, the defect content in the sample depends on the technological features of the formation and the history of its manufacture.

Comparatively large (with respect to the largest characteristic scale, on which the corresponding type of structural defect is encountered) samples with geometrical sizes (or scales), which are standard semiconductor wafers of PEC substrates, have the entire indicated set of CMT, MT, and MakT. By the characteristic scale at which the corresponding type of structural defect is present in the material, hereinafter, we mean the value equal to the cubic root of the volume of the material attributable to this defect. In turn, the volume of material per structural defect of a given type is equal to the reciprocal of the volume concentration of structural defects of this type in the material.

 The modern standard. PEC represents a continuous single-junction diode with a large metallurgical boundary and, accordingly, a p-η junction, which is formed on geometrically large semiconductor wafer substrates. At the same time, the margarine of the transition layer (or transition, or SCR) reaches from 0 to 300 nm (0.3 microns). The width of the SCR depends on the concentration of the dopant, the intensity of the incident radiation or incident load, and other factors. Industry-issued standard diodes, photodiodes, LEDs, and other semiconductor devices (1111) also belong to single-junction with relatively large geometric dimensions compared to the largest characteristic scale at which structural defects are found in them, or the same large continuous area of the metallurgical border. Currently, a standard silicon wafer for the manufacture of photovoltaic cells has, for example, a configuration of a square of 156 mm x 156 mm and a thickness of 200 μm, or a round plate with a diameter of 150 mm or a pseudo-square having the same large sizes of sides and thickness.

 In general, a semiconductor substrate is characterized by a chaotic and inhomogeneous distribution of both dopant and foreign defects and impurities, determined by the degree of purification of silicon. Naturally, when a single continuous transition is formed over a large substrate area, the entire set of defects (SMT, MT, and MakT) will appear in the transition zone, i.e., in the region of space charges (SCR). The presence of defects in the structure of the SCR leads to a decrease in the resistance and to degradation of the electrophysical characteristics of the PP, including current-voltage ones, as well as to a decrease in their durability and the time of guaranteed operability, and ultimately reduces the conversion efficiency of the PP,

The closest analogue of the claimed invention are transitions previously declared by the authors of this invention in beam converters of electromagnetic radiation, in particular, structural solutions with a discontinuity in the continuity of a single-transition n layer and a large number of geometrically small transitions (see, for example, Pat. . RU 2355066 C2). The disadvantage of these solutions was that they did not take into account defects that are contained in any semiconductor material. In this regard, the main objective of the present invention is the creation and implementation of such a design and transition structure, for which the presence of randomly distributed defects in the semiconductor substrate would be indifferent and would not affect the electrical parameters of the photomultiplier or other PP.

 This goal is achieved using a method of manufacturing a beam junction, in which N> 1 individual single-type junctions are made on a semiconductor substrate, they are combined into a parallel circuit using current electrodes, and in which, according to the first aspect of the invention, the volume of each single-junction is chosen less than the volume, containing the most dangerous characteristic dominant defect in the semiconductor base.

In the particular preferred case, the number of transitions N is selected from the relation N> Shck, where S is the working surface area of the semiconductor substrate on which the transitions are formed, h is the width of the p-η transition, c is the volume concentration of defects or impurities, k = 2, 3, ..., k _r and the value for _{t = l / cv a, v a} - atomic volume of material 1 / c - the volume per one defect.

Preferably, the distance between the individual transitions of the same type is greater than the transverse dimension of the most dangerous characteristic dominant type of defect in the semiconductor base.

 The distance between individual p-η junctions of the same type can be chosen to be less than twice the diffusion length.

In the particular case, the number of transitions N is chosen from the relation N> (cV) ^2/3 , where c is the volume concentration of defects and V is the volume of the semiconductor base.

 Preferably, a substrate thickness of less than 60 microns is chosen.

 This goal is also achieved in a beam converter of electromagnetic radiation, which contains at least one beam transition made on a semiconductor substrate in accordance with the above method.

Taking into account the defective structure of the semiconductor substrate, a new constructive solution is the beam transition, which consists of a sufficiently large number of geometrically small, compared with the largest characteristic scale, on which there are structural defects in the semiconductor substrate, sizes of elementary discrete transitions, united by of opposite current electrodes in a parallel circuit, and smaller in size than the characteristic geometric size of the most characteristic dangerous dominant type of defect in the semiconductor. The small geometric dimensions of the elementary discrete transition are further understood to mean the smallness of all the characteristic geometric dimensions of the discrete transition compared to the smallest characteristic scale at which structural defects existing in the semiconductor substrate are encountered. Due to the geometrically small sizes of the discrete transition, a large (larger than the geometrical size of the transition) size defect cannot simply fit in a small volume or region occupied by the transition.

 In addition, due to the small geometric dimensions of the transitions, their number in the semiconductor base is extremely large (see below). Then only a small part of their total number will be formed on structural defects. However, all of them will be shunted by a sufficiently large number of junctions formed in the defect-free regions of the semiconductor base, due to the fact that they are all combined into a parallel circuit (into a bundle) using opposite current contacts. This is similar to that in a mechanical cable (rope, bundle), if one or a group of components of the cable are defective or weak and fail, then the rest of the neighboring, strong, which are much larger, will take on the load and block these weak or defective items.

 As will be shown below, such a structural device of the beam transition actually neutralizes the effect of defects in the semiconductor base or material without eliminating them from the volume, i.e. cleaning up. In addition, the beam structure of the transition provides and significantly increases the resistance to degradation of the electrophysical characteristics of the transitions themselves and the PPs on their basis, and also increases the reliability, durability and time of the guaranteed operability of the transitions and photomultipliers, etc. 1111 to the external factor exposure - temperature, irradiation intensity, current loads, etc., and also allows you to work on material with ultra-small lifetimes of generated charges, which is equivalent to an increase in their lifetime no.

 The proposed beam transition is structurally simple, efficient, technologically advanced and more economical in comparison with analogues in the prior art.

