US20180105945A1 - Metal deposits, compositions, and methods for making the same - Google Patents

Metal deposits, compositions, and methods for making the same Download PDF

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US20180105945A1
US20180105945A1 US15/293,096 US201615293096A US2018105945A1 US 20180105945 A1 US20180105945 A1 US 20180105945A1 US 201615293096 A US201615293096 A US 201615293096A US 2018105945 A1 US2018105945 A1 US 2018105945A1
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metal
deposit
iron
carboxamide
mol
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Daniel A. Konopka
Li Hsien Chou
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Iontra Inc
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Alligant Scientific LLC
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Priority to PCT/US2017/056646 priority patent/WO2018071856A1/fr
Publication of US20180105945A1 publication Critical patent/US20180105945A1/en
Assigned to Iontra LLC reassignment Iontra LLC CHANGE OF NAME (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: Alligant Scientific, LLC
Priority to US16/438,077 priority patent/US11274374B2/en
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    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D3/00—Electroplating: Baths therefor
    • C25D3/02—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions
    • C25D3/20—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of iron
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D3/00—Electroplating: Baths therefor
    • C25D3/02—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions
    • C25D3/04—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of chromium
    • C25D3/10—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of chromium characterised by the organic bath constituents used
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D3/00—Electroplating: Baths therefor
    • C25D3/02—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions
    • C25D3/12—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of nickel or cobalt
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D3/00—Electroplating: Baths therefor
    • C25D3/02—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions
    • C25D3/22—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of zinc
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D3/00—Electroplating: Baths therefor
    • C25D3/02—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions
    • C25D3/26—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of cadmium
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D3/00—Electroplating: Baths therefor
    • C25D3/02—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions
    • C25D3/30—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of tin
    • C25D3/32—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of tin characterised by the organic bath constituents used
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D3/00—Electroplating: Baths therefor
    • C25D3/02—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions
    • C25D3/38—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of copper
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D3/00—Electroplating: Baths therefor
    • C25D3/02—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions
    • C25D3/56—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of alloys
    • C25D3/58—Electroplating: Baths therefor from solutions of alloys containing more than 50% by weight of copper
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D3/00—Electroplating: Baths therefor
    • C25D3/66—Electroplating: Baths therefor from melts
    • C25D3/665—Electroplating: Baths therefor from melts from ionic liquids
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25D17/00—Constructional parts, or assemblies thereof, of cells for electrolytic coating
    • C25D17/10—Electrodes, e.g. composition, counter electrode

Definitions

  • aspects of the present disclosure involve metal deposits and methods for making the same.
  • the present disclosure relates to iron deposits and ionic liquid electrolytes used in metal deposition processes.
  • metal deposition such as iron deposition
  • caustic aqueous solutions such as FeSO 4 /H 2 SO 4 or FeCl 2 /FeCl 3 .
  • Large amounts of hydrogen gas evolve at the surface, pitting the substrate and causing the metal deposit to become brittle.
  • the aqueous electrolyte has a narrow stability window of only 1.2 V and a maximum operating temperature between about 80° C. and about 100° C.
  • many metals, such Fe 0 cannot be deposited without also decomposing the solvent because of the necessary voltages. Higher temperatures are desired to drive off the hydrogen, but higher temperature lead to unfavorably large crystal grain sizes, which are already a problem because of iron's high intrinsic crystallinity.
  • Fe 3+ forms at the anode. If low concentrations of Fe 3+ migrate to the cathode, then the deposit quality is significantly compromised.
  • compositions provided herein consist essentially of a carboxamide, trialkylamine chloride, and a metal salt.
  • the carboxamide may comprise Formula (I):
  • the composition consists essentially of a carboxamide, trialkylamine chloride, and a metal salt.
  • the carboxamide may be selected from the group consisting of urea, biuret, triuret, tetrauret, pentauret, hexauret, cyanuric acid, ammelide, ammeline, and combinations thereof.
  • the trialkylamine chloride and the carboxamide may be in molar ratio between 1:1 and 1:30 to form an ionic liquid, wherein the trialkylamine chloride is trimethylamine chloride (TMACl), triethylamine chloride (TEACl), or combinations of the two.
  • the metal salt may have the formula MX y , wherein M is a metal, X is a halide, and y is an oxidation number of M.
  • the metal salt may be in a concentration between about 0.2 and about 1.5 moles per liter of the ionic liquid.
  • the iron deposit may have an average grain size between about 0.2 ⁇ m and about 3 ⁇ m and contains less than about 1 mol % of each oxygen, carbon, and chlorine.
  • an iron deposit may have an average grain size between about 0.2 ⁇ m and about 3 ⁇ m and may contain less than about 1 mol % of each oxygen, carbon, and chlorine.
  • This iron deposit may be formed on a substrate by inducing a potential between an iron salt and the substrate through an electrolyte to cause a metal-metal bond to form between the iron salt and metal on the substrate.
