WO2008113061A1

WO2008113061A1 - Methods and/or systems for capturing carbon dioxide from combustion exhaust

Info

Publication number: WO2008113061A1
Application number: PCT/US2008/057167
Authority: WO
Inventors: Christopher J. Papile
Original assignee: Papile Christopher J
Priority date: 2007-03-14
Filing date: 2008-03-14
Publication date: 2008-09-18

Abstract

The subject matter disclosed herein relates to a system and method for generation of power that does not generate carbon dioxide in a harmful manner, and/or removes and/or captures carbon dioxide that may otherwise be expelled into the atmosphere.

Description

Methods and/or Systems for Capturing Carbon Dioxide from Combustion Exhaust

Inventor: Christopher J. Papile

RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001 ] This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent

Application Nos. 60/906,917, filed on March 14, 2007; 60/918,787, filed on March 19, 2007; 60/927,597, filed on May 4, 2007; and 60/966,357, filed on August 27, 2007.

BACKGROUND

Field:

[0002] The subject matter disclosed herein relates to the generation of power and/or the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Information:

[0003] Carbon dioxide (CO₂) has been implicated in creating a warming blanket over the Earth counteracting global dimming gases and creating an overall warming trend in our climate. The warming trend threatens human life on Earth, as we know it. Recycling consciousness came historically much after hydrocarbon combustive power. Whether carbon dioxide is considered a pollutant or not, recycling as a principle needs to be employed to all of our activities on the Earth, in order to create sustainable practices. Recycling and sustainability go hand-in-hand and is the way that nature functions; for example, some life forms breath oxygen and exhaust carbon dioxide, and as a counter balance some life forms do the opposite.

[0004] In the last 150 years, over a billion carbon dioxide generating power devices in automobiles, stationary power plants and portable power generators have been manufactured around the World. The guiding principles of these engines have remained within the same realm of thought since Carnot's work in the 1820's. Traditional carbon dioxide generating power devices typically impinge heat, noise, CO2, NOx, SOx on surroundings, and relate fuel asymmetrically to exhaust, since fossil fuels are from ground, whereas exhaust is put in air.

[0005] A basic chemical reaction for generating power and carbon dioxide may be expressed as follows:

C_nH₂n₊2 [from Earth] + 59.5 N₂ [from Atmosphere] + m O₂ [from to

Atmosphere]-* n CO₂ + (n+1 ) H₂O + Heat + 59.5 N₂ [all to Atmosphere]

[0006] Combustion power systems have taken advantage of hydrocarbon molecular bond energy potential and oxidation potential of atmospheric oxygen. These energies are potential because the oxidation of fuel ought to take place spontaneously, but burning is circumstantially inhibited. In the pre-historic formation of such hydrocarbon, no power input was required to synthesize starting materials (O₂ and Biomass); therefore, a process of combustion process can be power positive. The extensive practice of asymmetric combustion has been implicated in the accelerated climate change through the unsustainable emission of green house gases (GHG) such as CO₂.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0007] Non-limiting and non-exhaustive features will be described with reference to the following figures, wherein like reference numerals refer to like parts throughout the various figures.

[0008] FIG. 1 A is a schematic diagram of a system for generating power from combustion of carbon-based fuel and capture of at least a portion of CO₂ exhaust according to an embodiment.

[0009] FIG. 1 B is a schematic diagram of a system for generating power from combustion of carbon-based fuel and capture of at least a portion of CO₂ exhaust according to an alternative embodiment.

[0010] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a system for capturing waste heat from combustion of fuel for use in generating additional power according to an embodiment.

[0011] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a system for generating power and generating a CO₂ capture material from sodium and potassium chloride according to an embodiment.

[0012] FIGs. 4 and 5 are schematic diagrams of systems for generating power and generating a CO₂ capture material comprising potassium hydroxide according to alternative embodiments.

[0013] FIG. 6A is a schematic diagram illustrating an interaction between a fuel cell and a potassium winning process according to an embodiment.

[0014] FIG. 6B is a schematic diagram illustrating a fuel cell for making

KOH from elemental potassium according to an embodiment.

[0015] FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of a system for application of a liquid

CO₂ capture material in the form of a spray to CO₂ exhaust according to an embodiment.

[0016] FIG. 8A is a schematic diagram of a system for application of a fluid

CO₂ capture material to CO₂ exhaust according to an alternative embodiment.

[0017] FIG. 8B is a schematic diagram of a cell adapted to manufacture

KOH from KCI according to an alternative embodiment. [0018] FIGs. 9 and 10 are schematic diagrams illustrating systems for manufacturing HCI as a by-product of making a CO₂ capture material according to alternative embodiments.

[0019] FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram of a system to capture carbon dioxide from combustion exhaust in solid form according to an alternative embodiment.

[0020] FIG. 12 is a schematic diagram of a system to generate power from combustion of a monosaccharide according to an embodiment.

[0021] FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram of a system to convert exhaust into power according to an embodiment.

[0022] FIG. 14A is a schematic diagram of a power generating system that is adapted to use waste heat generated from combustion for generation of additional power according to an embodiment.

[0023] FIG. 14B is a schematic diagram of a system for making CO₂ capture material in a fuel cell according to an embodiment.

[0024] FIGs. 15 and 16 are schematic diagrams of power generating systems that adapted to use inter-stage re-heating of combustion exhaust between a series of turbines according to alternative embodiments.

[0025] FIG. 17 is a schematic diagram of a system to generate power from

CO₂ according to an embodiment.

[0026] FIG. 18 is a schematic diagram of a device for removing heat from reaction of CO₂ with a CO₂ capture substance according to an embodiment.

[0027] FIG. 19 is a schematic diagram of a system to generate power from

CO₂ according to an embodiment.

[0028] FIG. 20 is a schematic diagram of a system to generate power from combustion of a carbohydrate and CO₂ according to an alternative embodiment.

[0029] FIG. 21 is a schematic diagram of a system to generate power from

CO₂ according to an embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0030] Reference throughout this specification to "one embodiment", "one implementation", "an embodiment" or "an implementation" means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment and/or implementation may be included in at least one implementation and/or embodiment of claimed subject matter. Thus, the appearances of the phrase "in one embodiment", "an embodiment", "in one implementation" or "a feature" in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment and/or implementation. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in one or more implementations and/or embodiments.

[0031] Traditional means for generating power from fossil fuels have typically resulted in the emission of CO₂ into the atmosphere, contributing to problems of accelerated climate change. In a particular example, utility-scale power generation typically includes the combustion of large amounts of carbon- based fuels such as, for example, coal, natural gas and/or biomass for the generation of electricity using, for example, well known heat-to-power and/or heat-to-steam-to-power processes. Here, heat from the combustion of a fuel may be converted to electrical power by application of the heat to drive a gas and/or steam turbine.

[0032] Exhaust from the combustion of carbon-based fuels, including high concentrations of CO₂ and other pollutants, is typically emitted into to the atmosphere, contributing to the aforementioned GHG problem. To address the problem at the source of accelerated climate change, embodiments illustrated herein relate to the capture of CO₂ from exhaust emitted from the combustion of carbon-based fuels.

[0033] In another embodiment, usable power may be generated from combustion of a fuel in a heat to power process. Carbon dioxide generated as a byproduct of combustion may be further exothermically reacted to apply to additional heat for increasing power generated from the heat to power process. In one particular implementation, the carbon dioxide byproduct may be captured in solid form for disposal or utilized as a condensed phase material product. In this particular implementation, accordingly, such CO₂ generated from combustion may be prevented from escaping into the atmosphere.

[0034] Some embodiments relate to a process of sequestering CO₂ such that CO₂ is maintained in a state and/or form that prevents the CO₂ from being emitted into the Earth's atmosphere to potentially contribute to Global Warming. Such a sequestered state may include, for example, maintaining CO₂ as a liquid and/or pressurized fluid in tanks or underground, as a solid as in compounds such as salts and/or the like. However, these are merely examples of states in which CO₂ may be sequestered and claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect.

[0035] In a particular embodiment, prior to sequestration CO₂, may be captured in a process that enables sequestration of the CO₂. In one particular example, such CO₂ capture may comprise removal of CO₂ from the Earth's atmosphere through life process such as photosynthesis, removal of CO₂ in processing biomass for fuel and processing byproducts of combustion of carbon based fuels to prevent CO₂ gas from entering the atmosphere. However, these are merely examples of how CO₂ may be captured according to particular embodiments and claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect. [0036] In particular embodiments, techniques described herein may use of

"CO₂ capture material" or "carbon capture material" as a material or substance that is capable of reacting with CO₂ to form a different compound. For example, some CO₂ capture materials may be capable of forming a solid such as a carbonate if placed in contact with CO₂. In other embodiments, CO₂ capture material may react with CO₂ according an exothermic reaction. Here, heat generated from such an exothermic reaction may be used to generate power.

[0037] Carbon Capture at Power Plant Retrofit

[0038] To suit society's 21 st Century needs, embodiments described herein relate to power plants including power generators and emissions control systems that return fuel carbon to condensed phase materials. Here, since such fuel may start in a condensed phase, such embodiments may be seen as providing Symmetric Power.

[0039] With increased attention to reduce CO₂ emissions from utility scale power generating plants, attempts have been made to remove CO₂ from power plant exhaust for permanent sequestration from the atmosphere. For example, exhaust scrubbing techniques may involve, for example, removing the CO₂ from exhaust using absorbents, capturing the CO₂ and compressing it in liquid form, and using the liquid CO₂ for enhanced oil recovery by injecting it in petroleum wells. In addition to disposing of the waste CO₂, this technique may have the added benefit of increasing production from a depleted petroleum well. While this may be a convenient method of disposing CO₂ that is local to such depleted petroleum wells, this technique may be energy costly because of the need for energy to regenerate the absorbent, the compression of CO₂ into a condensed phase form, and potentially the need to separate nitrogen from oxygen in air. [0040] According to an embodiment, although claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect, combustion exhaust including at least some CO₂ is combined with a fluid and/or solid CO₂ capture material to provide a mixture of a solid (such as a solid carbonate, for example) and remaining exhaust. By capturing carbon from CO₂ in solid form, CO₂ waste from the generation of power may be permanently sequestered without the expensive and energy intensive process of pressurizing captured CO₂ to a liquid for transportation to a permanent sequestration site. Additionally, CO₂ captured in solid form may also be used in products such as building materials, fertilizers and other useful products to at least partially offset the cost of generating power and capturing any resulting CO₂ waste. Additionally, heat from reaction of CO₂ in exhaust with CO₂ capture material may be used to create additional power, as opposed to consuming power, as in the case with CO₂ absorption scrubbers, for example. [0041] In another embodiment, combustion exhaust including at least some CO₂ is combined with a CO₂ capture material to remove at least a portion of the CO₂ from the combustion exhaust. Heat generated by a reaction of the CO₂ capture material with the combustion exhaust may then be used to generate power. Generating power from heat of reacting a CO₂ capture material with CO₂ from combustion exhaust (e.g., from a utility-scale power plant) may at least partially offset net thermal cost of generating the CO₂ capture material; therefore parasiting little or no power from a main power plant exhaust (e.g., from a utility- scale power plant).

[0042] In another embodiment, processes, systems and/or methods are directed to manufacture of CO₂ capture materials on-site where used in connection with capture of CO₂ in combustion exhaust in solid form. Here, such manufacture of CO₂ capture materials may employ inexpensive materials and processes that generate heat and/or energy, in addition to providing material that may be used in capturing CO₂ in solid form.

[0043] In certain implementations, combustion exhaust from the generation of electrical power, from an existing power plant that combusts carbon-based fuel for the generation of steam from pressurized water, may be captured in solid form for sequestration and/or use in commercial products. Heat captured from sources such as, for example, waste heat from combustion of fuel, heat generated from exothermic reactions to capture carbon in solid form and/or heat/energy released from manufacture of CO₂ capture materials and/or related commercial products may be applied to generate additional power as part of an overall power generating process. Such additional power may offset at least a portion of any power losses attributable to processes to capture CO₂ from power plant exhaust in solid form.

[0044] In this contact, "solid" and/or "solid form" relates to a form of a material and/or substance distinguished from a liquid or gas. In this context, such a substance in solid form need not be rigid but, rather, such substance in solid form may have pliable, muddy/mud-like and/or fluid-like properties, in the presence of water, for example.

[0045] FIG. 1 A is a schematic diagram of a system 10O for generating power from combustion of carbon-based fuel and capture of at least a portion of CO₂ exhaust according to an embodiment. Power plant 106 may generate power from the combustion of a carbon-based fuel 105 such as, for example, coal, natural gas, biomass, fuel oil, diesel oil and/or JP8 fuel, just to name a few examples. Also, power plant 106 receives air 1 18 including oxygen for combustion (along with nitrogen and some carbon dioxide), generates waste heat Qw, and emits exhaust 128 including CO₂, H₂O, O₂, N₂, NO_x and SO_x. Power plant 106 may comprise any size power plant from portable power generators to utility-scale multi-megawatt power generators using combustion heat for converting pressurized water into steam for driving a turbine. [0046] According to an embodiment, although claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect, CO₂ in exhaust 128 may be captured in solid form such as a carbonate solid using a system that may be retrofitted to power plant 106 (e.g., if power plant 106 is an existing and operating power plant) or integrated with an overall design of power plant 106 (e.g., before and/or while it is installed and operational). In the particular illustrated embodiment, exhaust separator 1 10 directs at least a portion of exhaust 128 to CO₂ capture reactor 114 at an elevated pressure P⁺. In one particular implementation, such an elevated pressure P⁺ may be maintained by a compressor. A gas turbine (not shown) may be placed at an exit of an exhaust cleaning process 1 13 to regain some of the power used to compress. In this particular example, pressurization of such combustion exhaust may assist in the reaction of humidity in with a hydration salt at reactor 112. Remaining, unprocessed exhaust 1 16 may include CO₂, H₂O, N₂, O₂, NO_x and SO_x, for example.

[0047] According to an embodiment, CO₂ capture reactor 114 combines a portion of exhaust 128 at a pressure P⁺ with a CO₂ capture material, such as K₂O₂ as shown in the particularly illustrated embodiment of FIG. 1A, to produce a solid capturing CO₂ from the exhaust, such as K₂CO₃ in a reaction according to equation (1 ) as follows:

CO₂ + K₂O₂ -^25UJIC ) K₂CO₃ + 0.5O₂ X₁ X

[0048] Here, it should be observed that this reaction is exothermic, contributing to heat Q_PI generated by CO₂ capture reactor 1 14. While FIG. 1 A shows a particular CO₂ capture material K₂O₂ being used to capture CO₂ in a particular solid K₂CO₃ for the purpose of illustration, as discussed below, other CO₂ capture materials may be used to capture CO₂ in other solids without deviating from claimed subject matter.

[0049] According to an embodiment, although claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect, a CO₂ capture material may be produced and/or manufactured nearby and/or on-site with power generation at power plant 106. In the particularly illustrated example, CO₂ capture material K₂O₂ may be generated at process 104 by bringing elemental potassium into contact with air 120, which contains O₂, in a reaction according to equation (2) as follows:

2K ₊ O₂ -^494kJI2k ^ K₂O₂ (2)

[0050] Here, it should be observed that this reaction is exothermic, contributing to heat Q_P2 generated by process 104. While elemental potassium may be purchased and fed to process 104, the particularly illustrated embodiment includes a process 102 to produce elemental potassium from inexpensive and abundant KCI in a reaction according to equation (3) as follows:

2Al + 6KCl ^+201kJIK ) 2AlCl₃ + 6K (3)

[0051] In addition to producing elemental potassium for the production of

CO₂ capture material K₂O₂, the reaction according to equation (3) also produces AIC₃, which is a marketable chemical product. It should be observed that the reaction of equation (3) is endothermic. In one particular implementation, this reaction may be facilitated by electrolysis. Aluminum supplied to process 102 may comprise, for example, scrap aluminum. Here, scrap aluminum may be melted on introduction to process 102. Aluminum heat of fusion is 10.7 kJ at 660.3 C. Aluminum chloride melts at 192.6 C and returns 35.4 kJ/mole heat of fusion upon solidification. In the particularly illustrated embodiment, waste heat from the exhaust of power plant 106 can be used to add heat to the melting of aluminum and KCI.

[0052] According to an embodiment, waste heat Qw generated by power plant 106 may be captured by using waste heat Qw to dehydrate a salt in chamber 108. Here, the dehydrated salt stores energy from waste heat Q_W- In the particularly illustrated embodiment, such a salt in chamber 108 may be dehydrated in response to application of waste heat Q_W- In a particular embodiment where such salt comprises Na₂S^* x H₂O, such dehydration may occur according to equation (4) as follows:

Na₂S * 5H₂O ^+x63kJ ^ Na₂S * xH₂0 + (5 - X)H₂O (4)

[0053] Here, dry air 122 is allowed to enter chamber 108 from a first valve or opening (not shown) while wet air 124 is allowed to exit chamber 108 through a second valve or opening. Once the salt is dehydrated the salt may be re- hydrated at chamber 112 to release stored energy (e.g., from waste heat Q_w to dehydrate salt) as heat Q_P3 at chamber 110. In one implementation, chambers 108 may be swapped to allow reverse processes to occur. In the particular embodiment in which the salt comprises Na₂S^* x H₂O, such hydration for release of stored energy may occur in a reaction according to reaction (5) as follows:

Na₇ ^LS • xH₇ ^LO • 5H₇

^LO (5)

[0054] While equations (4) and (5) illustrate dehydration for storage of energy and hydration of such a dehydrated salt comprising Na₂S^* x H₂O, it should be understood that other salts, such as, for example, NiCI₂ ^* x H₂O, MgCI₂ ^* 2 H₂O, SrBr₂ ^* H₂O, LiCI^* H₂O and/or NaCO₃ ^* x H₂O may be used instead of and/or in addition to Na₂S^* x H₂O without deviating from claimed subject matter. [0055] According to an embodiment, although claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect, the aforementioned heat Q_Pi, Q_P2 and Q_P3, which includes heat generated in the process to capture CO₂ from at least a portion of exhaust 128, may be used to generate electrical power in a process external to a process for generating electrical power at power plant 106. For example, heat Q_PI , Q_P2 and/or Q_P3 may be applied to power generation using a Brayton and/or steam to power cycle, or a thermo-electric power generation process. Reactor 104 may alternatively include a potassium fuel cell to receive power from the reaction of potassium with air, for example.

[0056] In one implementation, a thermoelectric power generation process

(e.g., for converting Q_P1, Q_P2 and/or Q_P3 into power) may employ devices and/or materials made of compounds such as (Bi1 -xSbx)2(Te1 -xSex) 3, and Si1 -xGex compounds, or other compounds used in refrigeration and/or solid-state power generation [ PHYSICAL REVIEW B VOLUME 60, NUMBER 19 15 NOVEMBER 1999-1]

[0057] Applied to a Brayton and/or steam cycle, heat Q_Pi, Q_P2 and/or Q_P3 may be applied to heat pressurized water for generating steam to be directed to a turbine, for example. Such additional power generated external to power generation at power plant 106 may offset the cost of the aforementioned processes for capturing CO₂ from exhaust 128. [0058] In one particular implementation of capturing waste from combustion at power a power plant, such as waste heat Qw from power plant 106 for example, FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a system for capturing waste heat in which a fluid 152 (such as gaseous exhaust) carrying waste heat is passed through an exchanger 155 containing a salt (not shown). Dry air 154 is allowed to contact the salt while wet air 156 is released while the salt is dehydrating according to equation (4). Water 160 as liquid may be pumped into chamber 157 to hydrate the salt to release heat which may be used to generate electric power in a Brayton Power Cycle or Thermoelectrics (e.g., by heat transmitted to thermoelectric elements 158).

[0059] Hydration in chamber 157 can add the equivalent of the waste heat up to the total waste heat Q_w created in a process of generating power at power plant 106. For a power plant with only 40 % efficiency, that leaves 60 % of the heat to be used for dehydration, for example. Given a typical coal-fired power plant produces 205 kJ/C of power at 40 % efficiency [Howard Herzog, MIT Energy Laboratory Internal Document; An Introduction to CO₂ Separation and Capture Technologies; August 1999]; the total waste heat available to dehydration is 307 kJ.

[0060] In particular embodiments, salts such as carbonates and bicarbonates can also accommodate many hydration waters and give substantial heats of hydration as shown in Table 1 [International Critical Tables, Vol. 5, Page 202, 1929]. Here, use carbonate or bicarbonate hydration at elevated temperature T⁺, the hydration would have to operate at elevated pressure, since higher order hydrates dissociate at lower temperatures.

Na₂C O₃ ; AH _f = - 1 1 32.3 kJ

Na ₂C O₃ ^ l H ₂O ; AH _f = - 1 432.6 kJ Na₂C O₃ ^ l H ₂O ; AH _f = - 3204.2 kJ Na ₂C O₃ ^ l O H ₂O ; AH _f = -4085 .2 kJ

Table 1

[0061] In Thermochimica Acta 395 (2003) 3-19, de Boer shows that the heat of the hydration or dehydration depends on the pressure of the process. If the hydration is operated at a higher pressure than the dehydration, then elevated temperatures can be generated that are useful in making heat-to-power. Normal air can be used to dry the hydrated salt at lower pressure. De Boer obtains values for enthalpy and entropy of hydration at various pressures for dehydrated sodium sulfide. The Van't Hoff equation below shows the temperature pressure relationship for a given enthalpy and entropy. [0062]

^{^}AS AH

P = P_o cxp

R RT [0063] In one embodiment, extrapolation of his low pressure data indicates that the temperature of a pseudo phase change from sodium sulfide to sodium sulfide dihydrate or from the dihydrate to the pentahydrate can be elevated by elevating the pressure of the hydration reaction. Accordingly, P₂ may be maintained a pressure that is higher than P₁. Here, for example, Pi may be maintained at a pressure of about 1.0 atm while P₂ may be maintained at a temperature greater than 1.0 atm, and therefore at an elevate pressure. In the particular implementation of FIG 1 A, exhaust 128 may be split into a first segment 1 16 and a second segment which is received at reactor 1 14 and maintained at pressure P⁺. An exhaust turbine may be provided at point 1 13 to recapture at least some of the power put into comprising the second exhaust segment. [0064] A lag of characteristic time, TH, of the Hydration/Dehydration Cycle compared to the characteristic time, TP, of the power loop would limit the Hydration Cycle heat to power efficiency. In one embodiment, although claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect, dehydration time may be five times the characteristic power time is used. Here, for example, the time to dry a hydrated salt with a certain amount of energy may be longer than a duration of combusting a fuel to generate such energy in heat.

[0065] In the particular implementation of FIG. 1 A, a salt may be hydrated at chamber 112 to release waste heat as Qp₃ by pressurizing a portion of exhaust 128 containing water used to hydrate the salt. In an alternative implementation illustrated in FIG. 1 B, a salt in chamber 1 15 may be dehydrated to store waste heat from combustion, and as transmitted in exhaust segment 1 16. Here, at least a portion of exhaust segment 1 16 may be passed through a heat exchanger to assist in dehydration of salt in chamber 1 15. Dehydrated salt in chamber 109 may then be hydrated with pressurized pumped water from an independent source to release captured waste heat as Qp₃ (e.g., to be used in generating additional power as discussed above).