Transitions can be formed upon contact of two semiconductors of different types of conductivity (ρ-n junction), upon contact of semiconductors with different chemistries structural structure (heterojunction) or upon contact of a metal with a semiconductor (Schottky junction). Therefore, in the future, for simplicity of presentation, the term “transition” or “pn transition” will be used, bearing in mind that the laws and phenomena related to pn transitions are also applicable to Schottky heterojunctions and transitions. The use of constructions of beam discrete pn junctions with geometrically small sizes for the formation of PECs or other PPs allows the use of a semiconductor material with a low degree of purification.

 The invention is explained below in more detail with reference to the accompanying drawings, which depict:

 - in Fig. 1 - Schematic diagram of a continuous single transition in a standard photomultiplier (a) and beam transitions in a beam photomultiplier (b).

 - figure 2 is a diagram of the failure of a standard continuous transition (a) and neutralization of defects by a beam transition (b), as well as a scheme of localization of transitions;

 - in Fig. H - Guaranteed performance time of a single-element (curve 1) and multi-element (beam) structure (curve 2) of the sample, x is the durability in s;

F - load in arbitrary units;

- in Fig. 4 - Structure of a high-power high-voltage standard diode with a base thickness Wb, formed from one stable (or linear) pn junction with area A ² .

- Fig. 5 — Structure of a high-power high-voltage beam diode of area A ² with a base thickness Wb consisting of N> 1 n ⁺ p ^" diodes of area a ² each.

- in FIG. 6 - Dependence of the ohmic resistance of the base of a high-power high-voltage beam diode of area A ² = 1 cm ² with a base thickness W _b = 200 μm of the number N p ⁺ p ^"of diodes.

 - Fig. 7 shows the structure of a modern standard homogeneous photomultiplier with a continuous single pn junction on the front side and a T-shaped charge path.

 - Fig. 8 shows a γ-shaped trajectory of the motion of charges in a beam photomultiplier with discrete pn junctions.

- figure 9 - Dependence of the internal resistance of solar cells R; _n t from the incident power P _fa n (Space - the standard space purpose of the photomultiplier; SP- mono - Suny Power's standard high-performance photomultiplier; a4_14-7 - beam FEP)

- figure 10 - Volt ampere characteristics of beam and standard elements. {Impact power 4000 - 4930 W / m ² . Temperature (40-80 ° C); 40 ° С - the beginning of the measurement, 80 ° С - the end of the measurement. a4_14-7 - beam elements, absorption coefficient 55%, efficiency = 24-30%. Space - standard space, Russia, absorption coefficient 92%, efficiency = 8.1 - 10%).

- figure 11 - Power curves of beam and standard elements. The incident power of 4000 - 4930 W / m ² . Temperature (40-80 ° C); 40 ° С - the beginning of the measurement, 80 ° С - the end of the measurement. A4_14-7 - beam elements, absorption coefficient 55%, efficiency = 24-30%. Space - standard space, Russia, absorption coefficient 92%, efficiency = 8.1 - 10%).

- Fig. 12 shows the dependence of the specific power p = f (U) on voltage for standard single-junction photomultipliers with large areas of junctions; incident power 500 mW / cm ² . The photovoltaic absorption coefficient was 98%.

 - in Fig. 13 - The dependence of the specific power p = f (U) on the voltage for the beam PECs according to the invention; incident radiation power 500 mW / cm.

The positions in the drawings indicate: 1 -, 2-, 3 - p ^" base, 4 - p ⁺ base, 5 - p ⁺ emitter, 6 - p ⁺ p ^" transition, 7 - SCR spread to the emitter region, 8a - spread - SCR in the base region with forward bias, 8b - SCR propagation in the base region with reverse bias, 9a - emitter metallization 9b - base metallization, 10 - defect, Pa - current lines at the start of the run, l ib - current lines through the defect in breakdown time, 12 — penetration zone after breakdown, 13 — contact windows, 14 — insulating dielectric, 15 — p-type semiconductor base; 16 - frontal n + layer (emitter) with the opposite type of conductivity; 17 - frontal rp ⁺ transition; 18 - back high-alloyed p ⁺ layer with the same type of conductivity type; 19 - isotype back p ⁺ p junction; 20 - antireflective layer; 21 - contact window; 22 - metallization of the front side; 23 - metallization of the back; 24 - incident radiation; 25 - streamlines of charge carriers (electrons); 25-a injection-recombination component of the current in the metal-semiconductor contact; 26a - defect-free element, efficiency = 14%; 27- defective element, efficiency = 9.6%; 28- bundle (battery) composed of a combination in a parallel circuit two elements (26a and 27a) with large areas of pn junctions, efficiency = 9%; 26b defect-free element, efficiency = 14%; 27b - defective element, efficiency = 5.2%; 28b - battery composed of cells 26b and 27b, efficiency = 15%.

For a correct and unambiguous understanding, as well as the unity of terminology in this invention, in accordance with the level of technological development (see PCT / RU 2007/000301, RU2006140882 / 28 (044652), Tsoi B., Budishevsky Yu.D., Tsoi V. E. / Solar energy: reality and prospects U / Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences. 2007, Volume 7, N ° l, S.69 - 74) by a beam or foot is understood a multielement structure formed from the number N> 1 ( where N is an integer tending to an infinitely large value) of individual single-type individual elements parallel to each other other (or one above the other) on the surface (edge) and a screen (or gap) and united by a common contact. Monofilms, monofilaments, charge carriers moving in an electric field, conduction regions in semiconductors, pn junctions, etc. can be elements of such a structure (ie, a beam or a foot). If a beam or a foot is made up of N monofilms , such a multielement structure has a plane-parallel arrangement of film elements having surface (edge) and intermediate (bulk) layers. And if the bundle is composed of a combination of N monofilaments, then such a multi-element structure has a linearly parallel arrangement of fiber elements (similar to a mechanical cable) located on the surface (edge) and in the volume (gap). When a multi-element structure is performed by combining (by any known method) charge carriers moving in an electric field from N sources, we obtain a more general total flux (beam) of charge carriers. Products made by parallel combining elements into a multi-element structure with two (or more) opposite contacts are called beam contacts: a beam transition (obtained by parallel connection of N> 1 junctions), a beam resistor (obtained by parallel combination of N> 1 resistive film or fiber elements ), a beam diode (obtained by combining N> 1 pn junctions with space charge regions (SCR) in a parallel electric circuit), a beam transistor (obtained by combining N> 1 pn junctions to collector, emitter, base in bipolar transistors) and drain, source, gate (in field effect transistors), thereby emphasizing the method of their manufacture. Beam semiconductor devices (diodes, transistors, thyristors, light emitting diodes, solar cells, etc.) are referred to as a “beam diode” or “beam transistor” or “beam thyristor” or “beam high light guide ”, or“ beam laser ”or“ beam solar cell ”or“ beam converter ”, etc.), and the manufacturing technology itself is called beam or π - technology, and materials and devices are called π - materials or π - devices.