  • the electrolyte may comprise trialkylamine halide, urea, and an iron salt.
  • the trialkylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio between about 1:1 and about 1:30 to form an ionic liquid, such at about 1:1 (mol/mol) or about 1:30 (mol/mol).
  • the iron salt, such as FeCl 3 may be at a concentration between about 0.2 and about 1.5 moles per liter of the ionic liquid.
  • a method comprising, inducing a potential between a metal salt and a substrate through an electrolyte to deposit metal onto the substrate by causing a metal-metal bond to form between the metal salt and metal on the substrate.
  • the potential may have a current density between about 10 mA/cm 3 and about 300 mA/cm 3 and a reduction potential of between about ⁇ 0.6 V and about ⁇ 2.2 V.
  • the electrolyte may comprise trialkylamine chloride, a metal salt, and a carboxamide of Formula (I):
  • the trialkylamine chloride and carboxamide may be in molar ratio between 1:1 and 1:30 to form an ionic liquid.
  • the trialkylamine chloride may be trimethylamine chloride (TMACl), triethylamine chloride (TEACl), or combinations of the two.
  • TMACl trimethylamine chloride
  • TEACl triethylamine chloride
  • the metal salt has the formula MX y , wherein M is a metal, X is a halide, and y is an oxidation number of M.
  • the metal salt may be in a concentration between about 0.2 and about 1.0 moles per liter of the ionic liquid (that is, 0.2-1.0 M).
  • the deposited metal produced from this method may have an average grain size between about 0.2 ⁇ m and about 3 ⁇ m, such as between about 0.5 ⁇ m and about 2 ⁇ m, and contains less than about 1 mol % of each oxygen, carbon, and chlorine, as verified through electron microscopy and energy-dispersive spectroscopy.
  • an iron deposit may have an average grain size between about 0.2 ⁇ m and about 3 ⁇ m and may contain less than about 1 mol % of each oxygen, carbon, and chlorine.
  • This iron deposit may be formed on a substrate by inducing a potential between an iron salt and the substrate through an electrolyte to cause a metal-metal bond to form between the iron salt and metal on the substrate.
  • the electrolyte may comprise trialkylamine halide, carboxamide, and an iron salt.
  • the trialkylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio between about 1:1 and about 1:30 to form an ionic liquid, such at about 1:2 (mol/mol) or about 1:10 (mol/mol).
  • the iron salt, such as FeCl 3 may be at a concentration between about 0.2 and about 1.5 moles per liter of the ionic liquid.
  • FIG. 1A depicts a device 100 which may be used in the disclosed methods.
  • the device comprises a source of a countercharge 120 , and a substrate 110 in electrical communication with the source of a countercharge 120 through an electrolyte 140 .
  • a potential 130 is induced through the electrolyte 140 between the source of a countercharge 120 and the substrate 110 , having a surface 111 .
  • the device also comprises a power supply 160 in electrical communication 161 with the source for a countercharge 120 and in electrical communication 163 with the substrate 110 .
  • FIG. 1B is an inset of FIG. 1A , showing an embodiment where the source of countercharge 120 is a corroding electrode.
  • the potential 130 is induced between the corroding electrode 120 and the substrate 110 through the electrolyte 140 , metal 122 from the corroding electrode 120 is released as metal species (M+) 124 into the electrolyte 140 .
  • FIG. 2 shows a cyclic voltammogram for 1:2 (mol/mol) triethylamine chloride (TEACl)/urea (solid line) and 1:2 (mol/mol) trimethylamine chloride (TMACl)/urea (dashed line) ionic liquids on a glassy carbon electrode in the absence of ferric chloride (FeCl 3 ).
  • FIG. 3 shows a cyclic voltammogram for 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea (dashed line) and 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea (solid line) with 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • FIG. 4 shows a cyclic voltammogram for 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/FeCl 3 in the absence of urea.
  • FIG. 5A shows the current efficiency versus varying the concentrations of FeCl 3 in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid at a constant current of 20 mA.
  • FIG. 5B shows the effect of varying potentials, and
  • FIG. 5C shows the effect of varying current densities with 0.3 M FeCl 3 in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid.
  • FIG. 6 shows the current efficiency versus varying potentials in 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea ionic liquid with 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • FIGS. 7A-F shows photos ( FIGS. 7A , C, and E) and scanning electromicrographs ( FIGS. 7B , D, and F) of Fe 0 deposits at differing current densities in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid with 0.3 M FeCl 3 , including current densities of 10 mA/cm 3 ( FIGS. 7A &B), 20 mA/cm 3 ( FIGS. 7C &D), and 40 mA/cm 3 ( FIGS. 7E &F). Deposition occurred on the substrate below the dashed line.
  • FIGS. 8A-H show photos ( FIGS. 8A , C, E, and G) and scanning electromicrographs ( FIGS. 8B , D, F, and H) of Fe 0 deposits at differing concentrations of FeCl 3 in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid.