[0066] While FIG 1 A shows process 102 for producing elemental potassium by reacting KCI with aluminum in a reaction according to equation (3), in an alternative embodiment shown in FIG 3, elemental potassium may be produced from an electro-winning process 166. In electro-winning process 166, electro-winning of K assisted by Na to first make NaK that is fractionated, and then recycle Na. Product chlorine may be collected or used for chlorination products. Elemental potassium may then be oxidized to produce K₂O₂ and heat Q_PI as discussed above. An electro-winning process 166 may be performed according to an exothermic reaction according to equation (6) as follows:

2KCl -^&72kJ/2K ) 2K ₊ O₂ (6)

[0067] In a particular embodiment, although claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect, electro-winning process 166 may employ a potassium electro-winning process as shown in U.S. Patent Publication US20070246368, for example.

[0068] In the particular embodiments shown in FIGs. 1 A, 1 B and 3, CO₂ capture reactor 1 14 combines a portion of exhaust 128 with K₂O₂. Here, to assist in the reaction, K₂O₂ provided from oxidation in from may be in a molten form to assist in exposure of exhaust 128 (e.g., gas containing CO₂, NO_x and SO_x) to form, for example, solid K₂CO₃ as discussed above. In an alternative embodiment as shown in FIG. 4, CO₂ in exhaust 128 may be captured in solid K₂CO₃ by bringing exhaust 128 in to contact with a fluid CO₂ capture material comprising KOH at CO₂ capture reactor 168 in an exothermic reaction according to equation (7) as follows:

CO₂ + 2K0H -^ulkJIC ) K₂CO₃ + H₂O (7)

[0069] Again, as discussed above, heat Q_P2 from this exothermic reaction may be applied to the generation of additional electric power as discussed above. Like the CO₂ capture material K₂O₂, in particular embodiments KOH may be in a molten form in CO₂ capture reactor 168 to react with CO₂ in exhaust 128. In other embodiments, KOH in CO₂ in exhaust 128 may be in a liquid solution to facilitate reaction with CO₂ in exhaust 128. [0070] In this particular embodiment, heat may be applied to K₂O at process 172 to produce Vz K + K₂O₂ in an endothermic reaction according to equation (8) as follows:

K₂O ^+U45kJI2K > K + 0.5K₂O₂ (8)

[0071] Process 170 reacts Vz K + K₂O₂ with H₂O to form 2KOH in an exothermic reaction according to equation (9) as follows:

K₂O₂ + H₂O -^{n6 6kJI2K} > 2K0H + 0.5O₂ (9)

[0072] Again, heat Q_Pi generated from this exothermic reaction may be used to generate additional electrical power as discussed above. [0073] While the particular embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4 produces KOH in process 170 by hydration of Vz K + K₂O₂ according to the exothermic reaction of equation (9), the particular embodiment of FIG. 5 produces KOH from elemental potassium and a mixture of water and air 174 in alkaline fuel cell 176 that generates electric power. In the particularly illustrated embodiment, elemental potassium may be produced from electrolysis process 178 that also produces AICI₃ in a reaction according to equation (3) as discussed above. [0074] In one particular implementation, electrical power generated by fuel cell 176 may be used to power or partially power electrolysis occurring at process 178. As illustrated in FIG. 6 according to a particular embodiment, fuel cell 176 may comprise fuel cell 204, which is fed elemental potassium and a mixture of air and H₂O, where the following fuel cell reactions may occur:

Cathode: \ι iO₂ + H₂O + 2e^~ → 20H^~ Anode: 2[K → K⁺ + e^~] [0075] Elemental potassium metal may be pre-mixed in a KOH electrolyte quickly, since elemental potassium metal may be otherwise very reactive and difficult to handle. Such an electrolyte may comprise a mixture of KOH/KBr/KI, without water. Alternatively, such an electrolyte may comprise a pure KOH melt. In another alternative, elemental potassium metal may enter on an anode side of fuel cell 204, and remain separate from the electrolyte. KOH electrolyte may be fixed in a porous material. A suitable material to construct such a fixed KOH electrolyte may be an asbestos matrix. In another embodiment a non-water containing K⁺ membrane may be used to transport K⁺ ions from the anode to the cathode. In another embodiment, such a solution may comprise potassium salts of acids such as tetrafluoroboric acid dissolved in aprotic solvents such as propylene carbonate or tetrahydrofuran and several others. [0076] A high throughput process to make KOH from K metal may work in analogy to a zinc/air fuel cell, developed by Appleby [AJ. Appleby, J. Jacquelin, J. P. Pompon, Society of Automotive Engineers (technical paper), 9 (1977)] and also Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Here, elemental potassium may be contained in a circulating KOH electrolyte, since K does not react with KOH. In one particular implementation, elemental potassium may be prevented from reacting with water to form KOH and hydrogen gas. [0077] While elemental potassium is typically not used in batteries because of its low melting point of 63.5 C. However, potassium's low melting point may be useful for feeding potassium as a gas into electrolyte or the anode of the fuel cell.

[0078] In an alternative implementation, sodium may be used in place of potassium as used in fuel cell 204. Here, an electrolyte would be NaOH instead of KOH.

[0079] In the 1960s Allison Division of GM developed a potassium-mercury fuel cell they obtained high efficiency using an electrolyte of KOH/KBr/KI. The cell potential current density was found to be linear, by the Allison Division R&D, over the entire range because both electrode reactions were very fast, thus the activation over-potential losses were found to be negligible. Allison found at a cell potential of 0.4 V, the efficiency of the fuel cell was 70 %. In one embodiment, a fuel cell may employ an anode reaction like that of the anode reaction of the Allison Division's potassium-mercury fuel cell. Accordingly, such a fuel cell may be expected to have the same low activation over-potential, capable of an efficiency exceeding 50 %.

[0080] According to an embodiment, fuel cell 204 may comprise any one of several types capable of providing stability against contact with KOH and performing the cathode reaction set forth above. Such cathodes may include, for example, Raney silver with small amounts of Ni, Bi and Ti as additives to prevent sintering of the silver. Nickel cobalt spinels and some perovskite materials have shown high level of performance.

[0081] As illustrated in FIG. 6A, KOH may be prepared from KCI. A process of preparing KOH may include power consumption and power generation steps. Here, mixing elemental potassium with oxygen, water or hydroxide may entail a fast generation of heat that is difficult to transfer to heat to power process. However, use of a fuel cell configuration as shown in fuel cell 204 may assist in controlling oxidation of elemental potassium. Elemental potassium self dissociates to yield an electron to the anode while oxygen reacts with H₂O and electrons at a cathode. Here, electrons from the elemental potassium may flow, and generate useful power in doing so, to the cathode where O₂ and H₂O react to form OH^".

[0082] In a particular embodiment, an Appleby design for a zinc/air fuel cell/battery design may be effectively scaled-up to generate sufficient power to electro-winning process 202 for utility-scale power generating applications. A pure KOH melt as an electrolyte in fuel cell 204 may enable mixing elemental potassium with the electrolyte. As shown in FIG. 6A, a portion of KOH produced by fuel cell 204 is provided back to an inlet for elemental potassium to function as an electrolyte in fuel cell 204 and stabilize elemental potassium as it is produced in the Aluminum assisted electro-winning process 202. [0083] In one particular implementation, fuel cell 204 may comprise a tubular fuel cell that flows a combination of electrolyte, such as molten KOH with elemental potassium. An inner wall of a metallic tube (not shown) may serve as a current collector for the anode. An outer wall of the metallic tube may comprise a separator material and an air electrode. With such a configuration, a large amount of elemental potassium may be processed to KOH while power is produced in the fuel cell process. It has been proven that a mixture of KOH/KBr/KI may function as an electrolyte in a potassium metal fuel cell. However, such an electrolyte may be maintained separate from an inlet a fuel cell that receives elemental potassium. Additionally, an electrolyte of KOH/KBr/KI may also be maintained separately between the cathode reaction and the anode reaction of fuel cell. If molten KOH is used as an electrolyte, however, K metal may be mixed with the KOH electrolyte.

[0084] FIG. 6A shows that an overall power generation from fuel cell 204 may equal the heat of formation of potassium hydroxide multiplied by the efficiency of the fuel cell, which is approximately 427 kJ/K multiplied by a possible efficiency factor η_p of 70% (the diagram of FIG. 6A indicates an efficiency of the fuel cell power creation process of fuel cell 204 by the symbol η_p and the electrowinning power requiring process as η_e).

[0085] FIG. 6A also shows an overall power consumed to electrowin elemental potassium is 201 kJ/K, as discussed previously. While an actual power requirement for such eletrowinning has been found to be about 351 kJ/K, or in other words η_e = 57 % efficiency [JOURNAL OF APPLIED ELECTROCHEMISTRY 16 (1986) 339 344], such an efficiency may not be fully optimized. Accordingly, an improvement of the electro-winning to 67 % efficiency may enable the power requirement to be equal to the power generated by fuel cell 204. As shown in FIG. 6B, elemental potassium is provided to an anode while air (containing oxygen) and H₂O are provided to a cathode. Ions K⁺ from the anode and OH^" in an electrolyte solution form KOH. Here, a portion of KOH 203 remains in the electrolyte solution to facilitate the reaction while a portion of KOH 205 may be removed for use as a CO₂ capture material has discussed above. [0086] As pointed out above, CO₂ capture reactor 168 in FIGs. 4 and 5 may bring CO₂ in exhaust 128 into contact with KOH in a molten form or liquid form. FIG. 7 shows a particular implementation in which CO₂ in exhaust 128 is brought into contact with KOH in a liquid form. Here, KOH may be purchased or produced according to any one of the aforementioned processes and mixed and/or diluted with an amount of H₂O liquid at mixing chamber 182, generating some temperature increase and aqueous KOH and/or NaOH and/or LiOH. The KOH aqueous solution may then be combined with CO₂ in exhaust 128 in chamber 184 to capture the CO₂ in solid form in a reaction according to equation (7) as discussed above. In one particular implementation, the aqueous solution may be sprayed and/or atomized into an exhaust path of exhaust 128 to enhance liquid surface area contact with exhaust 128. As liquid droplets contact exhaust 128 in the exhaust path, CO₂ in exhaust 128 may be captured in solid form as K₂CO₃ as discussed above. The reaction of equation (7) will generate heat, which may be used in a heat to power process as discussed previously. [0087] In one particular implementation, a cyclone separator 186 may remove solid 188 (e.g., including K₂CO₃) from remaining exhaust following the aforementioned reaction in chamber 184. Here, cyclone separator 186 may comprise a single cyclone separator or series of cyclone separators adapted to impart a centrifugal force on a mixture of solid 188 with remaining exhaust to effect a solid/gas separation. A cone angle of each successive cyclone separator may be more and more acute, so as to apply added centrifugal force. Such added centrifugal force may separate finer particles of carbonate solid from gaseous exhaust. Effectiveness of cyclone separator 186 in removing solid 188 may be affected by, for example, varying the size of solid particles formed in chamber 184 as aqueous KOH is brought into contact with exhaust 128 as discussed above. Here, such a size of the formed particles may be varied by, for example, varying one or more of the size of the liquid droplets formed by the spraying and/or atomizing, a molar concentration of KOH in the aqueous solution, temperature in chamber 184, varying a turbulence of exhaust 128 in a vicinity of contact between exhaust 128 and CO₂ capture material (e.g., in reactor 184) and/or pressure in chamber 184.

[0088] FIG. 8A is a schematic diagram illustrating a system for bringing a liquid CO₂ capture material into contact with CO₂ in exhaust according to an alternative embodiment. Here, CO₂ capture reactor 250 receives input exhaust 128 from power plant 106 (e.g., from combustion of carbon-based fuel 264 with oxygen from air 266) and liquid CO₂ capture material (aqueous NaOH in this particular implementation), and releases exhaust 252 with at least a portion of CO₂ removed and solid material 254 including captured CO₂. In one embodiment, CO₂ capture reactor 250 may comprise a cavity and/or chamber (not shown) that allows liquid CO₂ capture material to travel downward by force of gravity while exhaust 128 is allowed to travel upward to come in contact with liquid CO₂ capture material and exothermically react according to the equation (10) as follows:

CO₂ + NaOH -^126kJ > NaHCO₃ (10)

[0089] Heat Q from this reaction may be converted to power by itself and or in combination with other sources of heat using one or more of the above described techniques. Resulting solid material 254 containing captured CO₂ as NaHCO₃ may be processed and/or permanently sequestered as discussed above. In particular implementations, to assist in the exothermic reaction of equation (10) the aforementioned cavity of CO₂ capture reactor 250 may contain any one of several solid structures (not shown) to facilitate increased exposure of liquid CO₂ capture material to exhaust 128. Such solid structures may include, for example, a mesh, solid spheres that are hydroxide resistant, Rasching Rings, Burrel Saddles, a corkscrew-shaped ramp on a vertical axis (e.g., in a cylindrical cavity to allow liquid CO₂ capture material to travel downward in a spiral while exhaust 128 travels upward), just to name a few examples. Here, CO₂ capture material may be moved by gravity in countercurrent to the flow of exhaust 128 in reactor 250 and to become in contact with exhaust 128. Resulting solid capturing CO₂ from exhaust 128 may then be allowed to collect at the bottom of reactor 250 (e.g., in a trap, not shown) for removal and processing. [0090] While the particular embodiment of FIG. 8A shows the use of an aqueous solution of NaOH as a liquid CO₂ capture material, as illustrated an aqueous solution of KOH could be used instead according to the exothermic reaction of equation (7) discussed above or liquid LiOH could be used. In a particular implementation, although claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect, liquid CO₂ capture material containing an aqueous solution of NaOH, KOH or LiOH may be manufactured from an aqueous solution of NaCI, KCI or LiCI of using a electrolysis process 256 according to an endothermic reaction according to equations (11) as follows:

KCl + H₂O(I) ^251kJ ) KOH + H₂ + Cl₂ or (11)

NaCl + H₂O(I) ^223kJ ) NaOH + H₂ + Cl₂

[0091] In a particular embodiment, reactions of equation (11) in electrolysis process may be assisted and/or powered by electricity generated by heat from one or more of exotherms Q_Pi, Q_P2 and/or Q_P3, for example, or hydrogen or chlorine fuel cells.

[0092] According to an embodiment, fuel cell 256 may employ any one of several cell structures including, for example, a membrane Chlor-alkali Membrane Cell or so-called Diaphragm Cell, just to name two examples. In the presently illustrated embodiment of FIG. 8A, Cl₂ produced by process 256 may be used by fuel cell 262 for manufacture of chloroethane, C₂H₄CI₂, which is a precursor to polyvinylchloride (PVC) according to equation (12) and the generation of fuel cell power as follows:

C₉H. + CL ^~219kJ ) C₁HJCl

(12)

-I66.su - (52.3U) = -219U I Cl₂ [0093] Here, fuel cell 262 may use anyone of several electroorganic technologies known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Electric current drawn from fuel cell 262 may be applied to generation of power in an overall power generation system. Hydrogen gas H₂ produced by process 256 may be combined with air 260 in fuel cell 258 to produce H₂O and generate electrical power. Alternatively, such hydrogen gas H₂ may be compressed to produce liquid hydrogen fuel.

[0094] In yet another alternative, electrolysis process 256 may be replaced with an electrolysis process as shown in FIG. 8B that does not provide hydrogen gas H₂, but may operate with a lower power requirement than that of the combined electrolysis and fuel cell processes 256 and 258. In this particular embodiment, CO₂ capture material KOH is made from KCI, which is provided to an anode while H₂O and O₂ are provided to a cathode. Electric current may be applied to direct current to the cathode to reduce said H₂O and O₂. Chlorine (Cl₂) may be produced by the oxidation of Cl^" at the anode. As chlorine is usually sold at a higher price than KCI or NaCI, the production of chlorine may partially or fully offset the cost of salt raw material. K⁺ ions are transported through a cation membrane or other suitable electrolyte to react with OH^" ions at the cathode to produce KOH, which is removed for use as CO₂ capture material. The analogous electrolysis process can be applied to NaCI to make NaOH and Cl₂. [0095] In an alternative embodiment for producing chloroethane, C₂H₄CI₂, from Cl₂ as illustrated in FIG. 8A, systems shown in FIGs. 9 and 10 may instead produce hydrochloric acid (HCI) from Cl₂ and H₂ generated from electrolysis process 256. In the particular embodiment of FIG. 9, such HCI may be made from process 268 in an exothermic reaction according to equation (13) as follows:

H₂ + Cl₂ + nH₂O -¹⁶¹ _p ^kJ ₊ ^/HCl > 2HCl ^nH₂O (13)

[0096] Heat generated from the exothermic reaction of equation (13) may, by itself or in combination with other heat sources such as heat generated from the aforementioned exothermic reaction occurring in CO₂ capture reactor 250, may be used to generate additional electrical power using one or more of the techniques described above. Alternatively, as shown in the particular embodiment of FIG. 10, HCI may be manufactured in a fuel cell from the Cl₂ and H₂ that is generated from electrolysis process 256. Thomassen et al. studied the cogeneration of electricity with the production of HCI [M. Thomassen, B. Borresen, G. Hagan and R. Tunold, J. Appl. Electrochm, 33, 9 (2003)] The HCI electrolyte was contained in polyether-ethyl ketone separator. Pt catalyzed electrode supported on carbon was used for the H₂ ionization reaction and a surface area Rh/C was used for the reduction of Cl₂. The cell was operated at 50 ⁰C. It was found that the corrosive nature of the electrolyte on the anode and cathode electroctalysts decreased the cell performance as a function of time, over the 120 h of the Thomassen study. However, the system was not optimized, and there is potential for improvement of the life time of the HCI producing fuel cell. The power overall enthalpy change to be exploited by such a fuel may be less than the available enthalpy of reaction (13) since this reaction takes advantage of a high heat of hydration of HCI. An ideal Chlor-Alkali electrolysis need for power from reaction (11) (223 kJ/NaOH for NaCI to Cl₂, H₂ and NaOH) may be greater than the available enthalpy of reaction (13) (167 kJ); therefore the making of HCI may not be sufficient to completely offset a power requirement, but may at least contribute to offsetting a power requirement of the Chlor-Alkali process.

[0097] While particular embodiments discussed herein with reference to

FIGs. 1 A, 1 B, 3 - 5 and 7 - 10 relate to capture of CO₂ from combustion exhaust in solid form, it should be understood that other undesirable components of combustion exhaust, such as NO_x, SO₂ and particulate matter, may also be captured in these processes with the same or different CO₂ capture materials. For example, lithium, sodium or potassium hydroxide will react with NO to form solid nitrite and nitrogen gas, as shown below:

AMOH + 6NO → AMNO₁ + N₇ + 2H₁O [0098] KOH is known to react with SO₂ or K₂CO₃ will react with SO₂ to generate potassium sulfate as follows:

KOH + SO₂ → HKSO₃ 2K0H + SO₂ → K₂SO₃ + H₂O

[0099] Also the known industrial reaction for capturing SO₂ would be active in the proposed exhaust cleaning process since hydroxide and carbonate would be present as illustrated as follows:

K₂CO₃ + SO₂ → K₂SO₃ + CO₂ CO₂ + 2K0H → K₂CO₃ + H₂O

[00100] As illustrated above, a significant portion of CO2 in combustion exhaust from a power plant may be captured in solid form for sequestration and processing. By applying heat generated from exothermic reactions with CO2 capture material and/or processes to manufacture such CO2 capture material on- site, it is believed that particular implementations may remove a majority of CO2 in such combustion exhaust with a power penalty of less than 25%. Fractions of the CO2 in exhaust may be removed with little or no power penalty to the main power process.

[00101] While the examples above provide some examples of possible materials that may be used as CO₂ capture materials, it should be understood that other materials may be used with different heats of reaction without deviating from claimed subject matter. Furthermore, the processes described above are intended to produce CO₂ capture material with little or no power penalty. Another way to obtain a CO₂ capture material with little power penalty is to use naturally occurring materials. For example, CO₂ in exhaust can be reacted with materials that are naturally available, such as NaNO₃, Borax Na₂B₄O₅(OH)_{4 8}H₂O, Ulexite, NaCaB₅O₉'8H₂O, Colemanite, CaB₃O₄(OH)₃ H₂O, and Talc, Mg₃Si₄O₁₀(OH)₂, Pandermite, AI(OH)₃ and Tineal, just to name a few examples. Heats of reaction of these materials with CO₂ may also be used to add power to generation of power from combustion of carbon-based fuels. Here, it should be observed that exothermic reactions of CO₂ with such alternative CO₂ capture materials may not be capable of generating oxygen for combustion, as in exothermic reactions with other types of CO₂ capture materials, for example, superoxides and peroxides. The amount of heat generated per weight of material is important when considering loss in power or creation of CO₂ during shipping. An additional list of CO₂ capture materials are identified in Table 2 below along with the heat generated per weight of material.

Table 2

CO₂ in exhaust can be reacted with materials that are naturally available, such as shown in Table 3:

Table 3

Heats of reaction with these materials can be used to add power to the hydrocarbon power plant as discussed above. Further these naturally occurring materials are of particular interest, because they contain no dangerous counter ions; rather, the majority of these naturally occurring materials have forms of boron oxide anions as the counter ion to the CO₂ capturing cation. [00102] In one particular embodiment, for example, use of Ulexite as a CO₂ capture material may be coupled with a process to manufacture sodium tetraborate Na₂B₄O₇ and boric acid, H₃BO₃, according to the following exothermic reaction: Na₂O.2CaO.5B₂O₃.l6H₂O + 2CO₂ + nH₂O → Na₂B₄O₇ + 2CaCO₃ + 6H₃BO₃ + (n + l) H₂O

[00103] Here, sale of such boric acid, H₃BO_3, and sodium tetraborate produced in a CO₂ capture process may be used to offset the cost of such a CO₂ capture process. Additionally, heat generated by such an exothermic reaction may be used to generate additional power by, for example, heating pressurized water in a Brayton steam cycle and/or application of heat to thermoelectric elements.

[00104] Engines with Carbon Capture

[00105] According to one embodiment, capture of CO₂ may take place at near atmospheric pressure, and can be sequestered either by containing CO₂ in a solid form and/or by injecting CO₂ in underground brine or salt deposits that react with CO₂ Or putting CO₂ in empty oil wells or other underground cavities. Here, in particular implementations, such CO₂ forms may be generated from making power from above ground. The sequestered CO₂ may then be disposed as an atmospheric pressure gas, or in a solid form, such as a carbonate, for example.

[00106] According to an embodiment, an engine may employ an open

Brayton power cycle consuming energy in two stages: the compression of air, which can include nitrogen and the expelling of waste heat into the environment. Here, air used in combustion may include nitrogen gas. A typical combustion engine may compress a substantial amount of nitrogen, which is a loss in energy and allows for the possibility of the nitrogen to make undesirable nitrogen oxide compounds such as, for example, N₂O, NO, and NO₂.

[00107] Nitrogen may also limit the energy potential in internal combustion engines. The expansion of nitrogen in the open Brayton cycle is a benefit in that it creates power, but the temperature rise that can be achieved by the burning of fuel is decreased by the presence of nitrogen. Further, since nitrogen reacts with oxygen to make NO_x at high temperatures if nitrogen is present, engine designs typically limit maximum engine temperatures to avoid the creation of NO_x. In particular embodiments illustrated herein, the elimination or very large decrease of the use of atmospheric air as a reactant improves functioning of a combustion process and/or system that may be used in any one of several engine applications such as, for example, a mobile transport engine, or stationary power plant.

[00108] According to one embodiment, a system and/or method is used for combusting a fuel to generate combustion heat and carbon dioxide where such combustion heat is used for generating power. Carbon dioxide generated in this combustion enables a reaction for generating additional heat. The additional heat may then be applied in the same combustion process to assist in increasing the generation of power in an overall heat to power transformation.