 Elements in the beam can be of organic and inorganic origin, or charge carriers, or regions of conduction, or p-η transitions ηχ.π. Films or fibers may be dielectrics or conductors, or semiconductors. In this case, the fundamental and fundamental for achieving the beam effect is the requirement of a large number of constituent elements of the beam (о -> oo) and their small size, up to microdimensions, and in the ideal case, the constituent elements should be nanoscale, i.e. should be from 1 nm to 10 nm.

 The signs are of the same type and separate (together with the requirement of the set Ν— «о and combining in a parallel circuit between opposite contacts are fundamental and fundamental, in the present invention, without which the effect of neutralizing or bypassing defects or impurities in the material is not realized.

 Under the same type (or the same) elements should be understood those that are obtained from the same type and structure of the substance (matter) in the same way, having the same geometric dimensions, shape and configuration, as well as the same structurally sensitive physical (mechanical, electromag - filament, etc.) characteristics and properties.

 The sign “separate” or not connected with each other means the presence of a border between the elements and its isolation. The separator can be air, any neutral medium, dielectric, etc.

In the prior art, as noted above, a transition (contact or transition layer between two semiconductors or a metal with a semiconductor), i.e. The space charge region (SCR) in a photomultiplier or a probe structurally has a large volume and a large area into which the whole set of defects — submicrocracks (SMT), microcracks (MT), and macrocracks (MakT) — fall. In order for only a small part of all the formed transitions to occur in defective areas of the material, it is necessary and sufficient that in the region containing only one, the most frequently encountered defect in the structure of the material, a large number of transitions are formed, the distance between which should be greater than the geometric size of the defect. The choice of the geometric dimensions of the transitions and the distance between them in the manner indicated above guarantees the fulfillment of this condition. In general, this means that the volume per one transition should be less than the volume that contains one type of defect that is most often found in the base body.

 Thus, in order to neutralize the effect of structural defects of the semiconductor base on the electrophysical, in particular, current-voltage characteristics of PPs, the geometric dimensions of junctions are reduced in the present invention (in the general case, the volume per one transition, and in particular, the area occupied by the transition) , and the number of transitions themselves increases significantly. A semiconductor substrate, which is a base of PP, is filled in any known manner (for example, by doping impurities) with a multitude of discrete small geometrical transitions from the number N »1000 (possibly N> 1, N> 10, N> 100, N> 1000, however it is preferable that N одн 1000), which are of the same type and separate and are not connected to each other in the base region. These transitions are combined into a beam, i.e. in a parallel circuit by means of opposite current electrodes into one or more current nodes, each of these discrete geometrically small elements (junctions) having the same functional purpose, are located between opposite current contacts from the number M> 2. Moreover, the larger the number N of the component transition elements and the smaller its geometric size, the higher the degree of neutralization of defects will be and therefore it is preferable that the number N (like a mechanical cable) in the beam transition be sufficiently large (N = 2k, 3k, 4k, 5k, ..., m, where w and k are integers; the number N— »oo).

 In addition, the individual individual single-type (or the same) transition elements having such a multi-element (beam) structure have an arbitrary configuration and geometrically small sizes determined by the above method.

The beam structure described above, made by doping impurities in a semiconductor base, is a diode structure, i.e. a beam diode consisting of the number N »1 of single-junction elementary discrete diodes, geometrically small in size. These elementary and geometrically small discrete diodes are connected in parallel in an internal electrical circuit. The geometric size of the transition should be reduced until they reach high values of the required physical characteristics. Variants with geometrical (linear transverse and longitudinal) sizes of regions per one element (one rp junction with SCR) of less than 100,000 nm or 10,000 nm, or 1000 nm are possible. Preferably, the characteristic transverse size of the region per one pn junction is less than 100 nm and has sizes in the range of 1-100 nm. In this case, the characteristic transverse size of the region per one transition should be more than 1 nm, since at a scale of less than 1 nm the element as a physical body ceases to exist. In general, the smaller the geometrical size of the element (pn junction), the greater the likelihood that when it is formed in a semiconductor substrate, it will fall into the ultrapure zone.

 The number of discrete N transitions in a photomultiplier tube or in another PP should be such that the volume per one p-junction with space charge regions (SCR) would be :; less than the volume, preferably much less than the volume per type, the most common dangerous dominant and characteristic type of structural defect of the semiconductor substrate material.

If c is the volume concentration of such defects or impurities, then, in order of magnitude, the number N of generated pn junctions, ensuring the presence of a large number of free from defects pn junctions, must be at least N ”(cV) ^2/3 , where V -volume of the semiconductor base (ie, it is preferable that N ″ (cV)). In this case, individual small p-p junctions with SCR are located in geometrically small areas of the semiconductor substance (base or substrate), the overwhelming majority of which are pure or superclear zones or clusters.