  • concentrations of FeCl 3 were 0.2 M ( FIGS. 8A &B), 0.3 M ( FIGS. 8C &D), 0.4 M ( FIGS. 8E &F), and 0.53 M ( FIGS. 8G &H). Deposition occurred on the substrate below the dashed line.
  • FIGS. 9A-J show photos ( FIGS. 9A , C, E, G, and I) and scanning electromicrographs ( FIGS. 9B , D, F, H, and J) of potentials tested in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid with a concentration of 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • the potentials were ⁇ 0.6 V ( FIGS. 9A &B), ⁇ 1.0 V ( FIGS. 9C &D), ⁇ 1.4 V ( FIGS. 9E &F), ⁇ 1.8 V ( FIGS. 9G &H), and ⁇ 2.2 V ( FIGS. 9I &J). Deposition occurred on the substrate below the dashed line.
  • FIGS. 10A-J show photos ( FIGS. 10A , C, E, G, and I) and scanning electromicrographs ( FIGS. 10B , D, F, H, and J) of potentials tested in 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea ionic liquid with a concentration of 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • the potentials measured were the same as those tested above for TEACl/urea ionic liquid at FIG. 8 : ⁇ 0.6 V ( FIGS. 10A &B), ⁇ 1.0 V ( FIGS. 10C &D), ⁇ 1.4 V ( FIGS. 10E &F), ⁇ 1.8 V ( FIGS. 10G &H), and ⁇ 2.2 V ( FIGS. 10I &J). Deposition occurred on the substrate below the dashed line.
  • FIGS. 11A &B provide image mapping ( FIG. 11A ) and energy-dispersive spectrometric (EDS) data ( FIG. 11B ) of an iron deposit formed under a potential of ⁇ 1.2 V from 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid. Deposition occurred on the substrate below the dashed line.
  • EDS energy-dispersive spectrometric
  • FIGS. 12A &B show grayscale ( FIG. 12A ) and color-coded ( FIG. 12B ) cross-sections of iron deposits prepared at ⁇ 2.0 V (reference electrode is iron) from in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid with 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • FIGS. 13A &B show grayscale ( FIG. 13A ) and color-coded ( FIG. 13B ) cross-sections of iron deposits prepared at ⁇ 1.8 V (reference electrode is iron) from in 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea ionic liquid with 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • FIGS. 14A &B show grayscale ( FIG. 14A ) and color-coded ( FIG. 14B ) cross-sections of iron deposit after electropolishing at ⁇ 2.0 V (reference electrode is iron) in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid.
  • FIG. 15 shows a cyclic voltammogram of 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea ionic liquid without FeCl 3 on glassy carbon electrode after stripping an iron plate (solid line) and with FeCl 3 (dashed line).
  • FIGS. 16A &B are scanning electromicrographs of iron deposits in ( FIG. 16A ) 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid at ⁇ 1.8 V without FeCl 3 , and ( FIG. 16B ) 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea ionic liquid at ⁇ 1.4 V without FeCl 3 . Stripping this iron plate provided the iron source in the electrolyte.
  • FIG. 16C shows the EDS data for FIG. 16A
  • FIG. 16D shows the EDS data for FIG. 16B .
  • FIG. 17 shows a cyclic voltammogram of different molar ratios TEACl/urea ionic liquid at (a) 1:1, (b) 1:2, (c) 1:3.5, (d) 1:7 and (e) 1:10, each with a concentration of 0.3 moles of FeCl 3 per liter of ionic liquid.
  • FIGS. 18A-C show photographs ( FIGS. 18A &B) and scanning electromicrographs ( FIGS. 18C &D) of iron deposits formed from different molar ratios TEACl/urea ionic liquid with 0.3 M FeCl 3 —1:5 molar ratio at ⁇ 1.0 V ( FIGS. 18A &C), and 1:10 molar ratio at ⁇ 1.4 V ( FIGS. 18B &D).
  • FIG. 19 shows a scanning electromicrograph of an iron deposit on steel formed from 1:10 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea with 0.3 M FeCl 3 at potential of ⁇ 1.0 V.
  • FIGS. 20A-J show photos ( FIGS. 20A , C, E, G, and I) and scanning electromicrographs ( FIGS. 20B , D, F, H, and J) of potentials tested in 1:10 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid with a concentration of 0.3 M FeCl 3 : ⁇ 1.2 V ( FIGS. 20A &B), ⁇ 1.4 V ( FIGS. 20C &D), ⁇ 1.6 V ( FIGS. 20E &F), ⁇ 1.8 V ( FIGS. 20G &H), and ⁇ 2.0 V ( FIGS. 20I &J).