[00109] In another embodiment, a system and method is used for combusting a carbohydrate fuel to generate heat, carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide generated in this combustion enables a reaction for generating oxygen. Here, combustion of the carbohydrate fuel includes combining the carbohydrate fuel with oxygen, which is substantially free of nitrogen, where such oxygen is generated in an amount substantially equal to oxygen consumed in combustion by reaction of exhaust CO₂ with superoxide. Accordingly, combustion may occur from combination of carbohydrate fuel with oxygen gas substantially in the absence of any N₂.

[00110] In this context, "substantially pure oxygen" and/or "substantially pure O₂" relates to a gas having oxygen and/or O₂ in a concentration to substantially optimize combustion of a fuel such as a carbon based fuel, for example. Here, while such substantially pure oxygen may have trace amounts of other gases such as nitrogen and CO₂, for example, such trace amounts do not substantially hinder combustion of a fuel if the substantially pure oxygen is combined with the fuel for combustion.

[00111] Accordingly, sugars may have significant advantages for use in closed-circuit combustion in vehicles or stationary power plants over use of other types of fuels such as gasoline and fuel oil since sugars require less oxygen and make less CO₂. Also, in particular embodiments carbon in sugars is derived from plants that took CO₂ from atmosphere recently, while carbon in gasoline typically comes from carbon that was sequestered out of the atmosphere in a pre-historic era — CO₂ from past eons on the Earth. It is believed that such pre-historic era CO₂ will contribute to Global Warming if released into the atmosphere today. While gasoline carries tremendous enthalpy, it is possible to have similar kJ/Carbon using the heat of carbon capture (the reaction of CO₂ with a sequestration material) together with the combustion of monosaccharide.

[00112] Solid superoxide, semi-peroxides (for example, Na₂O_{2 6}s), and peroxide reactions, as discussed herein according to particular examples of reactions with CO₂ capturing materials that may also generate oxygen as implemented in a closed-loop combustion system according to particular embodiments, can create oxygen that may be used for combustion by their reaction with the "exhaust" CO₂ or self-decomposition.

[00113] According to an embodiment, synthetically produced Fischer

Tropsch hydrocarbons, which were made by a method that has a net removal of carbon dioxide from the air is also a viable fuel for combustion according to embodiments of a closed-loop combustion system illustrated above. This can be facilitated by a Fischer Tropsch thermal section to a biorefinery plant; for example the heavies made, mostly from Lignin in a biorefinery that produces ethanol, can be made into Syngas (CO + H₂) and then converted catalytically to gasoline or diesel fuel. Since the carbon source would have derived from plants farmed in a way that removed more carbon dioxide from the air than it put into the air, this may be used as a transportation fuel.

[00114] In particular embodiments illustrated herein, although claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect, superoxides may provide a means of capturing CO₂, creating oxygen and creating forms of power. Such forms of power may include, for example, both an exothermic heat of reaction of the carbon capture process or an electrochemical cell power (fuel cell), as illustrated above. In particular embodiments, a solid superoxide such as, for example, KO₂, CsO₂, RbO₂, NaO₂ and/or other solid superoxides may provide a means for capturing carbon dioxide that is created by the burning of fuel (e.g., hydrocarbon or carbohydrate fuels) in an internal combustion engine (rotary or reciprocating), or external steam engine, or internal turbine process just to name a few examples of combustion processes.

[00115] In a particular embodiment, carbohydrates such as monosaccharide can be combusted with high concentration oxygen derived from the reaction of KO₂ with CO₂, for example. The heat from combustion of the monosaccharide along with the heat of reaction of KO₂ with CO₂ can be used as a external combustion heat source to drive a water/steam power cycle, for example. Potassium may be found inexpensively and in abundance from several sources such as, for example, in both ocean brine and sylvite, carnallite and langbeinite deposits. Additionally, sodium and potassium are in high abundance (2.6 and 2.4 %) in the lithosphere.

[00116] According to an embodiment, superoxides and/or peroxides may separate oxygen from nitrogen in air. Accordingly, no use of power consuming air separation unit (ASU) may be necessary. When 2KO₂/K₂O₂ and C_nH_2nO_n are fuels instead coal and air, for example, advantages may include, reduced or eliminated need for air compression, more heat than coal, and a convenient method of CO₂ collection and transport.

[00117] If a 2KO₂/K₂O₂ mixture is used to capture CO₂ from combustion and generate high concentration oxygen, as described previously, the resulting carbonate can be regenerated to 2KO₂/K₂O₂ without generation of any Cl₂. Here, if 2KO₂/K₂O₂ is reused several times for carbon capture and then regenerated, the starting cost of making 2KO₂/K₂O₂ becomes more and more insignificant. Regeneration back to 2KO₂/K₂O₂from K₂CO₃ can be done by the application of heat and oxygen in air. CO₂ evolved in the heating of K₂CO₃ should be sequestered permanently away from the atmosphere to maintain a CO₂ removing overall global process.

[00118] System 800 shown in FIG. 1 1 comprises a fuel tank 826 that may contain a mixture including monosaccharides derived from plant material, such as cellulose, that was recently grown and harvested. A pump 828 may meter the mixture into a combustion stage 814 at pressure at, for example, 2175 psi. A compressor 820 may feed provide substantially pure oxygen into combustion stage 814. Here, substantially no nitrogen is being provided from compressor 820 such that combustion in combustion stage 814 can occur substantially nitrogen free. While sugars may be more difficult to burn than gasoline under some conditions, and sugars can be difficult to ignite, the sugars may readily ignite if in contact with concentrated oxygen. In an alternative embodiment, lignin may also ignite in the presence of high temperature, high concentration oxygen. As such, fuel tank 826 may also contain lignin dust in slurry with methanol, for example. Further, monosaccharides in tank 826 can be decomposed to CO and H₂ at the pressure of combustion stage 814, just before being fed to combustion stage 814.

[00119] Combustion may be started with actions such as, for example, having compressor 820 bring oxygen into combustion stage 814 normally in the steady state process to be inter-stage cooled. However, if such oxygen is only partially inter-stage cooled, such oxygen may arrive to the combustion chamber hot. Hot oxygen may ignite combustion of the sugars and ethanol to start the process.

[00120] Following start up, combustion stage 814 may be hot enough to obviate any need for additional oxidation power. Another way to start up combustion is to have a starter feed of methane gas to react with the concentrated oxygen and have a simultaneous feed of a sugar/methanol solution and extra water injected to the combustion chamber, to maintain temperature properly.

[00121] Since air is not used as an oxidant as illustrated above, combustion and oxidation power of O₂ is much stronger than it would be as in air, enabling the used of carbohydrates as fuel. Also, since power is generated at turbine power plant by turbine 816, this facilitates the use of multi-fuels in certain embodiments as vapor pressure of the fuel is not as critical for generating power from a turbine power plant as compared to an internal combustion engine, for example. As oxygen for combustion is generated from a process of capturing CO₂, combustion may occur in the absence of oxygen obtained from the atmosphere. As such, combustion may occur largely in the absence of any nitrogen in combustion stage 814.

[00122] As shown in FIG. 1 1 , oxygen arrives to combustion stage 814 after passing through compressor 820 (which may comprise a series of compressors) to boost the pressure of oxygen. Inter-stage cooling may be performed by water or steam. Compressor 820 may be cooled by process water pumped by water pump 834 through exchanger 836. In one embodiment, the combination of compressor 820 and exchanger 836 may comprise an alternating series of compressors and exchangers to be used in compressing and cooling oxygen in flow path 838 in successive stages. As such, there may be 1 , 2, 3, or 4 heat exchangers used for inter-stage cooling between 4 or 5 compressors in series to build pressure without a high temperature increase, for example. Alternatively, compressor 820 may be directly cooled by water-cooling loop jackets on individual compressors.

[00123] Since compressor 820 compresses may compress oxygen largely in the absence of diluents (e.g., nitrogen in high concentrates in other engines) the power consumed by such compression may be small compared to other engines. In on embodiment, individual compressor(s) of compressor 820 may and individual turbine(s) of turbine 816 may share axels (not shown). Since isentropic expanders after a combustion stage may expand a mixture of combustion products and steam, turbine 816 (which may comprise a plurality of gas turbines) may derive power from many more moles of gas than what may flow through compressor 820. Compression may consume power to move and pressurize gas. Accordingly, a smaller amount of moles of oxygen in the compressor compared to the greater amount of moles of steam in the gas turbine may decrease parasitic power loss of an overall power process.

[00124] In the presently illustrated embodiment, oxygen is derived from a reaction of carbon dioxide with an oxygen generating sequestration material, such as sodium super oxide or Na₂O_{2 68} (or the lithium or potassium counterparts, such as KO₂ or even still NaNO₃). However, other oxygen generating CO₂ sequestration materials may be used without deviating from claimed subject matter.

[00125] Although NaO₂ may not very stable above 120 C, the temperature of carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 may be maintained at 100 C or lower, since it will be cooled by recently condensed water, at or below 100 C that emerges from water tank 832. NaO₂ or Na₂O_{2 6S} are good materials to use because they both can be made by zero carbon processes, since they both derive from the electrolysis of a sodium salt to make first sodium metal then reaction of the sodium metal with oxygen using processes starting from low cost materials.

[00126] Prior to the carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 a partial condenser

830 may be adapted to separate liquid water from carbon dioxide and gaseous water. Here, partial condenser 830 may be cooled by coolant 842 which may comprise, for example, air or river water, just to name two examples. The carbon dioxide and gaseous water may pass through a membrane 840 that allows for some of the water to pass through the membrane 840 and go into the atmosphere as water. To enable the process, gas exiting turbine 816 and entering condenser 830 may be slightly above atmospheric pressure, for example, 25 psig. Work 818 may be generated from one or more turbines at turbine 816, that may be converted to electric power. The shaft work can be converted to electric power.

[00127] According to an embodiment, although claims are not limited in this respect, carbon dioxide from combustion in combustion stage 814 and some gaseous water may enter carbon dioxide capture reactor 822, where the following three exothermic reactions may take place:

CO₂ + 2 NaO₂ ^■* Na₂CO₃ + 1.5 O₂

CO₂ + 0.5 H₂O + NaO₂ -> HNaCO₃ + 0.75 O₂

2 HNaCO₃ -> Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O

The reaction of CO₂ with sodium superoxide and the potassium analogues are known to take place near room temperature. Reactor 822 may contain an inexpensive form of a superoxides or superoxide/peroxide mixture, such as 2KO₂/K₂O₂. For example, the form may be simple small pellets. The small pellets may be placed in the shell of a shell and tube vessel, and the pressurized water that emerges from 834 may be directed to the tubes of the shell and tube vessel, thereby adsorbing the exotherm of the reactions listed above. Pellets in the shell of the shell and tube vessel can be at low pressure, whereas the hot water in the tubes is pressurized by pump 834. However, this is merely an example of how a carbon dioxide capture reactor may use a superoxide to capture carbon dioxide according to a particular embodiment and claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect.

[00128] Here, some CO₂ and H₂O may exit carbon dioxide capture reactor

822, but the amount that exits may be minimized by the pre-removal of water in the membrane. Furthermore, any CO₂ and H₂O that exits carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 and goes to combustion stage 814 may merely be recycled in the process, creating a trace amount of gas more that may both increase the compressor demand for power and increase the turbines ability to make power.

[00129] In the presently illustrated embodiment, FIG. 1 1 shows that partial condenser 830 deposits liquid water into a reservoir tank 832 that is then pumped by pump 834 to the pressure of combustion stage 814. Here, such pumping of liquid may incur much less power consumption then compression of gas, such as the cost of compressing nitrogen as a diluents, instead of water. Here, water may be pumped in cooling tubes through carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 and compressor 820, before the water, that becomes preheated by heat exchange at reactor 822 and compressor 820, enters combustion stage 814 to decrease the temperature in combustion stage 814 and increase an amount of gas available for isentropic expansion. Although FIG 12 shows NaO₂, other materials that can be used in carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 such as, for example, KO₂ or 2 KO₂/K₂O₂, and claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect.

[00130] In one embodiment, air-cooling demand on partial condenser 830 may be in a range of cubic feet per minute (CFM) comparable with the need of cooling air in automobile radiators of similar horsepower. Furthermore, the power generating process of the currently illustrated embodiment does not intake air for use as an oxidant.

[00131] According to an embodiment, turbine 816 may comprise a series of turbines adapted to collectively expand gases exiting combustion stage 814 to create power. An example will be given of the power created per mole. Such isentropic expanders may cool combustion gases. Enthalpy contained in gases that exit turbine 816 as compared to enthalpy of starting materials may constitute a main loss in a process of heat energy. However, it can be shown that high efficiencies can be obtained assuming, in at least one particular embodiment, expander deviation from ideal behavior is not greater than 20 % and compressor deviation from ideal behavior is not greater than 20 %. One reason that high efficiencies are achieved is the lack of compression losses, since air is not being compressed and the oxygen is pre-put in the system by the carbohydrate and superoxide and/or other oxygen generating CO₂ capturing material. Additionally, efficiency of power made divided by heating value of carbon fuel, for example monosaccharide, may be much increased because of additional heat supplied by the reaction of CO₂ with an oxide generating carbon dioxide capturing material such as solid superoxide or superoxide/peroxide.

[00132] A start temperature before entrance into a first turbine after combustion stage 814 may be at a temperature that turbine blades can withstand. For choice as an example, 1700 K is a likely good temperature to exit combustion stage 814. Lower temperatures, to use more other turbine blade materials are possible but may decrease efficiency of system 800. In one particular embodiment, temperature of exhaust exiting combustion stage 814 may be lowered to, for example, enable use of turbines that are not capable of operating at higher temperatures by, for example, introduction of diluents into combustion stage 814. To avoid production of NOx, such diluents may include materials other than N₂ such as, for example, an amount of CO₂ from expanded exhaust, H₂O (either steam or liquid) or argon, just to name a few examples.

[00133] Combustion stage 814 may be hotter at the at an oxygen inlet of combustion stage 814. Temperature in combustion stage 814 may then drop by the injection of water (liquid, gas or a mixture thereof) to absorb some of heat of combustion. The higher the temperature allowed to go to a first turbine, the higher the amount of turbine power made in the process. However, this may increase a requirement of coolant 842 to cool partial condenser 830, for example. A detail not shown in FIG. 11 is the staging of combustion stage 814. Here, combustion stage 814 may comprise a combustion chamber that initially receives oxygen enter, but then has an alternating additions of fuel and steam. An increment of fuel may be burned and steam may be raised in temperature. Steam may further suppress carbon fouling of the combustion chamber. After an addition of fuel and steam, temperature in the combustion chamber may rise. However, such rise in temperature may be kept substantially under control, and the generation of high temperature products, such as free radicals may be kept under control. Then traveling along an axial length of the combustion chamber, a new addition of fuel may be made, followed by a new addition of steam. As oxygen transverses the combustion chamber from inlet to exist along the length, it meets alternating portions of fuel and steam, so as to control the temperature and free radical production. It is therefore expected that the shape of the combustion chamber may comprise a substantially elongated shape.

[00134] To start a process of combustion, any number of oxygen sources could be used to prime combustion, such as the thermal decomposition of NaCIO₃/Cr₂O₃ (including NaCIO₃, KCIO₃, NaCIO₃/Cr₂O₃) or the thermal decomposition of the sodium superoxide in carbon dioxide capture reactor 822, for example. A battery may also be used to heat up the oxygen generating CO₂ recapture material in carbon dioxide capture reactor 822, to operate compressor 820, and in some instances to unfreeze water needed in the process.

[00135] An advantage of not using air on start-up is that the nitrogen of air is compressed up to the combustion chamber pressure it will contain hot nitrogen that may not be able to absorb the heat of reaction without getting into temperature ranges that cause the formation of NOx; or if the compressors are inter-staged cooled, the air will come in to the combustion chamber with not enough oxidation power. [00136] Combustion may be designed to take place in stages along combustion stage 814 in such a way that oxygen, fuel and steam along the axial length some are all added in staged increments down combustion stage 814 so as to keep the temperature of combustion stage 814 below the temperature that substantial free radicals are formed. In this example, oxygen may also be added incrementally along the length of the reactor so as to control the fuel to oxygen ratio throughput of the combustion process. Accordingly, a series introduction of oxygen, then fuel, then steam could be repeated in the same combustion chamber, several times so as to add fuel incrementally, and not allow the temperature in combustion stage to go into ranges that make excessive free radicals formation and substantially keep the fuel to oxygen to diluents ratio stable.

[00137] Hot water and/or steam may be injected at the pressure of combustion stage 814 by the pumping of liquid water. Here, liquid pumping takes considerably less power than compressing gas typically. In this way, a diluents may be added to the system without using nitrogen in the air as a diluents. In this way, a diluents may be added at combustion chamber pressure without the energy and efficiency losses associated with the compression of nitrogen.

[00138] Exit of process gas out of a last turbine may be done efficiently when close to the dew point of water, so that condenser 830 may have a minimal heat transfer requirement. One way to achieve this is by taking advantage of the cooling that happens when gases are expanded. In order to absorb a substantial amount of 1700 K, higher pressures can be used in the combustion stage 814.

[00139] Water injected may increase overall power generated by system

800, since it adds moles of gas that pass through turbine 816. Although sodium superoxide may decompose at a relatively low temperature (393 K), literature shows that a mixture species having the formula Na₂O₂68 decomposes at about 250°C (523 K) to Na₂O₂. After that slight decomposition of Na₂O₂ is observed in the solid state from 380⁰C (653 K) upward. At 510⁰C Na₂O₂ melts. At 545⁰C (818 K) there is vigorous decomposition of residual liquid peroxide with formation of solid Na₂O. Between 510°C and 545⁰C Na₂O₂ melts and solid Na₂O is being formed.

[00140] Na₂O may react with stainless steel, but does not react with nickel.

Nickel lined walls may be used in a vessel to be used as reactor 822. In one implementation, combustion stage may be operated at 148 atmospheres (2175 psig) pressure and 1700 K. However, other operating temperatures and pressures may be selected for operation without deviating from claimed subject matter.

[00141] With an oxidant as powerful as hot pure oxygen, even fuels such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin may be used as a fuel (e.g., transportation fuel), without pretreatment. These solid fuels could be added into combustion stage 814 as solids, in slurries of ethanol, methanol and/or water, and/or gasified to CO and H₂. Nitrogen and sulfur in hetero-atom Biomass may be collected either in condenser 830 or carbon dioxide capture reactor 822. Here, carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 may have an added absorbent to remove the minerals and nitrogen bearing and sulfur bearing molecules in combusted hetero- atom Biomass, for example. It should be observed that a particular embodiment described herein may only exhaust humid air, providing a zero emissions power generator.

[00142] As pointed out above, sugars may make suitable fuels, such as

C₆H₁₂O₆ and Ci₂H₂₂On. Other fuels may include, for example, carbon, or turbostatic carbon that is derived from a process of removing oxygen from a plant carbon source that has its oxygen removed as H₂O instead of CO₂. Fuels such as C₆Hi₂O₆ and Ci₂H₂₂On are practical since they can be made from a minimum, low cost processing of materials by saccharification. Saccharification may comprise a more simple process, and the fuels that derive from it such as C₆Hi₂O₆ and Ci₂H₂₂On maintain most of their CO₂.

[00143] Since the plants absorbed CO₂ from the atmosphere and the

C₆Hi₂O₆ and Ci₂H₂₂On was derived at minimum CO₂ evolution and low cost compared to making ethanol, and power plant processes described herein enable underground sequestration of the CO₂ made from the burning of C₆Hi₂O₆ and Ci₂H₂₂On then the overall effects may reduce an amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere.

[00144] Combustion stage 814 may be constructed to tolerate the use of supercritical water, which may allow for pressures as high as 5000 psig in combustion stage 814 in certain implementations. Steam turbines may be used at that pressure [Perry's Handbook of Chemical Engineering 6th Addition, Page 24-18]; a more practical pressure requiring thinner walled material would be at around 148 Atm (2175 psi), which is also in line with pressures currently used in truck internal combustion [Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, John Heywood, 1988]. A higher pressure combustion stage 814 may allow for more cooling power in the expansion of the combustion gases and steam that enters turbine 816, thus, letting the "exhaust" of a last turbine contain less enthalpy and be closer to it start state as liquid water at around 373 K.

[00145] It is important to note that the specific heat enthalpy of the gaseous water exiting the last turbine may be only a small fraction, in the range of 10 to 20 % of latent heat of the condensation of the gaseous water to liquid water in condenser 830. Therefore since fewer moles of water are needed in combustion stage 814, if temperature of combustion stage 814 is higher, efficiency loss associated with the condensation of water will be lessened at higher temperatures of combustion stage 814. The specific heat loss of cooling steam coming out of the last turbine is a smaller loss than the gains from using less water and having higher temperatures at combustion stage 814.

[00146] One material used in high combustion temperature regions is silicon nitride (Si₃N₄). System 800 may take up a small volume and weight. In one particular implementation, although claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect, condenser 830 may comprise the vessel in system 800 having the largest volume. In particular implementations, the power density of system 800 may be similar to or less than that of an equivalent horsepower IC engine. Unit operations of system 800 may be similar in proportion or smaller in relation to the size of a typical SI engine block for an automobile of similar horsepower. [00147] Injection of water both in combustion stage 814 may also offers an advantage in discouraging the formation of carbon deposits according the equation below and becomes a favorable reaction at greater than 900 K [Page 390, Smith and Van Ness, McGraw-Hill, Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, 1975].

C + 2H₂O → CO₂ + 2H₂ (13)

C + H₂O → CO + H₂

[00148] Although trace amounts of hydrogen could exit combustion stage

814 and go to turbine 816, this is not a problem since hydrogen reacts easily with oxygen, so long at there is a slight excess of oxygen available. The closed circuit nature of system 800 in the particular illustrated embodiment does not provide significant exhaust other than water. Any small amount of "off-script" combustion products, such as CO and H₂, and free radicals, or trace nitrous oxides in the case of solid biomass that contains sulfur and nitrogen may be absorbed or further reacted in a closed loop system. CO, H₂ and NO may react with NaO₂ and remain trapped in system 800. Such products may never be exhausted to the air. They can eventually be reacted or in the case of NOx, SOx, absorbed at carbon dioxide capture reactor 822. Here, carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 may operate at temperatures below 120 C, whereas normal truck exhaust is much higher than that, making it difficult to absorb NOx and SOx. Also the closed loop nature of system 800 enables the NOx and SOx to have many passes through carbon dioxide capture reactor 822, allowing them to be absorbed with more residence time with the absorber.

[00149] Na₂CO₃ is very stable and doesn't melt until 1 121 K. Therefore it would pose no health threat to the consumer, also C₆Hi₂O₆ and Ci₂H₂₂On are no health threat. This is in large contrast to gasoline, which is highly explosive. Sugars or lignin might also be able to be delivered to home or supermarket, making the distribution of fuel not a problem since it is non-explosive and nontoxic. [00150] The following reactions may bring in enthalpy to a process performed in system 800, discounting reactions to make carbon monoxide. Since there will be a large amount of water injected in combustion stage 814, CO will be reacted out of the process by reaction with steam to make CO₂. However, if CO remains in trace, it causes no particular problem, since it is a close circuit combustion and no CO will escape into the atmosphere.

[C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ ^■* 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + 2536.7 kJ/Mol] = -2536.7 kJ/Mol

[C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ + 12 O₂ ^■* 12 CO₂ + 1 1 H₂O + 5,155.7 kJ/Mol] = - 5,155.7 kJ/Mol

C₂H₅OH _(NqUi_d) + 3 O₂ ^■* 2 CO₂ + 3 H₂O + 1234.8 kJ/mol

[2 NaO₂ + CO₂ -> Na₂CO₃ + 3/2 O₂ + 214 kJ] 2/3 = 142 kJ/mol O₂

CO₂ + 0.5 H₂O + NaO₂ -> HNaCO₃ + O₂ + 177 kJ/mol O₂

CO₂ + 0.5 H₂O + NaO₂ -> HNaCO₃ ^*H₂O + O₂ + 289 kJ/mol O₂

Assuming the carbonate is the main species.