On the other hand, it is possible to perform a more accurate calculation of the most optimal value of N based on the number of defects or impurities in the semiconductor substance. If c is the volume concentration of such defects or impurities, then the volume per one defect will be 1 / s. If S is the working surface area of the semiconductor substrate on which discrete transitions are formed (in the case of PEC, this value represents the surface area of its photodetector part), h is the width of the pn junction, then the number of pn junction the surface of the must be less than the value N = N ^'= Shck, where k = 2,3, ..., k _t. Velichi- on k _m - 1 / cv _a , v _a is the atomic volume of the material. In this case, individual, small in geometric dimensions, pn junctions are located in geometrically small in size areas of the semiconductor substance, the vast majority of which

She (k - 1) represents pure or ultrapure zones or clusters. For example, if there are only impurities as structural defects, then for a degree of purity of 0.99 and an atomic volume of v _a = 10 m, we have 1 / s = 10 ^" m. Then for S = 1 (G m, h = 10 ^"6 l * we have Ν = N _p = Shck = 10 ¹⁸ £.

In addition, due to the large number of created pn junctions N (N »l), the rest, a significantly smaller part of the created pn junctions, will be defective (the ratio of the number of defective pn junctions to the number of defective junctions is \ j (k l)). However, during operation, they will be shunted by operable pn junctions due to their parallel connection to the electric circuit. Such a multielement PEC of a beam structure is a system with a large number of separate, preferably of the same type of elements operating in parallel, individual groups of which have the same performance characteristics. In accordance with the law of large numbers, the total performance characteristics of such a solar cell are very stable.

 If in such a beam (multi-element) structure, part of the pn junctions with SCR turn out to be inoperative due to the technological history or fail as a result of the influence of some factor, for example, current or radiation load, then the rest of the structure will be redistributed quantitatively, most of the pn junctions will take the load and the product as a whole will remain operational.

The current I obtained in such a multi-element beam structure of the photomultiplier is, due to the parallel connection of the pn junctions, the sum of all currents, i.e. i = /, + i ₂ + ... + i _N (N _p »l). Each term in this sum is a random variable having the same distribution function of currents, with a mathematical expectation r ₀ and variance <x ² . In accordance with the central limit theorem, the random variable / ^' has a normal distribution. Therefore, with a confidence probability of 0.99, the values of / ^' are in the following confidence nom interval

a large number of working pn junctions N _p (N _p »l) the resulting current strength will be equal to N _p i ₀ , i.e. statistically stable.

And since in the beam PEC or diode the number of individual discrete pn junction N is a very large value, the total current i in such a converter is redistributed (delocalized) over separate geometrically small transitions of the same type due to the parallel electric circuit.

Thus, a large number of localized individual single-type pn junctions leads to the appearance of an unexpected phenomenon in the PEC structure: to the appearance of a delocalization effect or “broom effect”, i.e. phenomena opposite to the known beam effect (see the beam effect below in the description). In this case, as a result of the occurrence of the “broom effect”, a substantially smaller photocurrent Ϊ will pass through each separate geometrically small discrete pn junction that is substantially smaller than i (i ί ίκ), and moreover, as Ν -> oo, the current to p -th transition I - * δ, where δ is an infinitesimal quantity. As a result, if the pn junction, small in geometric dimensions, or a group of junctions fall into the zone of a dangerous defect, this defect will not only be shunted, but will not be dangerous either (see Figs. 1 and 2).

Moreover, since the pn junction is reduced to geometrically small sizes, the reverse dark saturation current, due to the decrease in the junction area, also substantially decreases.

In general, the calculations of the authors ’beam structure (see Fig. 3) showed that the beam PECs are significantly more reliable and durable, and their guaranteed working time is at least 2 orders of magnitude larger than standard single-junction PECs. This is due to the fact that each operating pn junction has a long durability r, and since it functions either in a defect-free zone or in the zone of electrically inactive defects, and failed pn junctions make up only a small, certain part of the total number of transitions Ν _ρ and do not significantly affect the operability of the entire structure. In this case, the average durability t of a multi-element PEC is r s _c t _s , where t _s is the average durability of an individual pn junction of a multi-element PEC, with _k = N _k / N _p , and N _k is the number of failed p p pe- transitions leading to the loss of operability of a multi-element solar cell

(N _k “Np). The standard deviation in this case σ _τ «r _c

. The value of r _{c is} determined by the condition t _c where p _t is the fraction of pn junctions with a durability τ,,

ap _t is the number of groups of pn junctions with a durability of r,. Since t _s »t ₀ , where r ₀ is the average durability of a single-junction PEC, the average durability t of a multi-element PEC will be much greater than the average durability of a single-junction PEC, i.e. t »t ₀ . If a multi-element solar cell is used up to the failure of all p-p

π transitions, then in this case its average durability is r «t _s In N, and σ _τ « t _s

 Thus, in the case under consideration, the average durability of a multi-element (beam) PEC is much greater than the average durability of each of its pn junctions, and the spread in the values of the durability of a multi-element PEC is the smaller the more elements it consists of. This leads to an unexpected and substantial increase in the time of guaranteed operability of multi-element beam PECs compared to single-element ones (see Fig. Z.). The method for neutralizing defects in a semiconductor substance described above

(substrate, base) by filling it with discrete and geometrically small in size pn junctions is equivalent to increasing its degree of purity in the prior art, but without the process of their purification (elimination) from the volume of the substance (material). Methods known in the prior art, for example, a method for cleaning a semiconductor material by trapping foreign impurities in it by structural defects (the so-called internal heterization) and transferring defective complexes from an electrically active state to an electrically passive state, are compared with proposed by the authors is significantly more expensive. Thus, if we now take into account that the cost of silicon depends on the degree of purification exponentially and instead of, for example, silicon with a purity of 99.9999 use silicon with a purity of 99.99, then we can reduce the cost of the FEP substrate by two orders of magnitude. Another option, equivalent to cleaning the used semiconductor substance, is to reduce the geometric scale of the sample, for example, the thickness of the substrate on which the converter is formed. In order to neutralize or eliminate the most characteristic dangerous defects in a semiconductor substrate, which are macrodefects that reduce the physicomechanical and electrophysical characteristics of the material, it is necessary to fill the substrate with a thickness less than a certain transverse size of the macrodefect. In this case, a third group of defects belonging to the most dangerous characteristic defects — macrocracks with a dimension of 1000–10,000 nm (or more) is cut off in the semiconductor substrate.