  • FIG. 21 is a graph reporting the current efficiency versus the varying potentials (V) tested in 1:10 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid with a concentration of 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • FIGS. 22A-E show scanning electromicrographs of cross-sections of Fe 0 deposits formed ⁇ 1.4 V from 1:10 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea ionic liquid with a concentration of 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • FIGS. 23A &B show a scanning electromicrograph ( FIG. 23A ) and energy-dispersive spectrometric (EDS) data ( FIG. 23B ) of an iron deposit formed ⁇ 1.4 V from 1:30 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid with a concentration of 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • FIG. 24 shows a photo ( FIG. 24A ), a scanning electoromicrograph ( FIG. 24B ), and energy-dispersive spectrometric data ( FIG. 24C ) of an iron deposit in formed in 1:20 (mol/nol) TEACl/urea with 1.5 M FeCl 3 at 100° C. with a high current density of 100 mA/cm 2 .
  • FIG. 25 shows a photo ( FIG. 25A ), a scanning electoromicrograph ( FIG. 25B ), and energy-dispersive spectrometric data ( FIG. 25C ) of an iron deposit in formed in 1:20 (mol/nol) TEACl/urea with 1.5 M FeCl 3 at 100° C. with a high current density of 300 mA/cm 2 .
  • FIGS. 26A-J show grayscale ( FIGS. 26A , C, E, G, and I) and color-coded ( FIGS. 26B , D, F, H, and J) scanning electromicrographs of metal deposits formed from 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea, where the metal source was provided in the electrolyzed by stripping pressed metal anodes: ( FIGS. 26A &B) Mo pressed anode, ( FIGS. 26C &D) Sn pressed anode, ( FIGS. 26E &F), Cu—Fe pressed anode, ( FIGS. 26G &H) Cu pressed anode, and ( FIGS. 26I &J) Cu—Sn pressed anode.
  • FIG. 27 shows the cyclic voltammogram of 1:2.5 (mol/mol) TEACl/biuret (C 2 H 5 N 3 O 2 ) ionic liquid. Without FeCl 3 , the melting point is 150° C. With FeCl 3 , the melting point is 100° C.
  • FIG. 28 shows the cyclic voltammogram of 1:2.6 (mol/mol) triethanolamine chloride/urea (1:2.6) With FeCl 3 the melting point is 80° C.
  • the electrolyte comprises trialkylamine halide, carboxamide, and a metal source, such as an iron salt.
  • the electrolyte comprises trialkylamine halide and carboxamide in molar ratio between about 1:1 and about 1:30 to form an ionic liquid, such as about 1:2 or about 1:10.
  • the metal source is at a concentration between about 0.2 and about 1.5 moles per liter of the ionic liquid (that is, 0.2-1.5 M), such as about 0.3 M.
  • a potential is induced between the metal source and a substrate through the electrolyte. Metal is thereby deposited onto the substrate by causing a metal-metal bond to form between the metal source and metal on the substrate.
  • the disclosed methods hydrogen is not evolved at the substrate during metal deposition and denser metal is deposited compared to previously known methods. Voltage and temperature operate in wider windows of the induced potential relative to conventional aqueous electrolytes, and the average grain size of deposited metal is better controlled compared to previous deposits. When iron is present, Fe 3+ is reduced completely to Fe 0 , thus avoiding the catastrophic system failures which plague prior methods and systems. Moreover, as evinced by the microscopic and energy-dispersive spectroscopic data disclosed herein, the metal deposits have surprisingly high purity and conformity. These deposits are corrosion resistant, substantially free from oxygen, carbon, and chlorine, and adhering strongly to the substrates upon which the metal deposit is formed.
  • the present disclosure provides a method for depositing metal onto a substrate, for example a working electrode (workpiece) of an electrochemical cell.
  • the substrate may be any electrically conductive surface, including metals such as steel or iron, or common electrode materials, such as glassy carbon.
  • a device 100 may comprise a source of a countercharge 120 , and a substrate 110 in electrical communication with the source of a countercharge 120 through an electrolyte 140 .
  • a potential 130 is induced through the electrolyte 140 between the source of a countercharge 120 and the substrate 110 .
  • the device also comprises a power supply 160 in electrical communication 161 with the source for a countercharge 120 and in electrical communication 163 with the substrate 110 .
  • a potential when potential between a metal source and a substrate through an electrolyte, metal is thereby deposited onto the substrate by causing a metal-metal bond to form between the metal source and metal on the substrate.
  • a potential may be induced between a metal source and a substrate through an electrolyte to deposit metal onto the substrate by causing a metal-metal bond to form between the metal source and metal on the substrate.
  • a corroding electrode is depicted as a possible source of a countercharge.
  • metal 122 from the corroding electrode 120 is released as metal species (M + ) 124 into the electrolyte 140 .
  • the electrolyte may comprise trialkylamine halide and carboxamide in molar ratio between 1:1 and 1:30 to form an ionic liquid.