At 80 % glucose and 20 % sucrose the heat input to the system per carbon atom is only

3060.5 + 2080 = -5,141.3 kJ/7.2 C = -714 kJ/C The heat from gasoline is - 5,250.3 kJ/mol and - 656 kJ/C At 64 % glucose, 16 % sucrose, 20 % EtOH

2,695.4 + 1866.9 = 4,562.3 kJ/6.16 C = - 740.6 kJ/C

[00151] In order to use ethanol the sequestration reactions should comprise some carbonate formation and some bicarbonate formation; methanol makes the same ratio of CO₂ to O₂ as sugars so it is beneficial. Production of hydrated bicarbonate may give the most enthalpy to the process. It may be therefore of value to use the minimum ethanol needed to keep the fuel as a flowing liquid, or to introduce the sugars as solids into the combustion reactor or to use methanol with sugars as a fuel. [00152] In order to increase the enthalpy added to the system from a non- carbon source, and to be able to absorb carbon monoxide and nitrogen, and sulfur oxides more readily oxygen generating sequestration material in carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 may contain other materials. Such materials may include, for example, Li₂O (to react with CO₂ and make heat which will increase the work made by the process) and NaOH (to react with CO), or analogs such as Na₂O, LiOH, and KOH.

[00153] The reaction of Na₂O with water and CO₂ has two steps as shown:

Na₂O + H₂O → 2 NaOH

2 NaOH + 2 CO₂ → 2 HNaCO₃

[00154] Sodium bicarbonate is prone to decomposition to become:

2 HNaCO₃ → Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O

[00155] Na₂CO₃ is very stable and the CO₂ will tend to populate itself as

Na₂CO₃ although some could escape.

[00156] HLiCO₃ is more temperature stable than HNaCO₃. HKCO₃ is prone to decomposition and K₂O is also prone to disproportionation. Li₂O is reported to have a melting point of 1570 C. It is not flammable but has a 4 rating on MSDS for health. Lithium Carbonate (Li₂CO₃) melts at 723⁰C. Sodium oxide is also nonflammable and has a 3 on MSDS health. Li2O will form lithium hydroxide in- situ and yield more heat doing so. The Gibbs free energy of transformation for the following two reactions are both favored and negative:

Li₂O + H₂O + CO₂ -> 2 HLiCO₃ delta G= -581.5 kJ/Mol Li₂O + CO₂ -> Li₂CO₃ delta G= -163 kJ/Mol

[00157] Lithium oxide may provide a suitable oxygen generating CO₂ capture material to use for portable power, for example, since it is light-weight. Lithium carbonate is a relatively safe material and is used in medicine. These reactions would add the following enthalpy to the sequestration process, which in turn would increase the efficiency of the process. However, as there is reactivity between Li₂O and NaO₂, they need to be physically separated.

Li₂O + H₂O + CO₂ → 2 HLiCO₃ + 700 kJ/mol

[00158] In one embodiment, lithium oxide may give more enthalpy to system 800 than sodium oxide. If we make the following assumptions for the process and exothermic sequestration one can derive the enthalpy per carbon atom added into the power plant compared to a SI engine using gasoline.

[C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ -> 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + 2536.7 kJ/Mol] = -2536.7 kJ/Mol

[Ci₂H₂₂On + 12 O₂ ^■* 12 CO₂ + 1 1 H₂O + 5,155.7 kJ/Mol] = - 5,155.7 kJ/Mol

Exothermic sequestration

[Li₂O + H₂O + CO₂ ^■* 2 HLiCO₃ + 700 kJ/mol]7.2 = - 5,040 kJ/mol

Endothermic decomposition reaction

[ 10 kJ/Mol (heat of fusion) +96 kJ/mol + 2 Na₂O_{2 68} -> Na₂O + 3/2 O₂]7.2 =

+763.2

-3060.5 - 4277 = -7,337 kJ/7.2 C = -1 ,019 kJ/C

The heat from gasoline is - 5,250.3 kJ/mol and - 656 kJ/C

[00159] As has been shown, process 800 can be more enthalpy rich than gasoline both per carbon atom and by mole. These numbers are estimates as several factors can effect the enthalpy, including heat of solution for HLiCO₃ and the tendency of HLiCO₃ to decompose to carbonate and the amount of sugar that is burnt to carbon monoxide.

[00160] Other materials for exothermic CO₂ absorption include, BeO, MgO,

CaO, Mg(OH)₂, AI₂O₃, AI(OH)₃. However, this is merely a partial list of materials and additional such materials are listed in previous examples.

[00161] According to embodiment, carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 may be made of mixtures or two zones containing oxygen generation and CO₂ sequestration of one material that performs both functions. And can also include a NOx and SOx absorber if solid biomass that contains sulfur and nitrogen atoms is used, for example.

[00162] Particular embodiments illustrated herein with reference to system

800 may have one or more of the following advantages: (1 ) the nitrogen in air is not compressed, saving energy, (2) minimal exhaust (majority liquid water and gaseous water), (3) extra heat is brought into the system by the exothermic sequestration of CO₂ on-board at carbon dioxide capture reactor 822, (4) high oxidation power of concentrated oxygen allows for the use of solids with little vapor pressure as fuels, (5) the use of a turbine instead of an SI engine configuration allows for the use of fuels with no vapor pressure, (6) carbon dioxide is captured and conveniently formed for transportation and sequestered, (7) since the fuel derived from plants that sequestered CO₂ from the air, carbon dioxide is removed from the air by operating this vehicle, (8) may use sugar as fuels, since they carry with them a lot of oxygen and make the same amount of CO₂ as they consume O₂ and are better than ethanol which released some heat and CO₂ into the atmosphere on formation, (9) the fuels may be non-reactive with air , (10) in an automobile configuration with no muffler needed to run almost silently, (12) the power device enables the use of lignin as a fuel — lignin maybe inexpensive and currently often wasted.

[00163] While no battery is shown in system 800, such a battery may be used to start system to, for example, initiating ignition in combustion stage 822, provide power to compressor 820 and pumps 828 and 834, for example. [00164] If CO₂ is sequestered by a separate material in the sequestration unit, such as Li₂O, then the gas phase water will also be enough to create a large amount of oxygen from the reaction of water with superoxide, by the equations below. The sodium superoxide adds enthalpy to the process if reacting with water.

0.35 kJ/mol + KO₂ + H₂O (liquid) ^■* 2 KOH + 1.5 O₂

2 NaO₂ + H₂O (liquid) ^■* 2 NaOH + 1.5 O₂ + 46.8 kJ

[00165] Certain implementations of system 800 may incorporate the use of

O₂ compressors such as compressor 820. However, since compression is only of oxygen and not air, the compression cost is less than if air was used, since the majority component in air is nitrogen. In the particularly illustrated embodiment, system 800 both sequesters CO₂ and generates oxygen in the same carbon dioxide capture reactor 822, which may be maintained at a pressure slightly above 14.7 psig in a particular embodiment. Such near atmospheric pressure vessels may be constructed to have thinner walls that are low weight compared to pressure vessels. Low pressure containers for captured carbon are more convenient for the removal and replacement of carbonate with solid superoxide.

[00166] In one embodiment, carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 is not pressurized. Here, it would be possible to keep CO₂ capture material, such as NaO₂ in the form of removable cartridges, for example. Such cartridges of NaO₂ material may be changed as needed in a simple way, by the consumer or at a service station.

[00167] Heats of reaction of some reactions are shown in Table II. The reaction to make potassium bicarbonate creates 177.4 kJ/mol (see reaction 2 therein).

[00168] KO₂ may be more stable, up to at least 698 K [E.I. Skovnin, 1962,

Inorganic Academy of Sciences, USSR] and some researchers reported a higher stability of KO₂ (only melting at 763 to 803 K [LV. Aksenova, 1965, Inorganic Academy of Sciences, USSR]), but HKCO₃ is not very stable about 140 C. Since system 800 may transfer CO₂ entering carbon dioxide capture reactor 522 accompanied by some gaseous water, bicarbonate may form. However, such bicarbonate may be produced in equilibrium with its own decomposition to carbonate, water and CO₂. One way to retain CO₂ in carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 more completely would be to include some LiOH together with the KO₂. Another approach is to not worry about the escape of some CO₂ from the sequestration unit, since such gas that leaves the unit may return to combustion stage 814, essentially recycled together with the oxygen that is formed by reactions 1 and 2 of Table 4 below. To accommodate some escaping CO₂ from the sequestration the compressors before combustion stage 814 may be sized in a way to handle variable flow rate that includes the flow rate of leaking CO₂ and gaseous water from carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 to combustion stage 814.

Table 4

[00169] Compressor 820 used in system 800 may be inter-stage cooled by process water to reduce the power needed to operate them. However, it may be advantageous limit cooling of oxygen so that hot oxygen enters combustion stage 814.

[00170] According to an embodiment, system 800 may bring high concentration oxygen into combustion stage 814 and fuel reservoir 826 may be thermally isolated from one another. Fuel may be added to combustion stage 814 at the pressure of combustion stage 814. Cellubiose, one of the fuels suggested, may decompose by itself at 498 K. Accordingly, introduction of cellubiose as a solid may be done in such a way does not decompose before being feed into combustion stage 814.

[00171] One way to keep the solids below their decomposition temperatures upon feeding them to combustion stage 814 is to use process water to cool and isolate the source of sugars from combustion stage 814. If fuel is introduced as a liquid solution or slurry, for example, then the speed of flowing to the chamber may be faster than solids introduction and be less vulnerable to decomposing in the feeding process. In some configurations, monosaccharide may be encouraged to decompose in a controlled manner so as to introduce into combustion stage 814 a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

C₆H₁₂O₆ ^Heat > 6CO + 6H₂

C_nΗ_2yO_n -^→ n CO + y H₂ (14)

Monosaccharides, C_nH_2xO_n, in the presence of high temperature water or steam can be easily converted to syngas at low temperatures [J.A. Dumesic, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 56, 171 - 186, 2005]. Syngas is a useful combustion fuel. The monosaccharide conversion to syngas may take place such that solid sugar converts to gas at the pressure of combustion stage 814, so as to avoid the need for compression of the CO and H₂.

[00172] Unlike sugars, carbon or lignin, or to a lesser extent hemicellulose, as a fuel does not self-decompose. Carbon that is derived from plants and contains no inorganic species can also be used as a fuel for system 800. Carbon may be formed in a process that employs dehydration of sugars. Otherwise, the process of making the fuel may be adding CO₂ to the air.

[00173] In one example, concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) may be used to dehydrate sugar, for example. Sucrose may be dehydrated to carbon and water. Such water produced by sugar may hydrate the sulfuric acid. Formation of strong hydrogen bonds between the acid and the water makes the process strongly exothermic.

[00174] A small amount of enthalpy in the fuel may be lost if carbon is used instead of sugar, since it has the following exotherm. However the number of moles of gas it generates, one mole CO₂ per mole solid C, whereas sugars produce about 12 moles of and water for every one mole of solid sugar. However the heat of the carbon combustion can still be used to make turbines create power, with the assistance of water injection to combustion stage 814 to make gaseous water, which drives the turbines.

C + O₂ → CO₂ + 393.5 kJ Or 393.5 kJ/C

[00175] This compares well to glucose and sucrose at 422.78 and 429.6 kJ/C

[00176] In one alternative, fuel in system 800 may comprise carbon powder made into a solution with water and pumped as a liquid into combustion stage 814. This may be particularly useful since water is being added to combustion stage 814; or in a slurry with ethanol to avoid freezing. Pumping liquids may be one way to administer fuel. Although there may be concern about an ability to burn fuel if it is in a water solution, in the case of the power process described above, substantially pure oxygen may be compressed to combustion stage 814 and arrive at a relatively high temperature. The high temperature of the inlet temperature of the water may vaporize the water solution holding the fuel, and then go on to combust the fuel.

[00177] Monosaccharide solutions can also be made to inject the fuel as liquid. Sucrose and Glucose and Xylose may be readily put into solution. Glucose is very soluble in water and can be pumped into combustion stage 814 as a liquid solution, instead of as a solid in all the designs discussed in this patent. If the sugars are premixed with water, their flammability will be decreased, but there are several answers to that limitation. First, the oxygen entering combustion stage 814 will be hot from being compressed, and secondly a starter fuel like pressurized methane can be used to initiate combustion stage 814 to high temperature, which may immediately vaporize the water if it enters combustion stage 814.

[00178] The heat to power process of system 800 has two heat inputs, (1 ) combustion of fuel and (2) the heat of reaction between CO₂ and superoxide, or CO₂ and a mixture of superoxide and peroxide or CO₂ and a mixture of superoxide and other non-oxygen generating absorbents. This dual heat source may increase efficiency of the carbon bearing fuel to power.

[00179] A membrane 840 may separate water from CO₂ that is provided to carbon dioxide capture reactor 822. Several membranes are water permeable selective. An amine membrane may be used for CO₂ at low temperature. Also, many hydrophilic membranes separate water, such as cellulose acetate.

[00180] Glucose has a freezing point depression of about 5 Celsius for water, but at the temperature approaches freezing the viscosity of the sugar water mixture increases. Methanol will not freeze in combination with sugars or by itself. Here, system 800 may also use direct injection of solid sugar instead of aqueous solution to avoid the freezing issue. Such solid fuel may be injected pneumatically. Here, pneumatics may have the advantage of adding solids faster so that they have no time to decompose in the injection process; oxygen could be the pneumatic gas.

[00181] In another embodiment, fuel may be maintained as a liquid solution of plant derived ethanol and sugars. An amount of ethanol used may be a minimum amount of ethanol needed to keep the fuel solution flowing at winter temperatures, for example.

[00182] Ethanol has a heat of combustion per carbon atom of about 616.9 kJ/mol whereas glucose has a heat of combustion per mole of about 422.8 per carbon atom, therefore the ethanol will assist in the power of the process by adding more enthalpy per carbon atom. Unlike glucose water mixtures, glucose ethanol mixtures will burn when in contact with high concentration hot oxygen. However ethanol needs more oxygen than the CO₂ it makes, so oxygen generating sequestration material in carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 may generate more than one mole O₂ per mole CO₂; sequestration to carbonate, as opposed to bicarbonate does that at 1.5 mole O₂ per mole CO₂. [00183] Although small amounts of ethanol may assist the fuel to resist freezing, sugars may still be excellent fuels for the processes in particular embodiments since each sugar consumes in combustion about 1 mole of oxygen for every mole of carbon in the fuel to combust, whereas ethanol needs 1.5 moles of external oxygen for every mole of carbon and gasoline needs 1.56 oxygen to carbon. Methanol mixed with monsaccarides may also be used as a fuel mixture, since methanol can assist the flow of monosaccharide and does not freeze at typical terrestrial temperatures. Generating oxygen in-situ becomes a viable option as the fuel brings more of its oxygen into combustion stage 814, such as sugars do. Reactions that can be used for generating oxygen and making heat are shown in the equations below:

CO₂ + 2 KO₂ ^■* K₂CO₃ + 1.5 O₂ O₂/M = 1.5/2 O₂/CO₂ = 1.5

CO₂ + Na₂O₂ ^■* Na₂CO₃ + 1 O₂ O₂/M = V₂ O₂/CO₂ = 1

Equation (15)

CO₂ + Na₂O₂ es -> Na₂CO₃ + 1.68 O₂ O₂/M = 1.68/2 O₂/CO₂ = 1.68

Equation (16) a₂O₂ es -> Na₂O + 1.68 O₂ O₂/M =1.68/2 O₂/CO₂ = ∞ & Endothermic 2 KO₂ + 2 OH- ^■* 2 e- + 2 KOH + 2 O₂ O₂/M = 2/2 O₂/CO₂ = ∞ CO₂ + 2 NaO₂ ^■* Na₂CO₃ + 1.5 O₂ O₂/M = 1.5/2 O₂/CO₂ = 1.5

CO₂ + 0.5 H₂O + NaO₂ ^■* HNaCO₃ + O₂ O₂/M = 1 /1 O₂/CO₂ = 1

M = K or Na (or Rb, Cs, Li)

[00184] For in-situ oxygen generation and sequestration it may be desired to not make excessive CO₂ compared to the oxygen created in system 800 if the above reactions are used for the creation of oxygen. Combustion of cellubiose, glucose, hemicellulose, carbohydrates or carbon adhere to this requirement, those fuels have less oxygen needs, whereas combustion of isooctane and methane do not.

[00185] Reactions of equations 17 and 18 consume more oxygen than could be generated by the conversion of CO₂ to oxygen through reactions of equations above. Reaction of equation 7 may potentially be used with gasoline at a limited range of fuel to air.

Ci₂H₂₂On + 12 O₂ → 12 CO₂ + 1 1 H₂O O₂/CO₂ = 1

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ → 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O O₂/CO₂ = 1

C + O₂ → CO₂ O₂/CO₂ = 1

Equation (17) C₈H₁₈ + 12.5 O₂ → 8 CO₂ + 9 H₂O O₂/CO₂ = 1.56

Equation (18): CH₄ + 2 O₂ → CO₂ + 2 H₂O O₂/CO₂ = 2

[00186] Sugars such as Xylose, Glucose and Cellubiose are excellent fuels for a an in-situ oxygen generation, closed circuit power process, since their oxygen requirement is 1 to 1 with their oxygen generation potential when combined with superoxides, peroxides and semi-peroxides, Na₂O_{2 68}.

[00187] CO₂ captured from system 800 may be shipped, trained and/or conveyed in some way to a permanent sequestration site. Carbonates may be landfilled or carbonates can be heated to liberate CO₂ and place the CO₂ in a geological formation, for example. Suitable geological formations include underground saline or underground salts that react in the presence of CO₂. If a mixture of two moles KO₂ and one K₂O₂ is used in carbon dioxide capture reactor 822 to capture CO₂ in the form of carbonate, the carbonate can later be converted back to CO₂.

[00188] Returning potassium carbonate/hydrate to KO₂ + V2 K₂O₂ may require air, but conveniently side-steps NOx formation (a concern of high temperature air oxidation).

[00189] A 55 % efficiency system process starting with 681 kJ/C monosaccharide with 257 kJ/C heat requirement to regenerate carbonate to KO₂ + ¹/2 K₂O₂ may make a net power positive and CO₂ removal process. The higher the inlet temperature to gas turbine 816, the higher the overall efficiency of the power process, so long as sufficient pressure is used to accommodate the turbine expansion required to utilize the temperature.

[00190] The overall process of system 800 together with regeneration of two moles KO₂ and one mole K₂O₂ and sequestration of CO₂ may be net power positive and CO₂ removing from the atmosphere. Removing CO₂ from the atmosphere may decrease the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere. Decreasing the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere may reverse Global Warming.

[00191] FIG. 12 is a schematic diagram of a system which generates power by mixing air 924 with a combustion process at combustion chamber 906. Here, an extruder 902 may dispense fuel 901 , such as solid monosaccharide into the path of steam and/or hot water. The monosaccharide may be self converted to syngas in the presence of hot steam or hot water. Syngas is combusted in combustion chamber 906 to produce products H₂O, CO₂ and N₂. The generation of syngas from monosaccharide provides a convenient method for metering gaseous fuel at pressure to the combustion chamber without use of a compressor. By combustion with a mixture of air (containing nitrogen in addition to oxygen), combustion at combustion chamber 906 may occur at a lower temperature than with substantially pure oxygen as described above. Exhaust from combustion at combustion chamber 906 together with steam that originated from the condenser at 912 may drive turbine or series of turbines 908 to generate electricity at generator 910, which may be assisted by battery 91 1 in the particularly illustrated embodiment.

[00192] An air-cooled condenser 912 may receive expanded exhaust 909 exiting turbine 908 to separate gaseous exhaust 914 from liquid H₂O. A pump 916 may transmit such liquid from reservoir 915 through heat exchangers at CO₂ capture reactor 918 and air compressor 925. Here, such liquid H₂O may be returned to steam, thus using heat generated from operation of compressor 925 and an exothermic reaction at CO₂ capture reactor 918 to be added to combustion at combustion chamber 906 for driving turbine 908. Vessel 918 may allow substantially only nitrogen to exit to the environment, since the CO₂ capture material in vessel 918 is designed to remove the CO₂. The CO₂ capture material may capture some humidity that is contained in the gas phase that exits condenser 912. Here, not all of the steam is necessarily directed to contact fuel 901 as metering valve 903 can monitor an amount of steam that is used to generate syngas by contact with monosaccharide and the amount that goes directly to the combustor.. In the particular embodiment where fuel 901 comprises sugar, steam at over 400 K coming into contact with such sugar may reform the sugar to carbon monoxide and hydrogen as shown, which may be combusted at combustion stage 906.

[00193] According to an embodiment, CO₂ capture reactor 918 may employ any one of several CO₂ capture materials described herein including materials that react with CO₂ and water at temperature starting around 373 K or higher. For example, such CO₂ capture material may comprise anhydrous lithium hydroxide (LiOH). Here, such CO₂ capture material need not generate oxygen in an exothermic reaction to capture CO₂. In this particular implementation, CO₂ and humidity from separated exhaust gas 914 may be directed to CO₂ capture reactor 918 in such a way that the LiOH is first reacted with water to obtain a heat of hydration, then the hydrated LiOH can react with the CO₂ to make hydrated lithium bicarbonate. Nitrogen in separated exhaust gas 914 does not react. A trap (not shown), such as a carbon absorber may allow such nitrogen to exit CO₂ capture reactor 918 while not allowing CO₂ capture material to exit CO₂ capture reactor 918. Such nitrogen exiting CO₂ capture reactor 918 may be returned to the atmosphere or isolated by nitrogen membrane. CO₂ capture material in CO₂ capture reactor 918 may be solid, aqueous solution, liquid or molten. In the embodiment of Figure 12, the CO₂ capture material does not return any oxygen to the combustion chamber, and therefore need not generate any oxygen.

[00194] As shown in FIG. 12, liquid H₂O may be converted to steam by receiving heat from an exchanger at CO₂ capture reactor 918, followed by receiving heat from an exchanger 922 at compressor 925. Here, such an order in exchange of heat from CO₂ capture reactor 918 first and followed by receiving heat from an exchanger 922 at compressor 925 may be particularly effective if compressor 925 is at a higher temperature than CO₂ capture reactor 918. In other implementations, however, a CO₂ capture reactor may be at a higher temperature than an associated compressor. In such implementations, liquid H₂O may be converted to steam by first receiving heat from a compressor, followed by receiving heat from a hotter CO₂ capture reactor, for example. Here, as shown in FIG. 19 according to an alternative implementation, liquid H₂O in a tank 1413 may be pumped to an exchanger at compressor 1416 first, and then to a CO₂ capture reactor 1421.