 Experimental statistical studies of the authors showed that at thicknesses less than 50,000 - 60,000 nm (50-60 microns), the material, due to the transition of defects to high levels of properties, goes into a special physical state. In this state, the material is characterized by high physical characteristics, in particular, high durability and strength of mechanical and electrical characteristics. Conventional single-crystal silicon in this state (with thicknesses less than 50-60 microns) becomes elastic and high strength. Filling such a thin-film semiconductor base N (where N »(cV) and preferably N— * oo) with geometrically small separate and homogeneous discrete p-η junctions with SCRs whose sizes are smaller than SMT or MT and their subsequent combination into a parallel circuit will be equivalent to cleaning it. The formation of solar cells on such a semiconductor thin-film base will increase their durability by at least one order of magnitude.

 In general, the design of the beam transition proposed by the authors makes it possible to use base material with a high content of defects for the manufacture of photovoltaic cells and other high-voltage transducers (for example, power diodes, transistors, thyristors, etc.). Below we consider this with a specific example.

Example 1. Consider the structure and operation of a high-power silicon high-voltage standard diode of the same area A ² with one large solid, the so-called by a linear p – η junction and a beam diode, consisting of N> 1 discrete diodes integrated into a current unit, formed on substrates with the same defect density.

In the solid diode structure shown in FIG. 4, the resistance of the base R depends on its specific resistance p, thickness W _b and area A ² and is determined 2

the expression R _b = ρ · Wb / A (see Krutikova MG, Charykov N.A., Yudin V.V. / Semiconductor devices and the basics of their design), Moscow: Radio and communications. 1983, p. 39-41). The thickness W _{b of the} base and the degree of doping are selected so that the maximum breakdown voltage is 1.5 to 2 times higher than the breakdown voltage due to the maximum value of the tension in the barrier layer, above which the valence bonds of the material break, t. e. irreversible destruction of the device.

 For example, for a rectifier diode with a breakdown voltage of 100 V, the base resistivity must be at least 2.5 Ohm-cm, the SCR is 8.6 μm, however, based on the conditions of the mechanical strength of the substrate, its thickness is 200-250 μm . To ensure satisfactory voltage drops in the base region under direct biases, a deep 20–30 μm high-temperature diffusion of donor and acceptor impurities is carried out, so that the thickness of the undoped body of the base W of the rectifier diode is about 150–200 μm.

When the area of the diode A ² = 1 cm ^{2 the} ohmic resistance of the base will be RE ₀ = 0.5

Ohm. Taking into account the modulation of the base conductivity with increasing current to the maximum permissible 100 A, under the condition of a high level of injection, its resistance is 0.014 Ohms. In this case, the power allocated to the diode for heating in static mode with forward bias will be 140 watts.

 At the time of switching, the diode transitions from open to closed, i.e. from modulated resistance to unmodulated under simultaneous exposure to both high voltage and current. In this case, the pulse power is several times higher than the static one, which causes local overheating in the area of the defect.

 In the forgotten state, the defect, being the center of current generation and the region of the reduced maximum allowable field strength, is also the center of increased danger. In all cases considered, the current density (line 11a of Fig. 4) in the defect region is higher than in the remaining areas of the diode.

As a result of cyclic repeated exposure, i.e. the passage of the SCR (the SCR boundary line 8b -> 8a of Fig. 4) through the defect region and the defect is “loosened", which is externally expressed by an increase, moreover, nonlinear, of the reverse current with an increase in operating time and degradation of other, in particular, thermal characteristics. Then breakdown occurs according to defect 10. Not limited by the high conductivity of the solid emitter 3, the current is localized in the region of the defect (line 11 b of Fig. 4), destroying it until silicon is melted in region 12.

In the structure consisting of N> 1 discrete diodes 5, shown in FIG. 5, subject to the spreading current condition of the emitter current, when its linear dimensions are 3 times less than the base thickness W _b , the base resistance becomes independent of its thickness, it is determined only by the transition area and the base resistivity according to the expression R = p / 2 A ^w

When the emitter element size is 5 a = 10x10 μm ² (10 ^"6 cm ² ) for a given ohmic silicon, the ohmic resistance of current spreading to the base is Г _Б о = 1250 ОМ. Parallel combination of N elements into a current node reduces the overall resistance etching as shown in Fig. 6.

If the individual elements of the diode with a size of 10x10 μm ² are placed in a matrix with a gap of 90 μm, then their number in the matrix with an area of 1x1 cm will be about 14400 pcs. United by a parallel connection into a current node, they form a beam diode with an ohmic resistance of the Poison <0.085 Ohm, which is more than 5.5 times lower than the ohmic resistance of the base of a solid diode. With the same degree of modulation of the base conductivity, its resistance will be 0.0024 Ohms.

 It is clear that the heating of the beam diode, both in the static and dynamic modes of operation, due to a decrease in the ohmic resistance of the base, even at the same switching times, will be several times less than a diode with a solid emitter.

 Both when the diode is turned on directly and at the time of switching, the current density in the defect region is limited by the high spreading resistance, and with the reverse bias of the SCR of spatially separated diodes, it only partially affects the diode.

The barrier capacitance of a linear transition is proportional to its area C6a ~ S _P n = Sfl. The barrier capacitance of the beam diode is determined by the bottom and lateral components of the emitter, but in the extreme case, the formation of a mesa-emitter can be reduced only to the bottom. In the case under consideration, this means that the ratio of capacities will be the ratio of the areas S _pn / 8d = 0.0144. The time associated with the barrier capacity switching from closed to open is determined by due to the lower values of both components, it will provide a sharp switching front, and, consequently, a more short-term effect of the pulse on the defect.