  • the methods according to this disclosure may be contemplated in the context of a device without a corroding electrode, wherein a substrate 110 has a potential 130 induced in the presence of a chemical potential between an electrolyte 140 and the surface 111 .
  • the electrolyte comprises trialkylamine halide, carboxamide, and a metal source.
  • the metal source may be a metal salt, for example at a concentration between about 0.2 and about 1.5 moles per liter of the ionic liquid (that is, 0.2-1.5 M).
  • the methods disclosed herein induce a potential between a metal source and a substrate through an electrolyte.
  • the potential has features which can be varied to effect the outcome of the method and the characteristics of the deposited metal. These features include current density and a reduction potential.
  • the potential may have a current density ranging between about 0 mA/cm 3 and about 300 mA/cm 3 .
  • the current density may be between about 0 mA/cm 3 and about 5 mA/cm 3 , between about 5 mA/cm 3 and about 10 mA/cm 3 , between about 10 mA/cm 3 and about 15 mA/cm 3 , between about 15 mA/cm 3 and about 20 mA/cm 3 , between about 20 mA/cm 3 and about 25 mA/cm 3 , between about 25 mA/cm 3 and about 30 mA/cm 3 , between about 30 mA/cm 3 and about 35 mA/cm 3 , between about 35 mA/cm 3 and about 40 mA/cm 3 , between about 40 mA/cm 3 and about 50 mA/cm 3 , between about 50 mA/cm 3 and about 100
  • the current density may be less than about 300 mA/cm 3 , such as less than about 100 mA/cm 3 , or less than about 50 mA/cm 3 .
  • the current density may be more than about 10 mA/cm 3 , such as more than about 50 mA/cm 3 , or more than about 100 mA/cm 3 .
  • the current density may be about 20 mA/cm 3 .
  • the current density may be about 40 mA/cm 3 .
  • the potential may have a reduction potential ranging of between about ⁇ 0.6 V and about ⁇ 2.2 V.
  • a reduction potential of ⁇ 2.2V is close to the boundary of the electrochemical stability window of the electrolytes disclosed herein, causing the grain structure of the deposited metals to become more varied.
  • the reduction potential tends to be more positive than about ⁇ 2.2 V.
  • the reduction potential may be between about ⁇ 0.6 V and about ⁇ 0.7 V, between about ⁇ 0.7 V and about ⁇ 0.8 V, between about ⁇ 0.8 V and about ⁇ 0.9 V, between about ⁇ 0.9 V and about ⁇ 1.0 V, between about ⁇ 1.0 V and about ⁇ 1.1 V, between about ⁇ 1.1 V and about ⁇ 1.2 V, between about ⁇ 1.2 V and about ⁇ 1.3 V, between about ⁇ 1.3 V and about ⁇ 1.4 V, between about ⁇ 1.4 V and about ⁇ 1.5 V, between about ⁇ 1.5 V and about ⁇ 1.6 V, between about ⁇ 1.6 V and about ⁇ 1.7 V, between about ⁇ 1.7 V and about ⁇ 1.8 V, between about ⁇ 1.8 V and about ⁇ 1.9 V, between about ⁇ 1.9 V and about ⁇ 2.0 V, between about ⁇ 2.0 V and about ⁇ 2.1 V, or between about ⁇ 2.1 V and about ⁇ 2.2 V.
  • the reduction potential may be less than about ⁇ 0.6 V.
  • the electrolyte comprises an ionic liquid and a metal source, which is a source for new material deposited at the substrate.
  • the electrolyte may comprise ionic liquid formed from trialkylamine halide and carboxamide.
  • the metal source is mixed with or dissolved in the ionic liquid.
  • the electrolyte may also comprise one or more additives, for example, a silica-providing agent such at tetraethoxysilane (orthosilicate, TEOS).
  • the electrolyte comprises an ionic liquid formed from trialkylamine halide and carboxamide in molar ratio between about 1:1 and about 1:30, especially at a molar ratio of about 1:2 or of about 1:10.
  • the electrolyte may only contain a trace amount of water, such as that absorbed from the atmosphere. That is, the electrolyte may be substantially non-aqueous.
  • the alkyl groups of the trialkylamine halide may be the same or different.
  • the alkyl groups may be lower alkyl containing from one to eight carbon atoms in the principal chain and up to 20 carbon atoms.
  • the alkyl groups may be straight or branched chain or cyclic and include methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, hexyl and the like.
  • the alkyl groups may be optionally substituted with one or more hydroxyl groups, such as a methanol, ethanol, or propanol substituent.
  • the trialkylamine halide may be trimethanolamine halide, triethanolamine halide, or tripropanolamine halide.
  • the halide in the trialkylamine halide may be fluoride, chloride, bromide, or iodine.
  • the halide may be chloride.
  • the trialkylamine halide may be a trialkylamine chloride, such as trimethylamine chloride (TMACl), triethylamine chloride (TEACl), or combinations of the two. That is, the trialkylamine halide may be trimethylamine chloride.