[00195] FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram of a system to convert exhaust from combustion of a monosaccharide into power according to an embodiment. A CO₂ capture reactor 1004 may receive hot water dissociated monosaccharide containing, for example, CO, H₂ and H₂O. As shown in this particular implementation, CO₂ capture reactor 1004 may bring such syngas containing CO, H₂ and H₂O into contact with a molten CO₂ capture material 1002 comprising, for example, molten KO₂, NaO₂ and/or K₂O₂. Such syngas derived from sugars may then exothermically react with CO₂ capture material 1002 according to the following equation (19):

CO + H₂ + tιH₂O + KO₂ + 0.5K₂O₂ ^exo > K₂CO₃ + (n + I)H₂O (19)

[00196] These exothermic reactions may elevate the temperature of CO₂ capture reactor 1004, allowing for the generation of electric power from thermo electric elements 1006 in contact with CO₂ capture reactor 1004. In one particular implementation, CO₂ capture reactor 1004 may comprise a vertically oriented chamber and receive a continuous downward flow of molten CO₂ capture material 1002 which moves by gravity or by a conveyance system. Syngas from reformed sugar containing CO, H₂ and H₂O may rise from the bottom of the chamber to become in contact with the downward flowing CO₂ capture 1002, and countercurrent to direction of flow of CO₂ capture 1002. Carbon and/or CO₂ may be captured in solid form as, for example, HKCO₃ and/or HNaCO₃ and/or K₂CO₃ and/or Na₂CO₃ as shown in this particular embodiment. In particular implementations, to assist in the exothermic reaction of equation (19) the aforementioned cavity of CO₂ capture reactor 1004 may contain any one of several solid structures (not shown) to facilitate increased exposure of molten superoxide and/or superoxide/peroxide mixture1002 with exhaust containing CO, H₂ and H₂O. Such solid structures may include a corkscrew-shaped ramp on a vertical axis (e.g., in a cylindrical cavity to allow molten CO₂ capture material 1002 to travel downward in a spiral while exhaust travels upward), just to name a few examples.

[00197] Gaseous H₂O exiting CO₂ capture reactor 1004 may be directed to a chamber 1012 containing a salt such as, for example, Na₂S^* x H₂O and/or other dehydration salts pointed out above. The gaseous H₂O may hydrate the salt in a reaction according to equation (5) discussed above, for example. Here, this exothermic reaction may raise the temperature of chamber 1012, allowing for the generation of electric power from thermoelectric elements 1008 in contact with chamber 1012, as shown in the particular embodiment of FIG. 13, or by a Brayton Cycle. Hydration may be performed at elevated pressure, so that the temperature of hydration can be elevated. Accordingly, exit 1018 may employ some method to maintain a back pressure, such as an exit steam turbine (not shown), for example. Further some power can be gleaned from such an exit turbine. Dehydration shown by vessel 1014 in FIG. 13 may be performed at reduced pressure or room pressure. Atmospheric air is used to collect water that is driven off the salt by waste heat.

[00198] FIG. 14A is a schematic diagram of a power generating system that is adapted to use waste heat generated from combustion for generation of additional power at unit operation 1 106 according to an embodiment. Here, heat from a condenser 1 1 12 used for separating gaseous combustion exhaust may be used for generating additional power using one or more techniques discussed above in vessel 1 106 for dehydration and vessel 1 1 18 for hydration. In order to increase hydration temperature, the exit pressure of turbine 1 104 and condenser 1 1 12 may be elevated above room pressure. Here, a pressurized gas fuel containing CO and H₂ (e.g., from the steam reforming of a monosaccharide fuel) may be combusted in an elongated combustion chamber 1102 along with oxygen injected at alternating positions with steam length-wise as shown. Such injected oxygen may be made from capture of CO₂ exhaust at CO₂ capture reactor 1 124 using one or more techniques discussed above, including contact with solid or molten KO₂. Also, such injected steam may be generated from condensed H₂O partially originating from combustion, which is re-heated to a gas from heat generated by CO₂ capture reactor 1 124 using techniques discussed above, and other reactions, such as the hydration of a salt at vessel 1 1 18. [00199] Exhaust CO₂ and H₂O(g) from combustion is expanded at turbine

1 104 or a series of turbines to generate power. Heat Q from condensation of the expanded exhaust at condenser 1 1 12 is used to dehydrate a salt such as Na₂S^* x H₂O contained in vessel 1 106 where dry air 1 108 enters vessel 1106 and wet air 1 1 10 exits vessel 1106. In one particular embodiment, condenser 1 1 12 may operate at an elevated pressure. Here, pressure P⁺ of exhaust enter turbine 1 104 may similarly be elevated enable suitable pressure differential across turbine 1 104. Vessel 1106 with dehydrated salt may be recoupled as vessel 1 1 18 where H₂O(g) from separated exhaust 1 1 14 re-hydrates the salt to release heat. CO₂ from separated exhaust 1 1 14 passes vessel 1 1 18 and is directed to enter vessel 1 124 for processing of the CO₂ to produce oxygen and heat. Heat generated from re-hydration of salt at vessel 11 18 may then be used to re- heat condensed H₂O(g) transmitted through pump 1 1 16. Oxygen from processing of the CO₂ at CO₂ capture reactor 1 124 may be transmitted to combustion chamber 1 102 through compressor 1 126. Additional oxygen may be introduced for combustion as shown; additional oxygen may come from an air separation unit (not shown) that generates high concentration oxygen. An example of a device capable of generating high concentration oxygen from air is the ceramic membrane used in a solid oxide fuel cell. Such a ceramic membrane can deliver high purity oxygen by the application of a current across the membrane. The ceramic membrane contains oxygen lattice defects, and the atmospheric oxygen is reduced to O^2" ions that traverse through the membrane, as it hops from lattice defect to lattice defect.

[00200] CO₂ capture material 1 123 may comprise oxygen generating CO₂ capture material (e.g., CO₂ capture material capable of generating oxygen in an exothermic reaction with CO₂). In the particularly illustrated embodiment, CO₂ capture material 1 123 (e.g., KO₂ and/or K₂O₂ as shown) may be manufactured in a reactor 1 125 by combining elemental potassium and air 1 120 as discussed above to provide CO₂ capture material 1 123 as molten KO₂ and/or K₂O₂. Heat of this reaction may also be used to heat pressurized H₂O water substance transmitted through pump 1 1 16 and injected as steam into combustion chamber 1 102 as discussed above. In an alternative embodiment, such CO₂ capture material 1 123 may be made on-site in a fuel cell as shown in FIG. 14B according to a particular embodiment. Here, instead adding heat of the reaction to H₂O(g) through an exchanger, additional electrical power may be generated, for example, by the fuel cell embodiment of FIG. 14B for example, which may be added to and/or combined with power generated through turbine 1 104, for example. Fuel cell of FIG. 14B may be operated at temperatures above the molten temperature of KO₂ to allow for the flow of KO2 out of the fuel cell and into the CO₂ capture reactor 1 124.

[00201] As shown in FIG. 14B, power can be gleaned while KO₂ is produced, thereby adding to an overall power process. In one embodiment, an electrolyte KOH/KBr/KI may be kept separate from generated KO₂. To assist in the removal of KO₂ that is produced, the KO₂ may be maintained in a molten form. Accordingly, such a fuel cell may be operated at temperatures above the temperature of molten KO₂ (e.g., above 380 - 420 C). Molten KO₂ may then be transported to a CO₂ capture reactor such as CO₂ capture reactor 1 124, on-site, while power generated from the fuel cell reaction is transmitted to another part of the process, for example, the section of the process not shown, where K metal is generated on site. Here, K metal may be created on-site from KCL salt using any one of several techniques such as, for example, process 102 illustrated above according to equation (3) and/or electro-winning process 166 illustrated above according to equation (6).

[00202] FIGs. 15 and 16 are schematic diagrams of power generating systems that adapted to use inter-stage re-heating of combustion exhaust between a series of turbines 1202 according to alternative embodiments. A combustion chamber 1206 is arranged in such a way that fuel 1201 and water may be added in increments so as to keep the temperature of combustion chamber 1206 below the temperature that substantial free radicals are formed and to ensure that the outgoing temperature of the process stream before it enters a turbine 1202 is at a temperature that such turbines can handle, such as <1700 K.

[00203] Pressurized water substance, such as steam may be injected at the pressure of combustion chamber 1206 to absorb some of the heat of reaction, keep the temperature of gas entering the first turbine 1202 below temperatures typically suitable for turbine blades and add moles of gas to the process so that more power can be gleaned from turbines 1202. Here, such water may be injected by the pumping of liquid water, which may have a considerably lower power requirement than gas compression. In this way, a diluent may be added to the system without using nitrogen in the air as a diluent. In this way the diluent is added at combustion chamber pressure without the energy and efficiency losses associated with the compression of nitrogen. The water that emerges at 1216 in FIG 16. may be pressurized and heated at 1230, where said water is used for interstage cooling between two oxygen turbines (1232 and 1234).

[00204] In a particular implementation, process gas exiting a final turbine

1202 may approach the dew point of water, so that condenser 1218 may have a minimum amount of heat transfer requirement. Pressurized water substance injected into combustion chamber 1206 may increase an overall power generated by a power plant, since it adds moles of gas that pass through turbines 1202.

[00205] Combustion chamber 1206 may be constructed of material that may tolerate even the use of supercritical water, which would allow for pressures as high as 5000 psig in combustion chamber 1206. Steam turbines are used at that pressure [Perry's Handbook of Chemical Engineering 6th Addition, Page 24-18]; a more practical pressure requiring thinner walled material would be at around 148 Atm (2175 psi), which is also in line with pressures currently used in trucks [Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, John Heywood, 1988].

[00206] According to an embodiment, condenser 1218 may return remaining combustion exhaust to a CO₂ capture reactor 1220 (FIG. 15) or 1221 (FIG. 16). In the particular embodiment of FIG. 15, CO₂ capture reactor 1220 need not generate oxygen while in the particular embodiment of FIG. 16, CO₂ capture reactor 1221 may react with CO₂ to generate oxygen for use in combustion. Here, CO₂ in the returning exhaust may exothermically react with a CO₂ capture material in reactor 1221 such as, for example, NaO₂ reacting to form Na₂CO₃ in FIG. 16 and NaOH in FIG. 15. Such Na₂CO₃ may be very stable and not melt until 1 121 K. Therefore it would pose no health threat to the consumer, also C₆H₁₂O₆ and Ci₂H₂₂On, used as fuel 1201 , also would not pose a health threat.

[00207] Other materials can be used as CO₂ capture material in reactor

1220 of FIG. 15 may include, for example, a mixture that contains 99 to 90 % Li₂O (to react with CO₂) and 1 to 10 % NaOH (to react with CO), or 99 to 90 % LiOH (to react with CO₂) and 1 to 10 % NaOH (to react with CO)

[00208] A reaction of CO₂ with Na₂O as a CO₂ capture material in reactor

1220 of FIG. 15 may also have water present, since condenser 1218 may not completely separate gaseous water from CO₂. Such a reaction of Na₂O with water and CO₂ may have two steps as shown:

a₂O + H₂O ^■* 2 NaOH NaOH + 2 CO₂ ^■* 2 HNaCO₃

[00209] Sodium bicarbonate is prone to decomposition as follows:

HNaCO₃ -> Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O [00210] Na₂CO₃ is very stable and the CO₂ will tend to populate itself as

Na₂CO₃ although some could escape reactor 1220 if Na₂O is used as a CO₂ capture material. In certain embodiments, LiCO₃ may be more temperature stable than HNaCO₃. HKCO₃ may be prone to decomposition and K₂O is also prone to disproportionation. Li₂O is reported to have a melting point of 1570 C. It is not flammable but has a 4 rating on MSDS for health. Lithium Carbonate (U2CO3) melts at 723O. Sodium oxide is also nonflammable and has a 3 on MSDS health.

[00211] FIG. 15 shows generation of oxygen at pressure by the reaction of pressurized liquid water with superoxide (here, shown as NaO₂ in the particular illustration of FIG. 15). Note that normally if oxygen is supplied at pressure to any process, it is normally done in one of two ways, either by a pressurized oxygen tank or by an oxygen compressor. And oxygen compressor requires a power input. An oxygen cylinder looses pressure as it is dispensed. In this particular embodiment, however, water is first pumped up to high pressure in order to enter combustion chamber 1206. A slip-stream of that water is metered to reactor 1208. Liquid water costs little power to pressurize to a high pressure. Such liquid water may then be put in thermal contact with superoxide material in reactor 1208 (e.g., the NaO₂ (or KO₂) to absorb heat. In the particular embodiment where such superoxide material comprises NaO₂, some or all the liquid water may vaporize since the reaction of NaO₂ with water is exothermic (while the reaction of KO₂ with liquid water is neutral thermally (creating similar heat as the heat of vaporization of water)). Pressurized gaseous water may then enter reactor 1208 to form oxygen at a 1.5 to 1 ratio of oxygen to water. The oxygen can then be delivered to the combustion chamber 1206 or to any process, at pressure, (e.g., along with without the cost of compressor power input and with benefit of heat addition to the combustion chamber. Reactions to generate oxygen by combining a superoxide with water may occur, for example, as follows:

0.35 kJ/mol + KO₂ + H₂O (liquid) ^■* 2 KOH + 1.5 O₂ 2 NaO₂ + H₂O (liquid) ^■* 2 NaOH + 1.5 O₂ + 46.8 kJ

[00212] In one embodiment, a Meter valve 1210 may be used for controlling delivery of high pressure hot oxygen herein described.

[00213] The particular embodiment of FIG. 16, CO₂ capture reactor 1221 , operating at a pressure above 14.7 psig. for example, may be further adapted to both capture CO₂ in solid form and generate oxygen for combustion. In this particular implementation, CO₂ capture reactor 1221 may comprise a superoxide such as NaO₂ and/or KO₂. Here, reactor 1221 may be at an exit pressure of the last turbine 1202, which may be slightly above 14.7 psig, for example. Since reactor 1221 is not pressurized it is possible to keep CO₂ capture material such as superoxide in the form of removable cartridges.

[00214] In the particular embodiments of FIGs. 15 and 16, a high concentration of oxygen is introduced into combustion chamber 1206 to meet first solid fuel 1201 that is brought in to combustion chamber by a mechanism 1204 such as a screw extruder or some means that isolates the fuel reservoir thermally from combustion chamber 1206, and lets solids enter combustion chamber 1206 with no influence on the pressure of combustion chamber 1206. One possible fuel, cellubiose, may decompose by itself at 498 K. Here, introduction of the solids may be performed in such a way that such solids do not decompose before being feed into combustion chamber 1206. Where mechanism 1204 comprises a screw extruder, one way to keep solid fuel 1201 below its decomposition temperatures upon feeding is to use process water to cool the screw extruder.

[00215] Fuel and water injection into combustion chamber 1206 may be manifolded to maintain the temperature of combustion chamber 1206 sufficient to achieve complete or near complete combustion of fuel, while avoiding the substantial production of free radicals, suppressing carbon formation and exiting the combustion chamber at less than around 1700 K, which is a high range of the temperature that some turbine blades may function without excessive degradation. [00216] Unlike sugars, carbon as a fuel does not self decompose. Carbon that is derived from plants and contains no inorganic species can also be used as a fuel for the Corban Process. The carbon should be formed in a way that dehydrated, for example, sugars, instead of decarbonating the sugars, otherwise the process of making the fuel will be adding CO₂ to the air. In order to maximize the removal of carbon dioxide from the air, the fuel used should not have made much carbon dioxide in the life span of the fuel.

[00217] In an alternative embodiment, fuel 1201 may be added into combustion chamber 1206 as a water solution. For example, carbon powder can be made into a solution with water and pumped as a liquid into combustion chamber 1206. This is particularly useful since water is being added to combustion chamber 1206 as discussed above. Here, pumping liquids may be an easy way to administer the fuel. Although there would normally be concern about the ability to burn the fuel if it is in a water solution, compressed oxygen may raise temperature sufficiently to vaporize the water solution holding the fuel to enable efficient combustion.

[00218] Sugar solutions as fuel 1201 may also enable injection of fuel 1201 as a liquid. Sucrose and Glucose are easily put into solution, for example. Glucose is very soluble in water and can be pumped into the combustion chamber as a liquid solution, instead of as a solid in all the designs discussed in this patent. Liquid solutions move faster and longer distances than solid conveyance and liquid solutions can be more easily cooled, therefore assisting in delivering sugars or any fuel without having it thermally decompose.

[00219] If such sugars are premixed with water, their flammability may be decreased, but there are several answers to that limitation. First the oxygen entering the combustion chamber 1206 may be hot from being compressed, and secondly a starter fuel like pressurized methane can be used to initiate high temperature in combustion chamber 1206, which may immediately vaporize the water when it enters the combustion chamber.

[00220] Another technique for keeping fuel 1206 as a liquid may include making a solution of plant derived ethanol and sugars. In order to keep the benefit of maximum CO₂ removal from the air, the amount of plant-derived ethanol should be kept to a low amount, for example the minimum amount of ethanol needed to keep the fuel solution flowing at winter temperatures. Ethanol has a very low melting point and will keep very concentrated solutions with sugar from freezing.

[00221] The innovation presented in this document takes advantage of the heat of reaction when carbon dioxide reacts with superoxides or solid peroxides such as Na2O2.68, Na2O2, NaO2, KO2, BaO2; and the reaction of carbon dioxide with other sequestration materials such as LJ2O, Na2O, LiOH, NaOH, MgO.

[00222] Although a certain amount of oxygen is needed for the combustion, if air is its source, it carries with it nitrogen, which increases the overall volumetric flow rate of gas in piston, or Wankel rotor, or turbine, or expander. The volumetric efficiency of the engine normally is negatively affected as Mach number approaches sonic velocity.

[00223] Since the inlet valve, which is normally the most constricted flow point in the engine is of set dimension, the speed of the gases moving through it, is proportional to the volumetric flow rate over the cross sectional area. If excess nitrogen is present the volumetric flow rate is higher than it would be without nitrogen and the approach to Mach 0.6 is sooner.

[00224] Therefore, since power plant implementations may only use oxygen by itself as a gas and inject liquid and solid fuels and liquid water, these power plants have no Mach number limitation for the feed into the combustion chamber. The issue is not changed for use of turbines, though.

[00225] In the particular embodiment of FIG. 15, oxygen at pressure (e.g., about 200 atm) may be generated by reaction of pressurized liquid water with a superoxide. Here, note that typically if oxygen is supplied at pressure to any process, it is typically done in one of two ways, either by a pressurized oxygen tank or by an oxygen compressor. Such an oxygen compressor typically requires a power input. An oxygen cylinder looses pressure as it is dispensed. The Process of FIG. 15 uses water that is first pumped up to high pressure in order to enter combustion chamber 1206. A slip-stream of that water is metered to a NaO₂ (or KO₂) reactor. The liquid water costs little power to pressurize to a high pressure. The liquid water is then first put in thermal contact with the NaO₂ (or KO₂) reactor to absorb heat. Some or all the liquid water may vaporize, because the reaction of NaO₂ is exothermic (while the reaction of KO₂ with liquid water is neutral thermally (creating similar heat as the heat of vaporization of water)). Pressurized water may then enter superoxide reactor 1208 and react to form oxygen at a 1.5 to 1 ratio of oxygen to water. Oxygen can then be delivered to combustion chamber 1206 or to any process, at pressure, without the cost of compressor power input and with benefit of heat addition to the combustion chamber.

[00226] According to an embodiment, reaction of pressurized H₂O with superoxide may produce a hydroxide (e.g., NaOH and/or KOH) as illustrated above. Here, such hydroxide may be transported to CO₂ capture reactor 1220 to be combined with expanded combustion exhaust. In one particular implementation, although claimed subject matter is not limited in this respect, CO₂ capture reactor 1220 may co-located with superoxide reactor 1208.

[00227] In the particular embodiment of FIG. 16, expanded exhaust gas exiting a first turbine 1202 is re-heated by a reaction at CO₂ capture reactor 1220 before entering a second turbine 1202 to generate additional power. Here, condenser 1218 separates liquid H₂O in expanded exhaust gas exiting the second turbine from CO₂ and gaseous H₂O, and directs the liquid H₂O to tank 1216. The CO₂ and gaseous H₂O is directed to CO₂ capture reactor 1220 where the CO₂ reacts with CO₂ capture material such as a superoxide (e.g., KO₂ or NO₂) to generate heat (which is used to re-heat expanded exhaust before entering second turbine 1202) and O₂. The O₂ generated from this reaction may then be transmitted to combustion chamber 1206 (for combustion with fuel 1201 ) through compressors 1232 and 1234 and cooled by heat exchanger 1230.

[00228] FIG. 17 is a schematic diagram of a system to generate power from

CO₂ according to an embodiment. Pressurized CO₂ in tank 131 1 may be released into CO₂ capture reactor 1301 to react with CO₂ capture material to generate heat in an exothermic reaction as described above. Here, such CO₂ capture material in CO₂ capture reactor 1301 to react with CO₂ in tank 131 1 may be maintained as a pressurized liquid at about 1200 psi, for example. Small amounts of water and/or ethanol may be added to increase the critical temperature of the pressurized CO₂. Pump 1310 may inject a controlled amount of liquid H₂O into CO₂ capture reactor 1301 from tank 1309 to generate steam from heat of the exothermic reaction to drive turbine 1302 for the generation of electric power through generator 1304. Expanded steam exiting turbine 1302 may then be condensed at condenser 1306 (which may be cooled by air or river water 1308) to return liquid H₂O to tank 1309. A battery 1313 may be used to start the cycle by, for example, activating a valve to release pressurized CO₂ into CO₂ capture reactor 1301 and/or activate pump 1310 for pumping water from tank 1309 into CO₂ capture reactor 1301.

[00229] FIG. 18 is a schematic diagram of a device for removing heat from reaction of CO₂ with a CO₂ capture material according to an embodiment. CO₂ gas (e.g., from combustion exhaust) may be passed through chambers 1351 and allowed to exothermically react with any one of several CO₂ capture materials in chambers 1352. Here, such CO₂ gas may be brought into contact with such CO₂ capture material in chambers 1352 through a membrane, for example. Heat Q from the exothermic reaction of the CO₂ gas with CO₂ capture material in chambers 1352 may be removed by fluid (e.g., water or air) in sections 1353. Here, such removed heat may be used, for example, to aid in the generation of additional power using any one of several techniques discussed above.

[00230] FIG. 20 is a schematic diagram of a system to generate power from combustion of a carbohydrate and CO₂ according to an alternative embodiment. Here, a solid carbohydrate 1508 may be fed by screw extrusion, gravity feed, pneumatics or other mechanical methods, for example, into a flow of hot CO₂ gas. In addition to hot CO₂, some steam that is generated may also be combined with solid 1508 to form CO and H₂ (e.g., if the solid carbohydrate contains glucose). Here, if such carbohydrates are put in contact with excess hot CO₂, then steam may (especially in the presence of a catalyst) tend to convert the H₂ produced to water and CO according to the reaction below:

H₂ + CO₂ → CO + H₂O

[00231] Here, a feed 1507 may provide a water gas shift catalyst such as, for example, copper-zinc. Turbines 1510 and 1516 may include Scroll or other suitable carbon dioxide expanders, such as those developed for the refrigeration industry. Turbines 1510 and 1516 may each include a series of expanders. Generator 1512 generates power in response to a torque from turbines 1510 and 1516. A membrane 1513 placed inter-stage between turbines 1510 and 1516 may remove water from the process by a knock-out pot or a water permeable membrane such as cellulose acetate material, or simply a knock out pot. Here, membrane 1513 may not be carbon dioxide permeable since, in this example, carbon dioxide is to be maintained in the process loop. With water removed at membrane 1513, gas exiting turbine 1516 may be at below room temperature. Here turbines 1510 and 1513 may be thermally insulated. A heat exchanger 1517 may then heat such gas using air at room and/or atmospheric temperature.