 The front of switching the diode from open to closed is determined by the rate of recombination of the charge accumulated in the base. Its relaxation time is determined by the lifetime of minority charge carriers: the shorter the lifetime, the lower the relaxation time and the steeper the locking front. Life time management is carried out by various methods, for example, gold diffusion or irradiation. In both cases, this leads to a loss of the diffusion length of minority carriers, i.e. loss of the proportion of carriers injected in the direct mode of operation, and, consequently, to an increase in dynamic resistance and the power allocated to the diode at the time of switching on.

 In a linear diode with a continuous transition, factors affecting the decrease in the lifetime are exposed to the entire surface and the entire base volume. Such an effect, generating recombination centers, also activates defects.

 Given the mechanism of non-flowing, current spreading in the beam diode, the introduction of recombination centers can be carried out outside the active regions. The relaxation of the charge accumulated in the base will occur in a narrow region limited by the diffusion length of minority carriers in it.

 Considering that in the overwhelming case, the breakdown of the diode occurs at the moment of its switching, when a large current flows simultaneously through it at high bias, we can introduce a time factor. Its essence is as follows.

Each defect has a margin of safety, characterized by the product of IU-At, where IU is the minimum pulse power, At is the minimum period of time during which a single pulse destroys the defect. Then m = At / t, where t = to _n + toff, the sum of the on and off times will determine the number of cycles of defect crossing by the space charge region, which is able to withstand the defect until it is destroyed. The more Ι · υ · Δί and less than t, the longer the defect's lifetime, and, consequently, the durability of the diode.

As follows from the above consideration, all conditions are satisfied in the beam diode. The localization of p-η transitions and streamlines reduces the probability of a defect entering the active regions, and a high resistance to the spreading of an individual element equalizes currents through a set of elements making up a parallel current node, i.e. limits the current through the defective area. Moreover, even a breakdown of an individual element by a defect will not lead to the destruction of the region surrounding the defect, since the current through the local element is limited by its resistance, and the element itself is not connected with the rest on the base.

 From this point of view, currents and potentials should be evenly distributed between the elements, i.e. elements must be the same - a factor of the same type. This factor is not always feasible in practice, but it is extremely desirable, its significant violation (a significant discrepancy between the parameters of each element and the average values in the whole set) will lead to a decrease in the reliability and durability of the device. For example, if the elements have different areas, then the time factor will be determined by the combination of elements with a larger area and the larger the area, the lower the time factor.

 The fact that the dynamic properties of a beam element is higher than the dynamic properties of a linear element means that the ratio m = At / t will be greater for it. Consequently, the reliability and durability of a beam diode is greater than that of a linear single-junction diode.

 Thus, if the substrate is not highly purified from defects or impurities, the substrate is filled in any known manner with geometrically small (size D — δ, where δ is an infinitesimal value, preferably nanoscale) discrete p-η transitions in a sufficiently large amount (Ν— nu), then defects due to the small size of p-η junctions will be blocked or they will be non-hazardous.

Due to the small size of p-η junctions, the probability of encountering them with defects is reduced. On the other hand, since p-η transitions are small, discrete, and separate, and the distances between them are larger than the transverse dimensions of the most characteristic dominant defects, these defects cannot be in the zone or regions of space charge (SCR) of p-η transitions or adjacent areas conductivity - they can’t accommodate there because of the large amount of defects. Therefore, the greater the number of p-η junctions, and their geometric size will be smaller (preferably less than the geometric size of a characteristic dominant defect), the more effective and more reliable they will block defects. On the other hand, even if some of the transitions are blocked by defects or impurities, the rest of the transitions due to the beam structure of the transducer, it will be workable and will bear the entire load.

The design of the beam transition with the number N »cV ^{2 3 of} elementary transitions smaller than the characteristic defect type prevailing in the semiconductor, combined into a parallel circuit by means of opposite current electrodes in the internal circuit of the semiconductor device, was used not only to neutralize defects and increase reliability and time of guaranteed working capacity, transitions and solar cells based on them, but also to increase the resistance to degradation of their electrophysical parameters to external factors - and irradiation intensity, current load, temperature, etc.

 As it turned out, the effects arising from a decrease in the geometric dimensions of the transitions and their combination into a beam structure lead to the manifestation in PECs and other PPs as well as to a number of unexpected effects - to an increase in the temperature resistance of the PEC parameters, resistance to concentrated radiation, and resistance to degradation volt ampere characteristics (V AX), including an increase in the value of short circuit current, open circuit voltage, etc.

Structurally, the beam transition is a statistical sample of N geometrically small elementary p-η junctions. A statistical sample or a beam obeys the mathematical law of large numbers, according to which the scatter and dispersion of any physical characteristic in such a statistical beam decreases, and the more elements N are in the beam, the smaller the dispersion and the higher the stability of the physical quantity and vice versa . Moreover, the smaller the geometric size of the constituent element in the beam, i.e. the higher the degree of localization of the p-η junction, the more clearly the beam effect will manifest itself in it (or the multi-element scale factor of physical characteristics, consisting in the fact that in a beam of small elements with opposite contacts the physical characteristics of the body go into a state of superhigh values or to the state of overpower (see Tsoy B..E.M. Kartashov, V.V. Shevelev. / Pattern of change in the physical characteristics of multi-element structures of polymers and solids with a change in the number of elements. Moscow. Diploma N ° 207 on from Coverage of June 18, 2002, per. N ° 245. / Phenomenon of the multielement scale effect of the characteristics of physical objects (Tsoi-Karatshov-Shevelev effect). Moscow. Opening diploma j ° 243 of December 16, 2003. Per. Xs 287). In a statistical beam, defective beam elements are neutralized or bridged with a large number N in the beam of defect-free elements. Due to the scale factor, the geometrically small sizes of the beam elements are defect-free and therefore they have high physical characteristics. Therefore, geometrically small elements (for example, natural thin silkworm fibers) combined into a bundle (rope, strand, or rope) have high and ultrahigh durability and strength, which has been used by humans for thousands of years in practice. In the case of PECs, we have ultrahigh values of short circuit current, idling potential, durability, reliability, resistance to temperature and to high intensities of illumination, current, etc.