  • the trialkylamine halide may be triethylamine chloride.
  • the carboxamide may comprise Formula (I):
  • At least one Q is an O.
  • the carboxamide of Formula (I) may comprise a compound of Formula (II):
  • the carboxamide of Formula (II) is a carboxamide of Formula (I), wherein Q is O, and R 3 is NR 4 R 5 .
  • the carboxamide of Formula (II) may comprise a compound of Formula (III):
  • the carboxamide of Formula (III) is a carboxamide of Formula (II), wherein R 1 , R 2 , R 4 , and R 5 are each H.
  • the carboxamide of Formula (III) is a carboxamide of Formula (I), wherein Q is O, R 3 is NR 4 R 5 , and wherein R 1 , R 2 , R 4 , and R 5 are each H.
  • the carboxamide of Formula (I) may comprise a compound of Formula (IV):
  • a carboxamide of Formula (IV) is a carboxamide of Formula (I), wherein R 1 and R 3 have been taken together to form a ring.
  • the carboxamide of Formula (IV) may comprise a compound of Formula (V):
  • the carboxamide of Formula (V) is a carboxamide of Formula (IV), where n is 3.
  • the carboxamide of Formula (V) is a carboxamide of Formula (I), wherein R 1 and R 3 have been taken together to form a ring, and n is 3; that is, a 6-membered ring.
  • the carboxamide of Formula (I) may be selected from the group consisting of urea, biuret, triuret, tetrauret, pentauret, hexauret, cyanuric acid, ammelide, ammeline, and combinations thereof.
  • the carboxamide may be selected from the group consisting of cyanuric acid, ammelide, ammeline, and combinations thereof, encompassing a compound of Formula (V).
  • the carboxamide may be selected from the group consisting of urea, biuret, triuret, tetrauret, pentauret, hexauret, and combinations thereof, encompassing a compound of Formula (III).
  • the carboxamide may be urea or biuret.
  • the carboxamide is urea.
  • the carboxamide is a proton carrier, which permits the formation of the ionic liquid when combined with the trialkylamine halide in specific molar ratios.
  • the trialkylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio between about 1:1 and 1:30.
  • the trialkylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio between about 1:1 and about 1:2, between about 1:2 and about 1:3, between about 1:3 and about 1:4, between about 1:4 and about 1:5, between about 1:5 and about 1:6, between about 1:6 and about 1:7, between about 1:7 and about 1:8, between about 1:8 and about 1:9, between about 1:9 and about 1:10, between about 1:10 and about 1:11, between about 1:11 and about 1:12, between about 1:12 and about 1:13, between about 1:13 and about 1:14, between about 1:14 and about 1:15, between about 1:15 and about 1:16, between about 1:16 and about 1:17, between about 1:17 and about 1:18, between about 1:18 and about 1:19, between about 1:19 and about 1:20, between about 1:20 and about 1:21, between about 1:21 and about 1:22, between about 1:22 and about 1:23, between about 1:23 and about 1:24, between about 1:24 and about 1:25, between about 1:25 and about 1:26, between about 1:26 and about 1:27
  • the trialkylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio of greater than about 1:2, such as greater than about 1:5.
  • the trialkylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio of less than about 1:30, such as less than about 1:20, or less than about 1:10.
  • the trialkylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio of about 1:2.
  • the trialkylamine halide and carboxamide may be also in molar ratio of about 1:5.
  • the trialkylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio between about 1:10.
  • the carboxamide may be urea, wherein the trialkylamine halide and urea may be in molar ratio of greater than about 1:2, such as greater than about 1:5.
  • the trialkylamine halide and urea may be in molar ratio of less than about 1:30, such as less than about 1:20, or less than about 1:10.
  • the trialkylamine halide and urea may be in molar ratio of about 1:2.
  • the trialkylamine halide and urea may be also in molar ratio of about 1:5.
  • the trialkylamine halide and urea may be in molar ratio between about 1:10.
  • the electrolyte may have at a temperature above 50° C. and below about 300° C., such between about 50° C. and about 60° C., between about 60° C. and about 70° C., between about 70° C. and about 80° C., between about 80° C. and about 90° C., between about 90° C. and about 100° C., between about 100° C. and about 110° C., between about 110° C. and about 120° C., between about 120° C. and about 130° C., between about 130° C. and about 140° C., between about 140° C. and about 150° C., between about 150° C. and about 160° C., between about 160° C.
  • the temperature may be less than about 300° C., such as less than about 150° C.
  • the temperature may be more than about 0° C., such as more than about 100° C.
  • the electrolyte may have a temperature between about 80° C. and about 120° C. when the potential is induced, such as at about 100° C.
  • the pH of the electrolyte may vary depending upon the embodiment. Different metals and composites typically have pH requirements to maintain a stable mixture in solution.
  • the electrolyte comprises a metal source.