[00232] A CO₂ absorption bed 1519 may comprise any one of several CO₂ absorbents such as, for example, CO₂ absorbents made from diamine-grafted SBA-15, FSM-16, Cr-FSM-16, Cr2O3-FSM-16 or molecular sieve 13X, natural zeolite ZS500A and activated carbon or CFCMS, just to provide a few examples. Here, a portion of CO₂ exiting exchanger 1517 may be absorbed by CO₂ absorption bed 1519 at room temperature, while another portion of exiting CO₂ may be transported by compressor 1521 to CO₂ capture reactor 1503. In the presently illustrated embodiment, CO₂ absorption beds 1501 , 1519, 1524, 1525 may be interchangeable. While one CO₂ absorption bed is loading CO₂ (CO₂ absorption bed 1519 as shown at this point), another bed is unloading CO₂ (CO₂ absorption bed 1501 as shown at this point), while CO₂ absorption bed 1524 at this point, is newly loaded with CO₂ and is being heated by CO₂ absorption bed 1525, which was recently unloaded of carbon dioxide. At this point as shown in FIG. 20, CO₂ absorption bed 1525 in this example, may first impart its heat to CO₂ absorption bed 1524, then is cooled to room temperature by external air. Here, a loss of energy in this system may include heat from CO₂ absorption bed 1525 to the atmosphere on cooling it to room temperature (after it imparted some of its heat to CO₂ absorption bed 1524), and the heat of adsorption that is not utilized, since CO₂ absorption bed 1519 on loading with CO₂ is maintained at room temperature by air cooling. Those two losses may send heat from the system to the surrounding and make for the primary heat loss in the process, and therefore the primary efficiency loss. Heat of absorption is in the literature for various absorptions of CO₂, but the amount of heat lost in cooling down the empty absorption bed will depend on the size of the bed and the heat capacity of the CO₂ absorption bed, as well as how fast and complete the process of absorption, in this diagram that CO₂ absorption bed 1519 undergoes. [00233] In one example, CO₂ capture reactor 1503 may use any one of several CO₂ capture materials capable of capturing CO₂ in solid form and generating O₂ in an exothermic reaction such as, for example, one or more superoxides. Using KO₂ as such a CO₂ capture material, for example, such an exothermic reaction may create 183.6 kJ/mol and where 7.2 moles of CO₂ created making 1 ,322 kJ heat input from the sequestration of CO₂. A second reaction that produces heat in this one example may be as follows:

C_{7 2}H₁₄O₇ + 7.2 O₂ → 7.2 CO₂ + 7 H₂O + 3060.5 kJ/mol. [00234] Gas exiting turbine 1516 may be as low at 220 K or lower, depending on the pressure. Since 220 K is below room temperature, the system can absorb heat from the surroundings. CO₂ absorption bed 1519 may be maintained at room temperature, using a material capable of absorbing CO₂ at room temperature. The pressure of the gas exiting turbine 1516 need not be atmospheric and may be above atmospheric to assist in the absorption processes on to CO₂ absorption bed 1519. Removal of water at membrane 1513 enables is temperatures to drop without formation of ice. [00235] In one particular embodiment, for every 7.2 CO₂ moles 10.8 moles of oxygen may be created in CO₂ capture reactor 1503, which may be sufficient for combustion of carbohydrate fuel 1508. Accordingly, valve 1504 may be moderated to control an amount of oxygen created. A gas stream exiting compressor 1521 may contain mostly CO₂, plus some CO and H₂. As oxygen is generated in CO₂ capture reactor 1503, small amounts of CO and H₂ may combust while more may combust in combustion chamber 1502, and to some extent at the carbohydrate feed point 1507. By using catalysts, for example, combustion can be weighted toward occurring in combustion chamber 1502. Here, both the heat of exothermic reactions at CO₂ capture reactor 1503 plus that of combustion at combustion chamber 1502, may increase the temperature of the gases that emerge from compressor 1521 as the pass in process flow location 1505 in thermal contact with CO₂ capture reactor 1503.

[00236] Splitting of the stream to bypass at flow location 1505 or not may be computer controlled. Here, a majority of process gas may remain in process stream 1505 to assist in removing absorbed CO₂ from absorption bed 1501. The action of temperature above the critical point of CO₂ and some sweep gas removes the CO₂ from solid state absorption. Even though the pressure is high in bed 1501 , if the temperature is brought above the critical point of CO₂ the CO₂WiII tend to desorb. Many CO₂ absorbing materials are known to desorb at around 120 C, they are also known to adsorb at room temperature.

[00237] As the hot sweep gas contacts the CO₂ on bed 1501 it may cause

CO₂ to desorb from bed 1501 , and thus increase the pressure of that portion of CO₂ without having to compress that portion of the CO₂. Therefore, this engine may save in efficiency by not having to compress all the CO₂ to resend it back to the combustion bed. The four-bed system, behaves like a CO₂ condenser and liquid pump, but enable that condensation at temperatures higher and pressures lower than usually needed.

[00238] Desorbed CO₂ may leave bed 1501 and proceed by process loop but can be stopped and controlled by valve 1506. By burning hydrogen and CO in combustion chamber 1502, the temperature of the pressurized process stream can be further increased. The CO₂ acts as water does in steam engines, in that it adds moles to an expansion process which both bring the temperature down in the expander and increase the amount of power that is created by an increase in the amount of moles that are being expanded.

[00239] A liquid pump 1523 may pump a process fluid between beds 1524 and 1525 to equilibrate the temperature between them. This is a way of keeping the heat of the process in the system and increasing efficiency. Advantages of the design is that there is almost no exhaust, only a small amount of humidity. This means there is no noise pollution made by the power generator. That CO₂ is collected and not sent to the air.

[00240] That the heat of capture of the CO₂ is used to increase the heat input to the engine. The process allows for fast start-up and acceleration of the power plant, if used to propel a vehicle for example, since bed 1501 can be left holding pressurized CO₂ if valve 1506 is closed when the vehicle is shut down. Therefore valve 1506 need only be opened and pressured CO₂ can be sent to the expanders to create immediate power. Depending on the efficiency of absorption of CO₂ on to the absorbent material, the power process just described can be efficient.

[00241] Assuming a maximum temperature of 786 K at the inlet of turbine

1510, and 108 moles of CO₂ needed to absorb the heat. Assume the absorption of bed 1519 at room temperature is fast. Assume a heat capacity of the absorption bed to be about 232 J/mol CO₂. Assume the outlet temperature of the expanders are 220 K the heat exchanger adds heat up to 300 K in bed 1519. Assume the temperature of bed 1501 to be about 400 K. Bed 1525 and 1524 equilibrate at 350 K. The heat lost to cool bed 1524 further to ready it to become bed 1519 is about 13.5 kJ/mol CO₂. Literature shows a Cr-FSM-16 heat of physical adsorption of CO₂ to be 10.5 kJ. The loss is (108 moles CO₂)(13.5 kJ + 10.5 kJ) = 2592 kJ.

[00242] FIG. 21 is a schematic diagram of a system to generate power from

CO₂ according to an embodiment. Turbine 1551 may comprise one or a series of turbines for applying a torque to generator 1553 for generating electrical power. In particular implementation, turbine 1551 may be as near to isentropic as possible and include a thermally insulated expander. Electricity generated by generator 1553 may be used to recharge battery 1555, for example. According to an embodiment, CO₂ adsorption bed 1556 may include any one of several CO₂ adsorbents identified above. A compressor 1557 may direct CO₂ to become in contact and react with a CO₂ capture material in CO₂ capture reactor 1558 reacts with CO₂ to make heat and combine CO₂ into as solid form. One such material is sodium borate. Other materials, such as CO₂ capture materials identified elsewhere herein, may be used. In one particular embodiment, water may be added to CO₂ capture reactor 1558 to create more heat by the combined heat of hydration and heat of reaction of CO₂ with CO₂ capture material. In a particular implementation, CO₂ capture reactor 1558 may be at a relatively low temperature, perhaps 40 to 120 C, where heat of hydration may be practical in this design. Here, some on-board water can be added to CO₂ capture reactor 1558 as needed, or liquid water can be added to the liquid CO₂ stored in tank 1563, which may also increase the temperature that the mixture (CO₂ + water) remains a liquid. CO₂ adsorption bed 1559 comprises an adsorbent that desorbs CO₂ by action of heat (such as above the critical temperature of CO₂) and sweep gas; CO₂ adsorption bed 1560 bed either just loaded with CO₂ or just unloaded with CO₂; CO₂ adsorption bed 1561 bed either just loaded with CO₂ or just unloaded with CO₂. Atmospheric air may be used to cool or heat CO₂ adsorption beds 1560 or 1561. A metering valve 1564 may be used to control temperature, and thus desorption. Liquid pump 15 may transmit a coolant fluid between CO₂ adsorption beds 1560 and 1561 to equilibrate temperature. [00243] Engine 1550 may operate in cold climates, since CO₂ is not negatively affected by the cold and does not emit exhaust (therefore makes no nitrogen oxides, no sulfur oxide, no CO, no particulate matter, needs no muffler, etc.). In one embodiment, if Na₂O is used as a CO₂ capture material in reactor 1558, it may be converted to hydrated Na₂CO₃ or hydrated bicarbonate and generate a substantial amount of heat as a result. The sodium carbonate can then be separated using renewable energy at another facility, sequestering CO₂ underground, for example. Na₂O can be reused in a vehicle or other power generating need. The same can be done with other carbonates. NaNO₃ can also be used as CO₂ capture material, as its reaction with CO₂ can be induced using a catalyst to cause the CO₂ to react with the NaNO₃, creating heat, Sodium carbonate, nitrogen gas and oxygen. The added nitrogen and oxygen can be used to increase the power obtained by turbine 1551. A build up of nitrogen and oxygen in the system can be released by a membrane separator that separates CO₂ from nitrogen and oxygen and exhausts nitrogen and oxygen from time to time, which is the components of air and non-polluting. NaNO₃ is inexpensive and comes from the ground. KNO₃ can do the same function, but is considered explosive and not recommended. NaNO₃ can be managed to have slow burn with CO₂ according to the following:

2NaNO₃ + heat → 2 NaNO₂ + O₂

2 NaNO₂ + CO₂ → Na₂CO₃ + 1.5 O₂ + N₂

[00244] In this way, an exothermic reaction to capture CO₂ at reactor 1558 may make extra power from new moles of gas in the system and the overall reaction is very exothermic and therefore gives heat to the system, which can be converted to power efficiently since there is little compression loss in the system.

[00245] Using sodium nitrate is in effect gives power to the system from stored energy in the molecule that came out of the ground.

[00246] While there has been illustrated and described what are presently considered to be example features, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various other modifications may be made, and equivalents may be substituted, without departing from claimed subject matter. Additionally, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation to the teachings of claimed subject matter without departing from the central concept described herein. Therefore, it is intended that claimed subject matter not be limited to the particular examples disclosed, but that such claimed subject matter may also include all aspects falling within the scope of appended claims, and equivalents thereof.

Claims

1. A method comprising: combining syngas with a CO₂ capture material to capture carbon in said syngas in a solid carbonate according to an exothermic reaction; and applying heat from said exothermic reaction to thermoelectric elements to generate electrical power.

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein said exothermic reaction produces gaseous H₂O, and the method further comprises: applying said gaseous H₂O to hydrate a dehydrated salt for release of energy stored in said dehydrated salt; and applying heat from said release of said energy to thermoelectric elements to generate electrical power.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein said dehydrated salt comprises Na₂S^* x H₂O, NiCI₂ ^* x H₂O, MgCI₂ ^* 2 H₂O, SrBr₂ ^* H₂O, LiCI^* H₂O and/or NaCO₃ ^* x H₂O.

4. An apparatus comprising: means for combining syngas with a CO₂ capture material to capture carbon in said syngas in a solid carbonate according to an exothermic reaction; and means for applying heat from said exothermic reaction to thermoelectric elements to generate electrical power.

5. The apparatus of claim 4, wherein said exothermic reaction produces gaseous H₂O, and the apparatus further comprises: means for applying said gaseous H₂O to hydrate a dehydrated salt for release of energy stored in said dehydrated salt; and means for applying heat from said release of said energy to thermoelectric elements to generate electrical power.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein said dehydrated salt comprises Na₂S^* x H₂O, NiCI₂ ^* x H₂O, MgCI₂ ^* 2 H₂O, SrBr₂ ^* H₂O, LiCI^* H₂O and/or NaCO₃ ^* x H₂O.

7. An apparatus comprising: a reactor adapted to combine syngas with a CO₂ capture material to capture carbon in said syngas in a solid carbonate according to an exothermic reaction; and one or more thermoelectric elements in thermal contact with said reactor adapted to generate electrical power from heat of said exothermic reaction.

8. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein said exothermic reaction produces gaseous H₂O, and the apparatus further comprises: a chamber containing dehydrated salt and adapted to receive said gaseous H₂O to hydrate said dehydrated salt for release of energy stored in said dehydrated salt; and one or more thermoelectric elements in thermal contact with said chamber and adapted to applying heat from said release of said energy to generation of electrical power.

9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said dehydrated salt comprises Na₂S^* x H₂O, NiCI₂ ^* x H₂O, MgCI₂ ^* 2 H₂O, SrBr₂ ^* H₂O, LiCI^* H₂O and/or NaCO₃ ^* x H₂O.

10. A method comprising: combining a carbon-based fuel with steam to provide syngas; combusting said syngas to generate combustion exhaust for driving a turbine; combining at least a portion of expanded combustion exhaust exiting said turbine with a CO₂ capture material to capture CO₂ from said expanded combustion exhaust in a solid form according to an exothermic reaction; and generating said steam in part by applying heat from said exothermic reaction to H₂O.

1 1. The method of claim 10, and further comprising combining said syngas with air prior to said combustion.

12. The method of claim 10, and further comprising condensing at least a portion of said expanded exhaust to provide liquid H₂O, and wherein said generating said steam further comprises applying said heat from said exothermic reaction to said liquid H₂O.

13. The method of claim 10, wherein said carbon-based fuel comprises a monosaccharaide.

14. An apparatus comprising: a fuel dispenser to dispense a carbon-based fuel into steam to provide syngas; a combustion chamber to combust said syngas to generate combustion exhaust for driving a turbine; a reactor to combine at least a portion of expanded combustion exhaust exiting said turbine with a CO₂ capture material to capture CO₂ from said expanded combustion exhaust in a solid form according to an exothermic reaction; and one or more thermal exchangers adapted to apply heat from said exothermic reaction to H₂O.

15. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said combustion chamber is adapted to combine said syngas with air prior to said combustion.

16. The apparatus of claim 14, and further comprising a condenser to condense at least a portion of said expanded exhaust to provide liquid H₂O, and wherein said one or more thermal exchangers are adapted to apply said heat from said exothermic reaction to said liquid H₂O.

17. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said carbon-based fuel comprises a monosaccharaide.

18. An apparatus comprising: means for combining a carbon-based fuel with steam to provide syngas; means for combusting said syngas to generate combustion exhaust for driving a turbine; means for combining at least a portion of expanded combustion exhaust exiting said turbine with a CO₂ capture material to capture CO₂ from said expanded combustion exhaust in a solid form according to an exothermic reaction; and means for generating said steam in part by applying heat from said exothermic reaction to H₂O.

19. The apparatus of claim 18, and further comprising means for combining said syngas with air prior to said combustion.

20. The apparatus of claim 18, and further comprising means for condensing at least a portion of said expanded exhaust to provide liquid H₂O, and wherein said means for generating said steam further comprises means for applying said heat from said exothermic reaction to said liquid H₂O.

21. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein said carbon-based fuel comprises a monosaccharaide.

22. A method comprising: applying waste heat from combustion produced as part of an electrical power generating process to dehydrating a compound to store at least a portion of said waste heat as stored energy; and hydrating said dehydrated compound to release said stored energy as heat in a process to generate additional power.

23. The method of claim 22, wherein said hydrating said dehydrated compound further comprises applying at least a portion of said exhaust to said dehydrated compound.

24. The method of claim 22, wherein said compound comprises a salt.

25. The method of claim 22, wherein said compound comprises NiCI₂ ^* x H₂O, MgCI₂ ^* 2 H₂O, SrBr₂ ^* H₂O, LiCI^* H₂O and/or NaCO₃ ^* x H₂O and/or Na₂S^* x H₂O.

26. The method of claim 22, and further comprising combining said release stored energy with heat from reaction of exhaust from said combustion with a CO₂ capture material to generate said additional power.

27. The method of claim 26, and further comprising combining said released stored energy with heat generated from manufacture of said CO₂ capture material to generate said additional power.

28. The method of claim 22, and further comprising applying said heat from said releases stored energy to thermoelectric elements to generate said additional power.

29. The method of claim 22, and further comprising applying said heat from said releases stored energy to generate said additional power from a Brayton cycle.

30. An apparatus comprising: means for applying waste heat from combustion produced as part of an electrical power generating process to dehydrating a compound to store at least a portion of said waste heat as stored energy; and means for hydrating said dehydrated compound to release said stored energy as heat in a process to generate additional power.

31. The apparatus of claim 30, wherein said means for hydrating said dehydrated compound further comprises means for applying at least a portion of said exhaust to said dehydrated compound.

32. The apparatus of claim 30, wherein said compound comprises a salt.

33. The apparatus of claim 30, wherein said compound comprises NiCI₂ ^* x H₂O, MgCI₂ ^* 2 H₂O, SrBr₂ ^* H₂O, LiCI^* H₂O and/or NaCO₃ ^* x H₂O and/or Na₂S^* x H₂O.

34. The apparatus of claim 30, and further comprising means for combining said release stored energy with heat from reaction of exhaust from said combustion with a CO₂ capture material to generate said additional power.

35. The apparatus of claim 34, and further comprising means for combining said released stored energy with heat generated from manufacture of said CO₂ capture material to generate said additional power.

36. The apparatus of claim 30, and further comprising means for applying said heat from said releases stored energy to thermoelectric elements to generate said additional power.

37. The apparatus of claim 30, and further comprising means for applying said heat from said releases stored energy to generate said additional power from a Brayton cycle.

38. A method comprising: combining combustion exhaust, said exhaust including at least some carbon dioxide, with a CO₂ capture material to remove at least a portion of said carbon dioxide from said combustion exhaust; and generating power from heat generated by a reaction of said CO₂ capture material with said combustion exhaust.

39. The method of claim 38, and further comprising: reacting aluminum with potassium chloride to produce elemental potassium and aluminum chloride; and manufacturing said CO₂ capture material from said elemental potassium.

40. The method of claim 39, wherein said manufacturing said CO₂ capture material further comprises oxidating said elemental potassium, and wherein the method further comprises: applying heat generated from said oxidating said elemental potassium to said generation of power.

41. The method of claim 40, wherein said CO₂ capture material comprises potassium peroxide.

42. The method of claim 38, and further comprising applying waste heat from combustion to dehydration of a salt to store at least a portion of energy of said waste heat in said dehydrated salt.

43. The method of claim 42, and further comprising maintaining said salt at a pressure of about 1.0 atm during application of said waste heat.

44. The method of claim 41 , and further comprising maintaining said salt at a pressure greater than 1.0 atm while hydrating said salt for said release of said additional heat.

45. The method of claim 38, wherein said combustion exhaust is generated from combustion of carbon-based fuel to generated electric power, the method further comprising: applying waste heat from said combustion to dehydrate a salt; and hydrating said dehydrated salt to release additional heat for generation of electric power.

46. The method of claim 38, wherein said generating said power further comprises applying said heat to a Brayton power generation cycle.

47. The method of claim 38, wherein said generating said power further comprises applying said heat to a thermo-electric power generation system.

48. An apparatus comprising: means for combining combustion exhaust, said exhaust including at least some carbon dioxide, with a CO₂ capture material to remove at least a portion of said carbon dioxide from said combustion exhaust; and means for generating power from heat generated by a reaction of said CO₂ capture material with said combustion exhaust.

49. The apparatus of claim 48, and further comprising: means for reacting aluminum with potassium chloride to produce elemental potassium and aluminum chloride; and means for manufacturing said CO₂ capture material from said elemental potassium.

50. The apparatus of claim 49, wherein said means for manufacturing said CO₂ capture material further comprises means for oxidating said elemental potassium, and wherein the apparatus further comprises: means for applying heat generated from said oxidating said elemental potassium to said generation of power.

51. The apparatus of claim 50, wherein said CO₂ capture material comprises potassium peroxide.

52. The apparatus of claim 48, and further comprising means for applying waste heat from combustion to dehydration of a salt to store at least a portion of energy of said waste heat in said dehydrated salt.

53. The apparatus of claim 52, and further comprising means for maintaining said salt at a pressure of about 1.0 atm during application of said waste heat.

54. The apparatus of claim 51 , and further comprising means for maintaining said salt at a pressure greater than 1.0 atm while hydrating said salt for said release of said additional heat.

55. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein said combustion exhaust is generated from combustion of carbon-based fuel to generated electric power, the apparatus further comprising: means for applying waste heat from said combustion to dehydrate a salt; and means for hydrating said dehydrated salt to release additional heat for generation of electric power.

56. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein said means for generating said power further comprises means for applying said heat to a Brayton power generation cycle.

57. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein said means for generating said power further comprises means for applying said heat to a thermo-electric power generation system.

58. An apparatus comprising: a reactor adapted to: receive combustion exhaust including at least some carbon dioxide; and combine said combustion exhaust with a CO₂ capture material to remove at least a portion of said carbon dioxide from said combustion exhaust, and wherein said apparatus is further adapted to generate power from heat generated by a reaction of said CO₂ capture material with said combustion exhaust.

59. The apparatus of claim 58, and further comprising: an electrowinning cell adapted to react aluminum with potassium chloride to produce elemental potassium and aluminum chloride; and a second reactor to manufacture said CO₂ capture material from said elemental potassium.

60. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein said second reactor is adapted to oxidize said elemental potassium, and wherein the apparatus is further adapted to: apply heat generated from said oxidation of said elemental potassium to said generation of power.

61. The apparatus of claim 60, wherein said CO₂ capture material comprises potassium peroxide.

62. The apparatus of claim 58, wherein said apparatus is further adapted to apply waste heat from combustion to dehydration of a salt to store at least a portion of energy of said waste heat in said dehydrated salt.

63. The apparatus of claim 62, and further comprising means for maintaining said salt at a pressure of about 1.0 atm during application of said waste heat.

64. The apparatus of claim 61 , and further comprising means for maintaining said salt at a pressure greater than 1.0 atm while hydrating said salt for said release of said additional heat.

65. The apparatus of claim 58, wherein said combustion exhaust is generated from combustion of carbon-based fuel to generated electric power, and wherein the apparatus is further adapted to: apply waste heat from said combustion to dehydrate a salt; and hydrate said dehydrated salt to release additional heat for generation of electric power.

66. The apparatus of claim 58, wherein said apparatus is further adapted to apply said heat to a Brayton power generation cycle.

67. The apparatus of claim 58, wherein said apparatus is further adapted to apply said heat to a thermo-electric power generation system.

68. A method comprising: combusting a carbon-based fuel to generate combustion exhaust for driving a turbine as part of a power generating process; combining at least a portion of expanded combustion exhaust exiting said turbine with a CO₂ capture material to capture CO₂ from said expanded combustion exhaust; and combining elemental potassium with oxygen to produce said CO₂ capture material on-site with said power generating process.

69. The method of claim 68, wherein said combining at least a portion of said expanded exhaust with said CO₂ capture material further comprises capturing said CO₂ in a solid form according to an exothermic reaction.

70. The method of claim 69, and further comprising applying heat from said exothermic reaction to generate power as part of said power generating process.

71. The method of claim 68, and further comprising incorporating energy released from said combining of elemental potassium with said oxygen as part of power generated from said power generating process.

72. The method of claim 68, wherein said combining said elemental potassium with said oxygen comprises contacting said elemental potassium with gaseous oxygen in an exothermic reaction, and wherein the method further comprises applying heat from said exothermic reaction to generation of power in said power generating process.