 On the whole, in the statistical beam of fine elements, due to the multielement scale factor, the effect of superhigh gain of physical characteristics occurs.

 In a beam of transitions massive in their geometric dimensions, the beam effect (amplification) does not occur and does not occur (see the description of the photoelectric converter and battery below).

 On the whole, when moving from a standard photomultiplier with a large continuous unit p-η transition to a discrete beam photomultiplier, localization of p-η junctions and contacts occurs, on the one hand, leading to an increase in photopotential, and on the other hand, delocalization (redistribution) current i and heat Q (Q is a quantity including heat fission and heat removal) at geometrically small p-η junctions.

 The delocalization effect (or otherwise, the “broom effect”) of current or other power or energy loads allows currents (or other energy or power loads) with ultrahigh specific densities to pass through PEC or PP. Moreover, the greater the number of transitions N and the smaller its geometric size, the higher the degree of delocalization and the higher the resistance of the converter to current, light, temperature or other mechanical or energy overloads.

Thus, the processes of current delocalization, heat release, and heat removal at separate homogeneous discrete p-η junctions of small geometric dimensions cause high temperature stability of the photomultiplier and resistance to high levels of illumination, i.e. to concentrated incident radiation and others environmental factors. In fact, it turns out that as the number of transitions N— * oo tends, the current and thermal effects attributable to one separate geometrically small p-η junction will tend to zero (ΪΝ— »0, QN - * 0). Therefore, transitions and point contacts localized to the “point” due to the delocalization of current i and heat Q allow specific values of currents and heat to pass through the beam structure tens and hundreds of times higher than the current densities of standard photomultipliers or other submarines.

 In addition, during the transition from a continuous single-junction structure to a discrete beam (multi-junction) structure due to the broom effect, i.e. The processes of delocalization and redistribution of currents and energy open “optical windows” for the short-wavelength EMP and change the trajectory of the generated charges from the t-shaped (inherent to continuous standard PECs) to the γ-shaped, i.e. leads to the elimination of layer resistance, which is the consistent internal resistance of the photomultiplier (see Figs. 7 and 8). The transition to a γ-shaped trajectory and the cosine structure of the beam transition make it possible to use a semiconductor material with ultrashort charge lifetimes.

 The results of measuring the resistivities of the standard samples and the experimental beam photomultiplier at various incident radiation powers confirm the evidence base of the invention (see Fig. 9). As can be seen from FIG. 9, the internal resistance of a beam photomultiplier manufactured under serial industrial conditions is much lower than that of standard photovoltaic cells (Russia) and a highly efficient photomultiplier from Suny Power (USA).

 At the same time, along with the elimination of layer resistance, the saturation current decreases significantly (due to the large number of p-η junctions and their small area), and the output photocurrent and power characteristics increase significantly as a result (Fig. 10 and Fig. 11) . The effects of delocalization of currents and heat (the broom effect), as well as the low internal resistance of beam PECs, allow their operation at high illumination levels (in concentrated incident radiation), when in the AX of standard PECs with a continuous single p-η junction are straightened (see Fig. 10).

Key to the invention of a beam PEC is the beam effect or the effect of enhancing physical characteristics in the beam structure. It is realized by connecting geometrically small individual single-type individual components of transitions with a volume (or region) per one pn junction less than (preferably much less) a volume or region per one type, the most dangerous and dominant type of defect in the structure of the substrate with the number N »cV ^{2 3} .

If the pn junction, for example, in a planar diode has a circular configuration, then its linear transverse dimension 1 should be less than the transverse size of the macrocrack Lmact (1 _P <Lmact), or alternatively, so that 1 _{R is} smaller than the transverse size microcracks LMT (n <LT), and most preferably, the linear dimension 1 _P is equal to or less than the transverse size of the submicrocracks LCMT On <LCMT).

Variants are possible when 1 „- Lmact or _ln = L T-. In this case, the configuration of the same type of transition elements can be arbitrary: rectangular, multi-angle, circular, etc. In this case, the inequality condition _ln <L for the geometric dimensions of pn junctions is set depending on the purity of the semiconductor material. The higher the degree of purification of the material, the higher the geometric size of the pn junction, i.e. in this case we can apply the inequality 1 „<LM_ _K T _> i.e. the linear size of the transition can be made smaller than the transverse size of the macrocrack or defective complex. The number N pn junctions, ensuring the presence of a large number of defect-free pn junctions, should be much larger than (c) ^2c , i.e. N »(cV) ^2/3 , where V is the volume of the semiconductor material, and c is the defect concentration.

 In general, a decrease in the geometric dimensions (region or volume per one transition) and an increase in the number of component transition elements of the beam leads to the effect of neutralizing defects contained in the semiconductor material and enhancing all physical characteristics of the beam PEC (increasing the lifetime of the generated charges, resistance to current, thermal, light load, reliability, durability, strength, etc.). Therefore, it is preferable that the geometric dimensions of the pn junctions are smaller than the volume (or the transverse size of the region) of the CMT or equal to the volume (or the transverse size of the region) of the CMT, the transverse geometrical size of the region per one pn junction should be in the range of 1-100 nm.

The distances between discrete pn junctions in the beam PEC should be commensurate with the diffusion length of the generated minority charge carriers (NNZ), but at least more (preferably much more) of the transverse geometrical size of the region, which is the most dangerous characteristic dominant type of defect, in order to reduce the likelihood of the pn junction encountering a defect or impurity.