  • the metal source may be metal particles, such as dissolved or suspended metallic micro- or nanoparticles, or molecular metal ions, such as dissolved metal salts.
  • the metal source may be provided by corroding an electrode, such as a counter or reference electrode in contact with the electrolyte.
  • the corroding electrodes may comprise an iron plate, or provide a metal source to the electrolyte from a pressed anode.
  • the metal source may be one or more metal salts present in the ionic liquid, such as a metal salt MX y .
  • suitable metals include, but are not limited to, zinc, cadmium, copper, nickel chromium, tin, gold, silver, platinum, lead, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, iron, cobalt, indium, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, manganese, rhenium, aluminum, zirconium, titanium, hafnium, vanadium, niobium, tantalum, tungsten, and molybdenum.
  • suitable alloys having two metals include, but are not limited to gold-copper-cadmium, zinc-cobalt, zinc-iron, zinc-nickel, brass (an alloy of copper and zinc), bronze (copper-tin), tin-zinc, tin-nickel, and tin-cobalt.
  • suitable metals are molybdenum, tine, iron, and copper.
  • the metal may be iron.
  • the metal source may be provided into the electrolyte by a pressed anode.
  • the pressed anode comprises one or more metals selected from the group consisting of Mo, Sn, Zn, Al, Fe, and Cu.
  • the pressed anode may also be formed from an alloy such as bronze (Cu—Sn).
  • the pressed anode may be produced following the procedure of Example 5 disclosed herein.
  • the electrolyte may comprise a metal salt.
  • a metal salt Any metal salt known within the electrochemical arts is suitable for use in this method.
  • the metal source may be a metal salt having the formula MX y , wherein M is a metal, X is a halide, and y is an oxidation number of M.
  • the metal salt MX y may be FeCl 3 .
  • M may be any suitable metal, such as those listed above.
  • M may be Fe.
  • MX y may be FeX y , where X is a halide and y is an oxidation state of Fe.
  • the metal salt FeX y may be FeCl 3 .
  • X may be any halide, such as fluoride, chloride, bromide, or iodide.
  • X may be Cl.
  • MX y may be MCl y .
  • the halide of the salt is selected to correspond with the halide of the trialkylamine halide.
  • the metal salt MX y is selected to be MCl y , wherein the halide of the metal salt is chloride as well.
  • the metal salt MCl y may be FeCl 3 .
  • the number y may be any oxidation number available to the suitable metals, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10.
  • y may be 2.
  • y may be 2 or 3.
  • y may be 3.
  • MX y may be MX 3 , where M is selected from among suitable metals which can have an oxidation state of 3+.
  • the metal salt MX 3 may be FeCl 3 .
  • the metal source is at a concentration between about 0.2 and about 1.5 moles per liter of the ionic liquid; that is, between about 0.2 M and about 1.5 M.
  • the metal source is at a concentration between about 0.2 M and about 0.25 M, between about 0.25 M and about 0.3 M, between about 0.3 M and about 0.35 M, between about 0.35 M and about 0.4 M, between about 0.4 M and about 0.45 M, between about 0.45 M and about 0.5 M, between about 0.5 M and about 0.55 M, between about 0.55 M and about 0.6 M, between about 0.6 M and about 0.65 M, between about 0.65 M and about 0.7 M, between about 0.7 M and about 0.75 M, between about 0.75 M and about 0.8 M, between about 0.8 M and about 0.85 M, between about 0.85 M and about 0.9 M, between about 0.9 M and about 0.95 M, between about 0.95 M and about 1.0 M, between about 1.0 M and about 1.05 M, between about 1.05 M and about 1.1 M, between
  • the concentration of metal source may be more than about 0.2 moles per liter of the ionic liquid.
  • the concentration of metal source may be less than about 1.5 moles per liter of the ionic liquid.
  • the concentration of metal source may be about 0.3 moles per liter of the ionic liquid.
  • the electrolyte may further comprise one or more additives, including but not limited to, organic solvents, acids, bases, salts, surfactants, thickeners, buffers, ionizable organic compounds, and silica-providing agents.
  • the electrolyte may comprise thickener to modulate the viscosity and increase the mass of particulates stably suspended in the liquid electrolyte.
  • the electrolyte compositions may include a silica-providing agent.
  • silica-providing agents include, but are not limited to, silica, silicon dioxide, silicic oxide, colloidal silica, silica gel, kieselguhr, quartz, tridymite, cristobalite, keatite, moganite, stishovite, seifertite, melanophlogite, sand, and monomeric silanes.
  • the silica-providing agent may be hydrated, precipitated, fumed, fused, fibrous, mesoporous, and/or micronized.
  • the silica provided by the silica-providing agent may be microcrystalline or present on the micrometer or nanometer scale.
  • the agent when the silica-providing agent is a monomeric silane, the agent can be hydrolyzed, thermally, or electrochemically decomposed to provide microcrystalline silica dispersed throughout the metal deposit.