73. The method of claim 72, and further comprising: applying said heat from said exothermic reaction to generate steam; and combining said steam with said fuel prior to said combusting.

74. The method of claim 68, wherein said combining said elemental potassium with oxygen to produce said CO₂ capture material comprises: applying said elemental potassium to an anode of a fuel cell; applying said oxygen to a cathode of said fuel cell; and depositing said CO₂ capture material from an electrolytic solution disposed between said anode and said cathode.

75. The method of claim 74, the method further comprising: transporting K⁺ of said elemental potassium from said anode toward a cathode of said fuel cell through an electrolyte material; and drawing an electrical current between said anode and said cathode.

76. The method of claim 74, and further comprising incorporating energy released from said combining of elemental potassium with said oxygen by drawing a current from said fuel cell.

77. The method of claim 68, and further comprising: condensing at least a portion of H₂O in said expanded combustion exhaust; and applying at least a portion of heat from said condensing to dehydrate a salt to store energy.

78. The method of claim 77, and further comprising: hydrating said dehydrated salt to release said stored energy as heat; and applying said stored energy released as heat for the generation of steam for combination with said carbon-based fuel.

79. The method of claim 68, wherein said carbon-based fuel comprises syngas.

80. An apparatus comprising: a combustion chamber adapted to combust a carbon-based fuel to generate combustion exhaust for driving a turbine as part of a power generating process; a first reactor adapted to combine at least a portion of expanded combustion exhaust exiting said turbine with a CO₂ capture material to capture CO₂ from said expanded combustion exhaust; and a second reactor adapted to combine elemental potassium with oxygen to produce said CO₂ capture material on-site with said power generating process.

81. The apparatus of claim 80, wherein said CO₂ capture material is adapted to exothermically react with said CO₂ from said expanded combustion exhaust to form a solid.

82. The apparatus of claim 81 , and further comprising one or more heat exchangers adapted to apply heat from said exothermic reaction to generate power as part of said power generating process.

83. The apparatus of claim 80, wherein said apparatus is further adapted incorporate energy released from combining of elemental potassium with sa oxygen as part of power generated from said power generating process.

84. The apparatus of claim 80, wherein said second reactor is adapted to combine said elemental potassium with said oxygen by contacting said elemental potassium with gaseous oxygen in an exothermic reaction, and wherein the apparatus further comprises one or more heat exchangers adapted to incorporate energy released from said combination of elemental potassium with said oxygen to generation of power in said power generating process.

85. The apparatus of claim 84, wherein said one or more heat exchangers are adapted to apply said heat from said exothermic reaction to generate steam, and wherein said apparatus is further adapted to combine at least a portion of said steam with said fuel prior to said combusting.

86. The apparatus of claim 68, wherein said second reactor comprises a fuel cell comprising: an anode to receive said elemental potassium; a cathode to receive said oxygen; and electrolytic material disposed between said anode and said cathode to deposit said CO₂ capture material.

87. The apparatus of claim 86, wherein the fuel cell is further adapted to: transport K⁺ of said elemental potassium from said anode toward said cathode of said fuel cell through said electrolytic material; and generating a electrical current between said anode and said cathode.

88. The apparatus of claim 86, wherein said apparatus is adapted to incorporate energy released from said combining of elemental potassium with said oxygen as part of said power generating process by drawing a current from said fuel cell.

89. The apparatus of claim 80, and further comprising: a condenser adapted to condense at least a portion of H₂O in said expanded combustion exhaust, wherein said apparatus is further adapted to apply at least a portion of heat from said condensing said portion of H₂O to dehydrate a salt to store energy.

90. The apparatus of claim 89, wherein said apparatus is further adapted to: hydrate said dehydrated salt to release said stored energy as heat; and apply said stored energy released as heat for the generation of steam for combination with said carbon-based fuel.

91. The apparatus of claim 80, wherein said carbon-based fuel comprises syngas.

92. An apparatus comprising: means for combusting a carbon-based fuel to generate combustion exhaust for driving a turbine as part of a power generating process; means for combining at least a portion of expanded combustion exhaust exiting said turbine with a CO₂ capture material to capture CO₂ from said expanded combustion exhaust; and means for combining elemental potassium with oxygen to produce said CO₂ capture material on-site with said power generating process.

93. The apparatus of claim 92, wherein said means for combining at least a portion of said expanded exhaust with said CO₂ capture material further comprises means for capturing said CO₂ in a solid form according to an exothermic reaction.

94. The apparatus of claim 93, and further comprising means for applying heat from said exothermic reaction to generate power as part of said power generating process.

95. The apparatus of claim 92, and further comprising means for incorporating energy released from said combining of elemental potassium with said oxygen as part of power generated from said power generating process

96. The apparatus of claim 92, wherein said means for combining said elemental potassium with said oxygen comprises means for contacting said elemental potassium with gaseous oxygen in an exothermic reaction, and wherein the apparatus further comprises: means for incorporating energy released from said combining of elemental potassium with said oxygen by applying heat from said exothermic reaction to generation of power in said power generating process.

97. The apparatus of claim 96, and further comprising: means for applying said heat from said exothermic reaction to generate steam; and means for combining said steam with said fuel prior to said combusting.

98. The apparatus of claim 92, wherein said means for combining said elemental potassium with oxygen to produce said CO₂ capture material comprises: means for applying said elemental potassium to an anode of a fuel cell; means for applying said oxygen to a cathode of said fuel cell; and means for depositing said CO₂ capture material from an electrolytic solution disposed between said anode and said cathode.

99. The apparatus of claim 98, the apparatus further comprising: means for transporting K⁺ of said elemental potassium from said anode toward a cathode of said fuel cell through an electrolyte material; and means for drawing an electrical current between said anode and said cathode.

100. The apparatus of claim 98, and further comprising means for incorporating energy released from said combining of elemental potassium with said oxygen comprises by drawing a current from said fuel cell.

101. The apparatus of claim 92, and further comprising: means for condensing at least a portion of H₂O in said expanded combustion exhaust; and means for applying at least a portion of heat from said condensing to dehydrate a salt to store energy.

102. The apparatus of claim 101 , and further comprising: means for hydrating said dehydrated salt to release said stored energy as heat; and means for applying said stored energy released as heat for the generation of steam for combination with said carbon-based fuel.

103. The apparatus of claim 92, wherein said carbon-based fuel comprises syngas.

104. A method comprising: combusting a carbon-based fuel to generate combustion exhaust for driving two or more turbines in series; combining at least a portion of expanded combustion exhaust exiting said series of turbines with a CO₂ capture material to capture at least a portion of CO₂ in said combusted exhaust according to an exothermic reaction; and applying heat generated from said exothermic reaction to re-heat combustion exhaust exiting a first one of said turbines and entering a second one of said turbines.

105. The method of claim 104, wherein said exothermic reaction produces oxygen, the method further comprising: combining oxygen produced from said exothermic reaction with said carbon-based fuel for combustion.

106. The method of claim 104, wherein said exothermic reaction is adapted to capture said portion of CO₂ in solid form.

107. An apparatus comprising: means for combusting a carbon-based fuel to generate combustion exhaust for driving two or more turbines in series; means for combining at least a portion of expanded combustion exhaust exiting said series of turbines with a CO₂ capture material to capture at least a portion of CO₂ in said combusted exhaust in solid form according to an exothermic reaction; and means for applying heat generated from said exothermic reaction to reheat combustion exhaust exiting a first one of said turbines and entering a second one of said turbines.

108. The apparatus of claim 107, wherein said exothermic reaction produces oxygen, the apparatus further comprising: means for combining oxygen produced from said exothermic reaction with said carbon-based fuel for combustion.

109. The apparatus of claim 107, wherein said exothermic reaction is adapted to capture said portion of CO₂ in solid form.

1 10. An apparatus comprising: a combustion chamber to combust a carbon-based fuel to generate combustion exhaust for driving two or more turbines in series; a reactor to combine at least a portion of expanded combustion exhaust exiting said series of turbines with a CO₂ capture material to capture at least a portion of CO₂ in said combusted exhaust according to an exothermic reaction; and one or more heat exchangers adapted to apply heat generated from said exothermic reaction to re-heat combustion exhaust exiting a first one of said turbines and entering a second one of said turbines.

1 1 1. The apparatus of claim 1 10, wherein said exothermic reaction produces oxygen, and wherein the apparatus further comprises means for combining oxygen produced from said exothermic reaction with said carbon-based fuel for combustion.

1 12. The apparatus of claim 1 10, wherein said exothermic reaction is adapted to capture said portion of CO₂ in solid form.

1 13. An apparatus comprising: a tank to store pressurized CO₂; a reactor comprising CO₂ capture material; a valve to release said pressurized CO₂ into said reactor to enable an exothermic reaction with said CO₂ capture material capturing at least a portion of said released CO₂; applying heat from said exothermic reaction to generate gaseous H₂O; and directing said gaseous H₂O to a turbine for generation of power.

1 14. The apparatus of claim 1 13, wherein said exothermic reaction is adapted to capture said CO₂ in solid form.

1 15. The apparatus of claim 1 13, and further comprising: a condenser to condense at least a portion of H₂O in expanded exhaust exiting said turbine; and one or more heat exchangers adapted to apply heat from said exothermic reaction to at least a portion of said condensed H₂O to generate additional steam for driving said turbine.

1 16. A method comprising: releasing pressurized CO₂ from a tank to become in contact with a CO₂ capture material to enable an exothermic reaction capturing at least a portion of said released CO₂; applying heat from said exothermic reaction to generate gaseous H₂O; and directing said gaseous H₂O to a turbine for generation of power.

1 17. The method of claim 1 16, wherein said exothermic reaction is adapted to capture said portion of said released CO₂ in solid form.

1 18. The method of claim 1 16, and further comprising: condensing at least a portion of H₂O in expanded exhaust exiting said turbine; and applying heat from said exothermic reaction to at least a portion of said condensed H₂O to generate additional steam for driving said turbine.

1 19. An apparatus comprising: means for releasing pressurized CO₂ from a tank to become in contact with a CO₂ capture material to enable an exothermic reaction capturing said released CO₂; means for applying heat from said exothermic reaction to generate gaseous H₂O; and means for directing said gaseous H₂O to a turbine for generation of power.

120. The apparatus of claim 1 19, wherein said exothermic reaction is adapted to capture said released CO₂ in solid form.

121. The apparatus of claim 1 19, and further comprising: means for condensing at least a portion of H₂O in expanded exhaust exiting said turbine; and means for applying heat from said exothermic reaction to at least a portion of said condensed H₂O to generate additional steam for driving said turbine.

122. An apparatus comprising: a series of CO₂ capture modules, each CO₂ capture module comprising: a CO₂ channel to receive CO₂ exhaust flowing therethrough; a CO₂ capture material section comprising CO₂ capture material separated from said CO₂ channel by a membrane to permit contact of said CO₂ exhaust with said CO₂ capture material, at least a portion of said CO₂ exhaust being captured in solid form in an exothermic reaction; and a heat transport channel to receive a fluid for removing at least a portion of heat from said exothermic reaction.

123. A method comprising: combining combustion exhaust, said exhaust including at least some carbon dioxide, with a fluid CO₂ capture material to provide a mixture of a solid including at least a portion of said carbon dioxide and remaining exhaust; and removing at least a least a portion of said solid from said remaining exhaust.

124. The method of claim 123, wherein said solid comprises a carbonate.

125. The method claim 123, wherein said removing at least a portion of said solid further comprises processing said mixture in a cyclone separator.

126. The method of claim 125, wherein said cyclone separator comprises a series of cyclone separators to impart a centrifugal force on said mixture to effect a solid gas separation.

127. The method of claim 123, wherein said CO₂ capture material is in a solution, and wherein said combining said combustion exhaust with said CO₂ capture material comprises atomizing said solution in an exhaust path containing said combustion exhaust.

128. The method of claim 123, and further comprising controlling a particle size associated with said solid by varying a concentration of said CO₂ capture material in an aqueous solution.

129. The method of claim 125, and further comprising controlling a particle size associated with said solid by varying a droplet size of said CO₂ capture material in an aqueous solution containing said CO₂ capture material.

130. The method of claim 125, and further comprising controlling a particle size associated with said solid by varying turbulence of said combustion exhaust in a vicinity of contact of said CO₂ capture material and said combustion exhaust.

131. The method of claim 123, and further comprising directing an aqueous solution of said CO₂ capture material to flow in a direction of gravity and countercurrent to a direction of flow of said combustion exhaust.

132. The method of claim 131 , wherein said wherein said solid is formed by contact of aqueous solution with said combustion exhaust in a cavity, and wherein said solid is formed a bottom portion of said cavity.

133. The method of claim 132, wherein said remaining exhaust exits said cavity at least partially stripped of NO_x, SO₂ and particulate matter.

134. The method of claim 123, wherein said fluid CO₂ capture material comprises a molten peroxide, oxide, hydroxide and/or superoxide.

135. The method of claim 134, and further comprising directing said molten CO₂ capture material to flow in a direction countercurrent to a direction of flow of said combustion exhaust in a cavity.

136. The method of claim 123, wherein said CO₂ capture material comprises a naturally occurring solid.

137. The method of claim 136, wherein said naturally occurring solid includes an alkali or alkali earth boron-containing salt.

138. The method of claim 137, wherein said alkali or alkali earth boron- containing salt includes at least one of Ulexite, Borax and/or Colemanite.

139. The method of claim 136, wherein said naturally occurring solid reacts with CO₂ to make a carbonate and a boron containing material.

140. The method of claim 139, wherein said boron containing material comprises at least one of borax and/or boric acid.

141. The method of claim 123, wherein said CO₂ capture material comprises an aqueous solution of hydroxide.

142. The method of claim 141 , wherein said hydroxide comprises sodium hydroxide and/or potassium hydroxide.

143. The method of claim 141 , wherein said hydroxide comprises an Alkali hydroxide, Alkali-earth hydroxide and/or aluminum hydroxide.

144. The method of claim 123, and further comprising: receiving said combustion exhaust from combustion of carbon-based fuel for generation of electric power, and wherein said combining and said removal are performed with a power penalty of less than 25% from a main power plant to capture a majority of CO₂ in said exhaust.

145. The method of claim 123, and further comprising receiving said combustion exhaust from combustion of coal.

146. The method of claim 123, and further comprising receiving said combustion exhaust from a process to generate power from combustion of natural gas.

147. The method of claim 123, and further comprising receiving said combustion exhaust from a process to generate power from combustion of fuel oil, diesel oil and/or JP8 fuel.

148. The method of claim 123, and further comprising receiving said combustion exhaust from a process to generate power from combustion of biomass.

149. The method of claim 123, wherein said fluid CO₂ capture material is adapted to react with at least a portion of NO_x in said combustion exhaust to form a solid and/or N₂ gas.

150. The method of claim 123, wherein said fluid CO₂ capture material is adapted to react with at least a portion of SO_x in said combustion exhaust to form a solid.

151. The method of claim 123, and further comprising: reacting elemental potassium with water at an anode of one or more fuel cells to produce said fluid CO₂ capture material and produce an electrical current on-site with said combining said combustion exhaust and CO₂ capture material; and applying said electrical current to power an electrolysis process to provide said elemental potassium from KCI on-site with said combining said combustion exhaust and CO₂ capture material.

152. The method of claim 151 , and further comprising: reacting aluminum with said KCI in said electrolysis process to provide AICI₃.

153. The method of claim 123, and further comprising: electrolyzing NaCI to provide NaOH as at least a portion of said CO₂ capture material on-site with said combining said combustion exhaust and said CO₂ capture material.

154. The method of claim 153, and further comprising reacting elemental hydrogen generated from said electrolyzing said NaCI at a cathode of one or more fuel cells to produce an electrical current to assist in powering said electrolyzing said NaCI.

155. The method of claim 123, and further comprising: hydrating a dehydrated salt for releasing heat; and applying said released heat for generating power for powering manufacture of said CO₂ capture material.

156. The method of claim 155, wherein said dehydrated salt is dehydrated in response to waste heat of combustion of a carbon-based fuel for generating said combustion exhaust.

157. The method of claim 155, wherein said dehydrated salt comprises at least one of Na₂S^* x H₂O, NiCI₂ ^* x H₂O, MgCI₂ ^* 2 H₂O, SrBr₂ ^* H₂O, LiCI^* H₂O and/or NaCO₃ ^* x H₂O.

158. The method of claim 123, and further comprising applying heat from a reaction of said CO₂ with said CO₂ capture material to generate electrical power.

159. The method of claim 158, wherein said applying said heat further comprises: heating pressurized water with said heat to generate steam; and directing said steam through a turbine to generate said electrical power.

160. The method of claim 123, and further comprising making said CO₂ capture material from electrolysis of a salt.

161. The method of claim 160, and further comprising: feeding LiCI, NaCI or KCI to an anode for electrolysis to Cl₂; transporting Li⁺, Na⁺ or K⁺ cation across an electrolyte or cation membrane to a cathode; and reducing oxygen and H₂O to hydroxide ions at said cathode by application of a current, wherein said hydroxide ions react with said transported cation to form LiOH, NaOH or KOH.

162. The method of claim 160, and further comprising: generating Cl₂ from electrolysis of said salt; and combining said Cl₂ with C₂H₄ to produce C₂H₄CI₂.

163. The method of claim 160, and further comprising: generating Cl₂ and H₂ from electrolysis of said salt; and combining said Cl₂ with H₂ to produce HCI.

164. The method of claim 163, wherein said combining said Cl₂ with H₂ to produce HCI comprises combining said Cl₂ and H₂ in an exothermic reaction to generate heat, the method further comprising generating electrical power from said generated heat.

165. The method of claim 164, wherein said generating said electrical power from said heat further comprises applying said heat to a Brayton steam cycle.

166. The method of claim 164, wherein said generating said electrical power from said heat further comprises applying said heat to thermoelectric elements.

167. The method of claim 163, wherein said combining said combining said Cl₂ with H₂ to produce HCI further comprises reacting said Cl₂ and H₂ in a fuel cell to generate electrical power.

168. The method of claim 123, wherein said combining said combustion exhaust with a fluid CO₂ capture material further comprises: directing said fluid CO₂ capture material to flow through the interior of a chamber under force of gravity; and directing said combustion exhaust to enter said interior of said chamber to contact said flowing CO₂ capture material.

169. The method of claim 168, and further comprising: directing said CO₂ capture material to flow in a first direction; and directing said combustion exhaust to flow in a second direction opposite said first direction.

170. The method of claim 168, wherein said directing said fluid CO₂ capture material to flow through said interior of said chamber further comprises directing said CO₂ capture material to flow over one or more solid structures disposed in said interior.

171. The method of claim 170, wherein said one or more solid structures comprise at least a mesh.

172. The method of claim 170, wherein said one or more solid structures comprise a plurality of Rasching Rings.

173. The method of claim 170, wherein said interior of said cavity has a cylindrical shape, and wherein said one or ore solid structures comprises a corkscrew-shaped ramp on a vertical axis to allow fluid CO₂ capture material to travel downward in a spiral while said combustion exhaust travels upward.

174. The method of claim 168, and further comprising allowing said solid to exit said interior of said chamber following said contact of said combustion exhaust with said CO₂ capture material.

175. An apparatus comprising: means for combining combustion exhaust, said exhaust including at least some carbon dioxide, with a fluid CO₂ capture material to provide a mixture of a solid including at least a portion of said carbon dioxide and remaining exhaust; and means for removing at least a least a portion of said solid from said remaining exhaust.

176. The apparatus of claim 175, wherein said solid comprises a carbonate.

177. The apparatus claim 175, wherein said means for removing at least a portion of said solid further comprises means for processing said mixture in a cyclone separator.

178. The apparatus of claim 175, wherein said CO₂ capture material is in a solution, and wherein said means for combining said combustion exhaust with said CO₂ capture material comprises means for atomizing said solution in an exhaust path containing said combustion exhaust.

179. The apparatus of claim 175, and further comprising means for controlling a particle size associated with said solid by varying a concentration of said CO₂ capture material in an aqueous solution.

180. The apparatus of claim 177, and further comprising means for controlling a particle size associated with said solid by varying a droplet size of said CO₂ capture material in an aqueous solution containing said CO₂ capture material.

181. The apparatus of claim 177, and further comprising means for controlling a particle size associated with said solid by varying turbulence of said combustion exhaust in a vicinity of contact of said CO₂ capture material and said combustion exhaust.

182. The apparatus of claim 175, and further means for comprising directing an aqueous solution of said CO₂ capture material to flow in a direction of gravity and countercurrent to a direction of flow of said combustion exhaust.

183. The apparatus of claim 182, wherein said wherein said solid is formed by contact of aqueous solution with said combustion exhaust in a cavity, and wherein said solid is formed a bottom portion of said cavity.

184. The apparatus of claim 183, wherein said remaining exhaust exits said cavity at least partially stripped of NO_x, SO₂ and particulate matter.

185. The apparatus of claim 175, wherein said fluid CO₂ capture material comprises a molten peroxide, oxide, hydroxide and/or superoxide.

186. The apparatus of claim 185, and further comprising means for directing said molten CO₂ capture material to flow in a direction countercurrent to a direction of flow of said combustion exhaust in a cavity.

187. The apparatus of claim 175, wherein said CO₂ capture material comprises a naturally occurring solid.

188. The apparatus of claim 187, wherein said naturally occurring solid includes an alkali or alkali earth boron-containing salt.

189. The apparatus of claim 188, wherein said alkali or alkali earth boron- containing salt includes at least one of Ulexite, Borax and/or Colemanite.

190. The apparatus of claim 187, wherein said naturally occurring solid reacts with CO₂ to make a carbonate and a boron containing material.

191. The apparatus of claim 190, wherein said boron containing material comprises at least one of borax and/or boric acid.

192. The apparatus of claim 175, wherein said CO₂ capture material comprises an aqueous solution of hydroxide.

193. The apparatus of claim 192, wherein said hydroxide comprises sodium hydroxide and/or potassium hydroxide.

194. The apparatus of claim 192, wherein said hydroxide comprises an Alkali hydroxide, Alkali-earth hydroxide and/or aluminum hydroxide.

195. The apparatus of claim 175, and further comprising means for receiving said combustion exhaust from combustion of coal.

196. The apparatus of claim 175, and further comprising means for receiving said combustion exhaust from a process to generate power from combustion of natural gas.

197. The apparatus of claim 175, and further comprising means for receiving said combustion exhaust from a process to generate power from combustion of fuel oil, diesel oil and/or JP8 fuel.

198. The apparatus of claim 175, and further comprising means for receiving said combustion exhaust from a process to generate power from combustion of biomass.

199. The apparatus of claim 175, wherein said fluid CO₂ capture material is adapted to react with at least a portion of NO_x in said combustion exhaust to form a solid and/or N₂ gas.

200. The apparatus of claim 175, wherein said fluid CO₂ capture material is adapted to react with at least a portion of SO_x in said combustion exhaust to form a solid.

201. The apparatus of claim 175, and further comprising: means for reacting elemental potassium with water at an anode of one or more fuel cells to produce said fluid CO₂ capture material and an electrical current on-site with said combining said combustion exhaust and CO₂ capture material; and means for applying said electrical current to power an electrolysis process to provide said elemental potassium from KCI on-site with said combining said combustion exhaust and CO₂ capture material.

202. The apparatus of claim 201 , and further comprising: means for reacting aluminum with said KCI in said electrolysis process to provide AICI₃.

203. The apparatus of claim 175, and further comprising: means for electrolyzing NaCI to provide NaOH as at least a portion of said CO₂ capture material on-site with said combining said combustion exhaust and said CO₂ capture material.

204. The apparatus of claim 203, and further comprising means for reacting elemental hydrogen generated from said electrolyzing said NaCI at a cathode of one or more fuel cells to produce an electrical current to assist in powering said electrolyzing said NaCI.