 When connecting large (massive) elements in geometric dimensions, the amplification (beam) effect is not realized due to the presence of large-sized defects in the structure of the photomultiplier material. The proof of the validity of the claimed effect will be shown below with a specific example of the effect in experimentally performed beam PECs. Samples of beam PECs were fabricated under serial industrial conditions on polished silicon wafers KDB-12 (100) with a thickness of 440 μm with an orientation of 100 +/- 0.5, with a specific resistance of 9.6 - 14.4 Ohm. Absorption coefficient fabricated solar cells amounted to 45%.

 Example 2

For the example of FIG. 13 shows the data of the parallel connection of two continuous standard single-junction photomultipliers with a large area of pn junctions (4 cm ² ). It can be seen from these data that when standard elements were combined into a beam (in a parallel circuit), the total specific power decreased from 70 mW / cm and 48 mW / cm ² to 45 mW / cm ² ; The efficiency for these two elements was 14% and 9.6%, respectively, and the efficiency after combining these elements became 9%. Therefore, the total value of the specific power when two solar cells with a large p-junction area are assembled into a battery or module, when connected in parallel, the power value is lower than the power value of the constituent elements, and the efficiency decreases to 9%. This is a very important fact for practice, indicating that in practice, in the battery (if you do not want to lose efficiency), it is necessary to collect strictly parallel (identical) elements with parallel connection. According to the invention, completely different results are obtained for beam PECs.

According to the invention, a beam photomultiplier consists of N »l geometrically small individual single-type (identical) pn junctions connected in parallel in the internal circuit and forming one or several current nodes with the help of opposite current conductors. Moreover, according to the law of large numbers, the number of transitions is N— * ao (where N is an integer that is much greater than 1 and it is preferable that N »1000 or, 10,000, 100,000,000, 1,000,000, 1,000,000,000, t, i.e., the larger the number N, the better the gain effect in the beam and the higher the PEC characteristics), and geometrically small individual p-η transitions of the same type with SCR should be smaller than the geometrical size or volume (or transverse dimensions) of a characteristic type of macrocrack (MakT) that dominates in a semiconductor base, preferably so that they are smaller than the volume (or transverse size) of the MT microcrack, or the SMT submicrocrack, and must be located between opposite current contacts from among M> 2. Forming one or more current nodes.

 In practice, the larger the number N p-η transitions in the PEC and the smaller their size (ideally from 1-100 nm), the better the beam effect will manifest itself and the higher the electrical, in particular, power characteristics of the PEC.

The claimed effect of enhancing electrical characteristics in the proposed solar cells is illustrated in FIG. 14, where the power characteristics of a silicon beam PEC with the number of transitions N = 300,000 with an area of one p-η rectangular transition equal to 16 μ ^{2 are given} . The data are presented separately and collected in the form of a battery of two separate beam elements connected in parallel between opposite current contacts. In practice, when assembling cells into a battery or module, both serial and parallel connections are used.

 In FIG. 13 shows data on defect-free and defective cells and the data of these two cells combined into a battery through a parallel circuit. As can be seen from these drawings, the defective sample is neutralized in the battery. An unexpected effect is observed in the battery: the total specific power and efficiency has become the power of each individual element. If the power of individual elements was 26 mW / cM and 70 mW / cm ", and the efficiency was 5.2% and 14%, respectively, then after combining into a battery, the specific power became 75 mW / cm, and the efficiency increased to 15%.

Consequently, the specific total power of the elements combined into a battery is summed up and becomes even the best defect-free element. The total specific power of beam batteries becomes greater in value than the specific power of a defect-free element, which has the greatest value. In general, the total efficiency in a battery of beam PECs increases in comparison with the values of the efficiency of individual constituent elements. This is an essential result for practice. This behavior of defective and defect-free cells in the battery indicates that, in the beam PECs, defects, as was noted above, due to the large number of N p-η junctions, their small size (i.e., localization of the junction), and delocalization processes photocurrent and heat, become not dangerous, or are shunted. In addition, the total internal resistance in a battery of beam PECs decreases and, therefore, there are fewer losses in resistance and the efficiency of the beam battery increases. The decrease in internal resistance occurs both due to the parallel connection of a large number of small individual single-type p-η junctions and a decrease in the total resistance in a parallel circuit (see Fig. 6), as well as due to a large spread of resistance. The conducted experimental studies show that the smaller the geometric size of the transition, the greater the statistical spread of the resistances of the p-η junctions. As the experiment shows, in a statistical sample of a large number of small transitions, at least one of the values is close to zero. If we now combine these transitions into a beam or a parallel circuit, then the total resistance of such a beam will be less than the smallest, i.e. it will be close to zero. Therefore, the losses at the internal resistance of the p-η junctions are reduced, and the efficiency of the battery consisting of many beam elements increases.

Claims

CLAIM

 1. A method of manufacturing a beam transition in which Ν> 1 of individual single-type transitions are performed on a semiconductor substrate, combine them into a parallel circuit by means of current electrodes, characterized in that the volume of each single-type transition is chosen less than the volume containing the most dangerous characteristic dominant defect in a semiconductor base.

2. The method according to claim 1, characterized in that the number of transitions Ν is selected from the relation Ν> Shck, where S is the working surface area of the semiconductor substrate on which the transitions are formed, h is the width of the transition, and s is the volume con- the centering of defects or impurities, k = 2,3, ..., k _t and the value of k _t - 1 / cv _a , v _a is the atomic volume of the material,

- volume per defect.

3. The method according to any one of claims 1 or 2, characterized in that the distance between the individual transitions of the same type is greater than the transverse dimension of the most dangerous characteristic dominant type of defect in the semiconductor base.

4. The method according to any one of claims 1 or 2, characterized in that the distance between the individual transitions of the same type is chosen less than twice the diffusion length.

5. The method according to claim 1, characterized in that the number of transitions N is selected from the relation N> (cV), where c is the volume concentration of defects, and V is the volume of the semiconductor base.

6. The method according to any one of claims 1, 2, 5, characterized in that the thickness of the substrate is selected less than 60 microns.

7. A beam electromagnetic radiation converter comprising at least one beam transition implemented on a semiconductor substrate in accordance with the method according to any one of claims. 1-7.