205. The apparatus of claim 175, and further comprising: means for hydrating a dehydrated salt for releasing heat; and means for applying said released heat for generating power for powering manufacture of said CO₂ capture material.

206. The apparatus of claim 205, wherein said dehydrated salt is dehydrated in response to waste heat of combustion of a carbon-based fuel for generating said combustion exhaust.

207. The apparatus of claim 205, wherein said dehydrated salt comprises at least one of Na₂S^* x H₂O, NiCI₂ ^* x H₂O, MgCI₂ ^* 2 H₂O, SrBr₂ ^* H₂O, LiCI^* H₂O and/or NaCO₃ ^* x H₂O.

208. The apparatus of claim 175, and further comprising means for applying heat from a reaction of said CO₂ with said CO₂ capture material to generate electrical power.

209. The apparatus of claim 208, wherein said means for applying said heat further comprises: means for heating pressurized water with said heat to generate steam; and means for directing said steam through a turbine to generate said electrical power.

210. The apparatus of claim 175, and further comprising means for making said CO₂ capture material from electrolysis of a salt.

21 1. The apparatus of claim 210, and further comprising: means for feeding LiCI, NaCI or KCI to an anode for electrolysis to Cl₂; means for transporting Li⁺, Na⁺ or K⁺ cation across an electrolyte or cation membrane to a cathode; and means for reducing oxygen and H₂O to hydroxide ions at said cathode by application of a current, wherein said hydroxide ions react with said transported cation to form LiOH, NaOH or KOH.

212. The apparatus of claim 210, and further comprising: means for generating Cl₂ from electrolysis of said salt; and means for combining said Cl₂ with C₂H₄ to produce C₂H₄CI₂.

213. The apparatus of claim 210, and further comprising: means for generating Cl₂ and H₂ from electrolysis of said salt; and means for combining said Cl₂ with H₂ to produce HCI.

214. The apparatus of claim 213, wherein said means for combining said Cl₂ with H₂ to produce HCI comprises means for combining said Cl₂ and H₂ in an exothermic reaction to generate heat, the apparatus further comprising means for generating electrical power from said generated heat.

215. The apparatus of claim 214, wherein said means for generating said electrical power from said heat further comprises means for applying said heat to a Brayton steam cycle.

216. The apparatus of claim 214, wherein said means for generating said electrical power from said heat further comprises means for applying said heat to thermoelectric elements.

217. The apparatus of claim 213, wherein said means for combining said Cl₂ with H₂ to produce HCI further comprises means for reacting said Cl₂ and H₂ in a fuel cell to generate electrical power.

218. The apparatus of claim 175, wherein said means for combining said combustion exhaust with a fluid CO₂ capture material further comprises: means for directing said fluid CO₂ capture material to flow through the interior of a chamber under force of gravity; and means for directing said combustion exhaust to enter said interior of said chamber to contact said flowing CO₂ capture material.

219. The apparatus of claim 218, and further comprising: means for directing said CO₂ capture material to flow in a first direction; and means for directing said combustion exhaust to flow in a second direction opposite said first direction.

220. The apparatus of claim 218, wherein said means for directing said fluid CO₂ capture material to flow through said interior of said chamber further comprises means for directing said CO₂ capture material to flow over one or more solid structures disposed in said interior.

221. The apparatus of claim 220, wherein said one or more solid structures comprise at least a mesh.

222. The apparatus of claim 220, wherein said one or more solid structures comprise a plurality of Rasching Rings.

223. The apparatus of claim 220, wherein said interior of said cavity has a cylindrical shape, and wherein said one or more solid structures comprises a corkscrew-shaped ramp on a vertical axis to allow fluid CO₂ capture material to travel downward in a spiral while said combustion exhaust travels upward.

224. The apparatus of claim 218, and further comprising means for allowing said solid to exit said interior of said chamber following said contact of said combustion exhaust with said CO₂ capture material.

225. An apparatus comprising: a chemical reactor, the chemical reactor comprising: a first input adapted to receive combustion exhaust, said exhaust including at least some carbon dioxide, from combustion used to generate electrical power; a second input adapted to receive a fluid CO₂ capture material; and a cavity adapted to combine at least a portion of said carbon dioxide with said CO₂ capture material to provide a mixture of a solid including at least a portion of said carbon dioxide and remaining exhaust.

226. The apparatus of claim 225, wherein said solid comprises a carbonate.

227. The apparatus claim 225, and further comprising one or more cyclone separators to impart a centrifugal force on said mixture to effect a solid gas separation.

228. The apparatus of claim 225, wherein said CO₂ capture material is in a solution, and the apparatus further comprises a sprayer to atomize said solution in an exhaust path containing said combustion exhaust.

229. The apparatus of claim 225, and wherein the chemical reactor is further adapted to control a particle size associated with said solid by varying a concentration of said CO₂ capture material in an aqueous solution.

230. The apparatus of claim 227, and wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to control a particle size associated with said solid by varying a droplet size of said CO₂ capture material in an aqueous solution containing said CO₂ capture material.

231. The apparatus of claim 227, and wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to control a particle size associated with said solid by varying turbulence of said combustion exhaust in a vicinity of contact of said CO₂ capture material and said combustion exhaust.

232. The apparatus of claim 225, and wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to direct an aqueous solution of said CO₂ capture material to flow in a direction of gravity and countercurrent to a direction of flow of said combustion exhaust.

233. The apparatus of claim 232, wherein said solid is formed by contact of aqueous solution with said combustion exhaust in said cavity, and wherein said solid is formed a bottom portion of said cavity.

234. The apparatus of claim 233, wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to at least partially stripped of NO_x, SO₂ and particulate matter.

235. The apparatus of claim 225, wherein said fluid CO₂ capture material comprises a molten peroxide, oxide, hydroxide and/or superoxide.

236. The apparatus of claim 235, and wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to direct said molten CO₂ capture material to flow in a direction countercurrent to a direction of flow of said combustion exhaust in said cavity.

237. The apparatus of claim 225, wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to receive said combustion exhaust from combustion of coal.

238. The apparatus of claim 225, wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to receive said combustion exhaust from a process to generate power from combustion of natural gas.

239. The apparatus of claim 225, wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to receive said combustion exhaust from a process to generate power from combustion of fuel oil, diesel oil and/or JP8 fuel.

240. The apparatus of claim 225, wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to receive said combustion exhaust from a process to generate power from combustion of biomass.

241. The apparatus of claim 225, wherein said fluid CO₂ capture material is adapted to react with at least a portion of NO_x in said combustion exhaust to form a solid and/or N₂ gas.

242. The apparatus of claim 225, wherein said fluid CO₂ capture material is adapted to react with at least a portion of SO_x in said combustion exhaust to form a solid.

243. The apparatus of claim 225, and further comprising: a fuel cell to react elemental potassium with water at an anode of one or more fuel cells to produce said fluid CO₂ capture material and an electrical current on-site with generation of power from said combustion exhaust; and an electrolysis cell to receive said electrical current to provide said elemental potassium from KCI on-site with generation of power from said combustion exhaust.

244. The apparatus of claim 243, wherein said electrolysis cell is further adapted to react aluminum with said KCI to provide AICI₃.

245. The apparatus of claim 225, and further comprising: an electrolysis cell adapted to electrolyze NaCI to provide NaOH as at least a portion of said CO₂ capture material on-site with generation of power from said combustion exhaust.

246. The apparatus of claim 245, and further comprising a fuel cell adapted to react elemental hydrogen generated from said electrolysis cell at a cathode to produce an electrical current to assist in powering said electrolysis cell.

247. The apparatus of claim 225, wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to: direct said fluid CO₂ capture material to flow through the interior of a chamber under force of gravity; and direct said combustion exhaust to enter said interior of said chamber to contact said flowing CO₂ capture material.

248. The apparatus of claim 247, wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to: direct said CO₂ capture material to flow in a first direction; and direct said combustion exhaust to flow in a second direction opposite said first direction.

249. The apparatus of claim 247, wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to direct said CO₂ capture material to flow over one or more solid structures disposed in said interior.

250. The apparatus of claim 249, wherein said one or more solid structures comprise at least a mesh.

251. The apparatus of claim 249, wherein said one or more solid structures comprise a plurality of Rasching Rings.

252. The apparatus of claim 249, wherein said interior of said cavity has a cylindrical shape, and wherein said one or more solid structures comprises a corkscrew-shaped ramp on a vertical axis to allow fluid CO₂ capture material to travel downward in a spiral while said combustion exhaust travels upward.

253. The apparatus of claim 247, wherein said chemical reactor is further adapted to allow said solid to exit said interior of said chamber following said contact of said combustion exhaust with said CO₂ capture material.

254. A method comprising: injecting pressurized liquid H₂O into a reactor to combine said liquid H₂O with a superoxide to produce oxygen according to a reaction; and combining said oxygen with a carbon-based fuel for combustion to generate electrical power.

255. The method of claim 254, wherein said reaction provides a hydroxide, and wherein the method further comprises: directing exhaust from said combustion to drive one or more turbines for generation of said electrical power; and combining said hydroxide with at least a portion of expanded exhaust exiting said one or more turbines according to an exothermic reaction to capture at least a portion of CO₂ in said expanded exhaust in sold form.

256. The method of claim 255, and further comprising applying heat of said exothermic reaction to assist in generation of said electrical power.

257. The method of claim 256, and further comprising applying said heat of said exothermic reaction to heat expanded exhaust exiting a first turbine and entering a second turbine.

258. The method of claim 254, and further comprising: condensing at least a portion of H₂O in expanded exhaust exiting one or more turbines; and storing said condensed H₂O for injection into said reactor.

259. An apparatus comprising: a first reactor to pressurized liquid H₂O with a a superoxide to produce oxygen according to a reaction; and a combustion chamber to combine said oxygen with a carbon-based fuel for combustion to generate electrical power.

260. The apparatus of claim 259, wherein said reaction provides a hydroxide, and wherein the method further comprises: one or more turbines for generation of said electrical power from exhaust from said combustion; and a second reactor to combine said hydroxide with at least a portion of expanded exhaust exiting said one or more turbines according to an exothermic reaction to capture at least a portion of CO₂ in said expanded exhaust in solid form.

261. The apparatus of claim 260, and further comprising one or more heat exchangers to apply heat of said exothermic reaction to assist in generation of said electrical power.

262. The apparatus of claim 261 , and further comprising one or more heat exchangers to apply said heat of said exothermic reaction to heat expanded exhaust exiting a first turbine and entering a second turbine.

263. The apparatus of claim 259, and further comprising: a condenser to condense at least a portion of H₂O in expanded exhaust exiting one or more turbines; and a tank for storing said condensed H₂O for injection into said reactor.

264. An apparatus comprising: means for injecting pressurized liquid H₂O into a reactor to combine said liquid H₂O with a a superoxide to produce oxygen according to an reaction; and means for combining said oxygen with a carbon-based fuel for combustion to generate electrical power.

265. The apparatus of claim 264, wherein said reaction provides a hydroxide, and wherein the apparatus further comprises: means for directing exhaust from said combustion to drive one or more turbines for generation of said electrical power; and means for combining said hydroxide with at least a portion of expanded exhaust exiting said one or more turbines according to an exothermic reaction to capture at least a portion of CO₂ in said expanded exhaust in sold form.

266. The apparatus of claim 265, and further comprising means for applying heat of said exothermic reaction to assist in generation of said electrical power.

267. The apparatus of claim 266, and further comprising means for applying said heat of said exothermic reaction to heat expanded exhaust exiting a first turbine and entering a second turbine.

268. The apparatus of claim 264, and further comprising: means for condensing at least a portion of H₂O in expanded exhaust exiting one or more turbines; and means for storing said condensed H₂O for injection into said reactor.

269. A method comprising: directing a gas to drive one or more turbines to generate electrical power; adsorbing at least a portion of CO₂ in said gas in an adsorption bed; desorbing at least a portion of said adsorbed CO₂ to provide additional gas; and directing said additional gas to drive said one or more turbines to generate additional electrical power.

270. The method of claim 269, and further comprising: releasing additional CO₂ from a pressurized tank to provide additional CO₂ gas; and directing said additional CO₂ with said desorbed CO₂ to drive said one or more turbines to generate said additional electrical power.

271. The method of claim 269, and further comprising equalizing a temperature of said adsorption bed with a second adsorption bed.

272. The method of claim 269, and further comprising: combining at least a portion of CO₂ exiting said one or more turbines with a CO₂ capture material according to an exothermic reaction to capture said CO₂ in solid form; and applying heat from said exothermic reaction to said additional gas.

273. The method of claim 269, and further comprising: combusting a carbon-based fuel to provide exhaust as at least a portion of said gas; and removing at least a portion of H₂O from expanded exhaust exiting a first turbine and entering a second turbine.

274. The method of claim 273, and further comprising heating exhaust exiting said second turbine with atmospheric air.

275. An apparatus comprising: means for directing a gas to drive one or more turbines to generate electrical power; means for adsorbing at least a portion of CO₂ in said gas in an adsorption bed; means for desorbing at least a portion of said adsorbed CO₂ to provide additional gas; and means for directing said additional gas to drive said one or more turbines to generate additional electrical power.

276. The apparatus of claim 275, and further comprising: means for releasing additional CO₂ from a pressurized tank to provide additional CO₂ gas; and means for directing said additional CO₂ with said desorbed CO₂ to drive said one or more turbines to generate said additional electrical power.

277. The apparatus of claim 275, and further comprising means for equalizing a temperature of said adsorption bed with a second adsorption bed.

278. The apparatus of claim 275, and further comprising: means for combining at least a portion of CO₂ exiting said one or more turbines with a CO₂ capture material according to an exothermic reaction to capture said CO₂ in solid form; and means for applying heat from said exothermic reaction to said additional gas.

279. The apparatus of claim 275, and further comprising: means for combusting a carbon-based fuel to provide exhaust as at least a portion of said gas; and means for removing at least a portion of H₂O from expanded exhaust exiting a first turbine and entering a second turbine.

280. The apparatus of claim 279, and further comprising means for heating exhaust exiting said second turbine with atmospheric air.

281. A method comprising: combusting a carbohydrate fuel to generate heat and CO₂; and directing said CO₂ to enable a reaction for generating O₂, wherein said combusting comprises combining said carbohydrate fuel with said oxygen to combust said carbohydrate fuel substantially in the absence of N₂, and wherein said oxygen is generated in said reaction in an amount substantially equal to oxygen consumed in said combusting said carbohydrate fuel.

282. The method of claim 281 , and further comprising driving a turbine to generate electrical power in response to said heat.

283. The method of claim 281 , and further comprising generating an additional electrical current from said reaction for generating O₂.

284. The method of claim 281 , wherein said carbohydrate comprises a monosaccharide.

285. The method of claim 281 , wherein said reaction comprises processing said CO₂ at a fuel cell comprising an anode comprising a superoxide.

286. The method of claim 285, wherein said superoxide comprises KO₂.

287. The method of claim 281 , wherein said reaction to generate oxygen comprises combining 2KO₂ + K₂O₂ with said CO₂.

288. The method of claim 287, and further comprising applying additional process heat generated by said combining of 2KO₂ + K₂O₂ with said CO₂ generates to increase power in a heat to power process.

289. The method of claim 281 , wherein said reaction to generate oxygen comprises combining NaO₂ with said CO₂.

290. The method of claim 281 , and further comprising applying heat from said reaction for generating said O₂ to generate additional process power.

291. The method of claim 290, wherein said applying said heat from said reaction comprises applying said heat to assist in generating steam in a water/steam turbine power cycle.

292. The method of claim 281 , wherein the only exhaust from the process is substantially humidity.

293. The method of claim 291 , wherein hot water and/or steam is introduced to a combustion stage to generate higher temperature steam used in a steam turbine power production process.

294. The method of claim 281 , and further comprising converting solid monosaccharide fuel to CO and H₂ by the application of hot steam prior to said combustion.

295. The method of claim 294, wherein said solid monosaccharide fuel is converted at the pressure of a combustion stage.

296. The method of claim 294, wherein said solid monosaccharide fuel is converted at a pressure of a combustion stage.

297. The method of claim 281 , wherein heat of reaction for generating O₂ and heat of said combusting are substantially imparted to pressurized water contained within a power generating system.

298. The method of claim 297, wherein said pressurized water stabilizes a temperature of an exothermic reaction occurring in connection with said reaction for generating said O₂.

299. The method of claim 282, wherein said generating said electrical power comprises generating said power at a stationary power plant.

300. The method of claim 282, wherein said generating said electrical power comprises generating said power at a portable power plant.

301 The method of claim 281 , wherein said combusting further comprises combusting said carbohydrate fuel at an elevated pressure to generate heat and CO₂ steam at pressure.

302. The method of claim 281 , wherein said reaction generates exothermic heat.

303. The method of claim 302, wherein heat generated from said combusting and said exothermic heat adds enthalpy to pressurized hot water or steam.

304. The method of claim 303, wherein said hot water and/or steam are pressurized to generate pressurized steam to be used in said steam turbine power production process.

305. The method of claim 281 , and further comprising capturing said CO₂ in solid form.

306. An apparatus: a tank for storing a carbohydrate fuel; a combustion stage adapted to combust said fuel to produce heat and CO₂; and a reactor to generate oxygen in response to a reaction with said CO₂, wherein said combustion stage is adapted to combine said carbohydrate fuel with said oxygen for combustion substantially in the absence of N₂, said oxygen being generated in response to said reaction in an amount substantially equal to oxygen consumed by said carbohydrate fuel in said combustion stage.

307. The apparatus of claim 306, and further comprising a turbine adapted to generate electrical power in response to said heat.

308. The apparatus of claim 306, wherein said carbohydrate comprises a monosaccharide.

309. The apparatus of claim 306, and further comprising a fuel cell to process said CO₂ at a fuel cell comprising an anode comprising a superoxide.

310. The apparatus of claim 309, wherein said superoxide comprises KO₂.

31 1. The apparatus of claim 306, wherein said reaction to generate oxygen comprises combining 2KO₂ + K₂O₂ with said CO₂.

312. The apparatus of claim 31 1 , wherein said reactor is further adapted to apply additional process heat generated by said combining of 2KO₂ + K₂O₂ with said CO₂ to increase power in a heat to power process.

313. The apparatus of claim 306, wherein said reaction to generate oxygen comprises combining NaO₂ with said CO₂.

314. The apparatus of claim 306, and wherein said reactor is further adapted to apply heat from said reaction for generating said O₂ to generate additional process power.

315. The apparatus of claim 314, and wherein said reactor is further adapted to apply said heat to assist in generating steam in a water/steam turbine power cycle.

316. The apparatus of claim 315, wherein said combustion stage is further adapted to introduce hot water and/or steam to generate higher temperature steam used in a steam turbine power production process.

317. The apparatus of claim 306, and wherein said combustion stage is further adapted to convert solid monosaccharide fuel to CO and H₂ by application of hot steam prior to combustion.

318. The apparatus of claim 317, wherein said combustion stage is adapted to convert said solid monosaccharide at pressure.

319. The apparatus of claim 306, wherein said apparatus is further adapted to apply heat of reaction for generating O₂ and heat of said combusting to pressurized water contained within a power generating system.

320. The apparatus of claim 307, wherein said turbine is part of a stationary power plant.

321. The apparatus of claim 307, wherein said turbine is part of a portable power plant.

322. The apparatus of claim 306, wherein said combustion stage is further adapted to combust said carbohydrate fuel at an elevated pressure to generate heat and CO₂ steam at pressure.

323. The apparatus of claim 306, wherein said reaction generates exothermic heat.

324. The apparatus of claim 323, wherein said apparatus is further adapted to apply heat generated from combustion of said carbohydrate and said exothermic reaction to add enthalpy to pressurized hot water or steam.

325. The apparatus of claim 324, wherein said apparatus is further adapted to pressurize hot water and/or steam to drive a steam turbine in a power production process.

326. The apparatus of claim 306, wherein said reactor is further adapted to capture said CO₂ in solid form.

327. An apparatus comprising: means for combusting a carbohydrate fuel to generate heat and CO₂; and means for directing said CO₂ to enable a reaction for generating O₂, wherein said means for combusting comprises means for combining said carbohydrate fuel with said oxygen to combust said carbohydrate fuel substantially in the absence of N₂, and wherein said oxygen is generated in said reaction in an amount substantially equal to oxygen consumed in said combusting said carbohydrate fuel.

328. The apparatus of claim 327, and further comprising means for driving a turbine to generate electrical power in response to said heat.

329. The apparatus of claim 327, and further comprising means for generating an additional electrical current from said reaction for generating O₂.

330. The apparatus of claim 327, wherein said carbohydrate comprises a monosaccharide.

331. The apparatus of claim 327, wherein said reaction comprises processing said CO₂ at a fuel cell comprising an anode comprising a superoxide.

332. The apparatus of claim 331 , wherein said superoxide comprises KO₂.

333. The apparatus of claim 327, wherein said reaction to generate oxygen comprises combining 2KO₂ + K₂O₂ with said CO₂.

334. The apparatus of claim 333, and further comprising means for applying additional process heat generated by said combining of 2KO₂ + K₂O₂ with said CO₂ generates to increase power in a heat to power process.

335. The apparatus of claim 327, wherein said reaction to generate oxygen comprises combining NaO₂ with said CO₂.

336. The apparatus of claim 327, and further comprising means for applying heat from said reaction for generating said O₂ to generate additional process power.

337. The apparatus of claim 336, wherein said means for applying said heat from said reaction comprises means for applying said heat to assist in generating steam in a water/steam turbine power cycle.

338. The apparatus of claim 327, wherein the only exhaust from the process is substantially humidity.

339. The apparatus of claim 337, wherein hot water and/or steam is introduced to a combustion stage to generate higher temperature steam used in a steam turbine power production process.

340. The apparatus of claim 327, and further comprising means for converting solid monosaccharide fuel to CO and H₂ by the application of hot steam prior to said combustion.

341. The apparatus of claim 340, wherein said solid monosaccharide fuel is converted at the pressure of a combustion stage.

342. The apparatus of claim 340, wherein said solid monosaccharide fuel is converted at a pressure of a combustion stage.

343. The apparatus of claim 327, wherein heat of reaction for generating O₂ and heat of said combusting are substantially imparted to pressurized water contained within a power generating system.

344. The apparatus of claim 343, wherein said pressurized water stabilizes a temperature of an exothermic reaction occurring in connection with said reaction for generating said O₂.

345. The apparatus of claim 328, wherein said means for generating said electrical power comprises means for generating said power at a stationary power plant.

346. The apparatus of claim 328, wherein said means for generating said electrical power comprises means for generating said power at a portable power plant.

347. The apparatus of claim 327, wherein said means for combusting further comprises means for combusting said carbohydrate fuel at an elevated pressure to generate heat and CO₂ steam at pressure.

348. The apparatus of claim 327, wherein said reaction generates exothermic heat.

349. The apparatus of claim 348, wherein heat generated from said means for combusting and said exothermic heat adds enthalpy to pressurized hot water or steam.

350. The apparatus of claim 349, wherein said hot water and/or steam are pressurized to generate pressurized steam to be used in said steam turbine power production process.

351. The apparatus of claim 327, and further comprising means for capturing said CO₂ in solid form.

352. The method of claim 162, wherein said combining said CI2 with said C2H4 further comprises reacting said CI2 with said C2H4 in a fuel cell to generate electricity.

353. The apparatus of claim 212, wherein said means for combining said CI2 with said C2H4 further comprises a fuel cell to react said CI2 with said C2H4 to generate electricity.

354. A system with the inventive features shown and described.

355. A method with the inventive features shown and described.