  • the monomeric silane may be trialkoxysilane, such as triethoxysilane, or a tetraalkoxysilane, such as tetraethoxysilane (e.g. Wacker® TES 28, tetraethyl orthosilicate).
  • Wacker® TES 28 is a monomeric silane, which can be hydrolyzed to form silicon dioxide (silica).
  • Other suitable examples of trialkoxysilanes include trimethoxysilane, tripropoxysilane, and triisopropoxysilane.
  • tetraalkoxysilanes include tetramethoxysilane, tetrapropoxysilane, and tetraisopropoxysilane.
  • the electrolyte comprises tetraethoxysilane.
  • the organic solvent may be a polar protic solvent, a polar aprotic solvent, a non-polar solvent, or combinations thereof.
  • polar protic solvents include, but are not limited to alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, n-propanol, isobutanol, n-butanol, s-butanol, t-butanol, and the like; diols such as propylene glycol; organic acids such as formic acid, acetic acid, and so forth; amines such as trimethylamine, or triethylamine, and the like; amides such as formamide, acetamide, and so forth; and combinations of any of the above.
  • Non-limiting examples of suitable polar aprotic solvents include acetonitrile, dichloromethane (DCM), diethoxymethane, N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAC), N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), N,N-dimethylpropionamide, 1,3-dimethyl-3,4,5,6-tetrahydro-2(1H)-pyrimidinone (DMPU), 1,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone (DMI), 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME), dimethoxymethane, bis(2-methoxyethyl)ether, 1,4-dioxane, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP), ethyl formate, formamide, hexamethylphosphoramide, N-methylacetamide, N-methylformamide, methylene chloride, nitrobenzene, nitromethane, propionitrile, sulf
  • non-polar solvents include, but are not limited to, alkane and substituted alkane solvents (including cycloalkanes), aromatic hydrocarbons, esters, ethers, combinations thereof, and the like.
  • Specific non-polar solvents that may be employed include, for example, benzene, butyl acetate, t-butyl methylether, chlorobenzene, chloroform, chloromethane, cyclohexane, dichloromethane, di chloroethane, diethyl ether, ethyl acetate, diethylene glycol, fluorobenzene, heptane, hexane, isopropyl acetate, methyltetrahydrofuran, pentyl acetate, n-propyl acetate, tetrahydrofuran, toluene, and combinations thereof.
  • Electrolyte having organic solvent may also display much larger electrochemical windows (2 V to 6 V), compared to water (about 1.23 V).
  • Organic solvents may also have greater operating temperature ranges above the 100° C. limit for aqueous systems. Generally, organic solutions do not codeposit with the metal during deposition.
  • concentration of additives in the electrolyte can and will vary. Generally, the concentration of additives in the electrolyte may range between about 10 ⁇ 2 mol/L and about 10 ⁇ 5 mol/L, such as between about 10 ⁇ 2 mol/L and about 10 ⁇ 3 mol/L, between about 10 ⁇ 3 mol/L and about 10 ⁇ 4 mol/L, or between about 10 ⁇ 4 mol/L and about 10 ⁇ 5 mol/L.
  • a metal deposit may be formed by any method described herein.
  • these metal deposits may be an iron deposit formed from an iron-containing metal source.
  • the metal deposit may have an average grain size ranging between about 0.2 ⁇ m and about 3 ⁇ m.
  • the grain size may be between about 0.2 ⁇ m and about 0.5 ⁇ m, between about 0.5 ⁇ m and about 1 ⁇ m, between about 1 ⁇ m and about 1.5 ⁇ m, between about 1.5 ⁇ m and about 2 ⁇ m, between about 2 ⁇ m and about 2.5 ⁇ m, or between about 2.5 ⁇ m and about 3 ⁇ m.
  • the average grain size may be between about 0.5 ⁇ m and about 2 ⁇ m.
  • the average grain size may be more than about 0.2 ⁇ m.
  • the grain boundary may be less than about 3 ⁇ m. When the metal is iron, the metal deposit may be especially crystalline, where the grain boundaries lie between different crystals in the metal deposit.
  • Metal deposits produced using methods disclosed herein are surprisingly pure, where atomic elements from the electrolyte other than the metal are not substantially incorporated into the metal deposit.
  • the metal deposit may contain less than about 5 mol % oxygen, such as less than about 4 mol %, less than about 3 mol %, less than about 2 mol %, less than about 1 mol %, less than about 0.5 mol %, less than about 0.1 mol %.
  • the metal deposit may contain less than about 5 mol % carbon, such as less than about 4 mol %, less than about 3 mol %, less than about 2 mol %, less than about 1 mol %, less than about 0.5 mol %, less than about 0.1 mol %.
  • the metal deposit may contain less than about 5 mol % chlorine, such as less than about 4 mol %, less than about 3 mol %, less than about 2 mol %, less than about 1 mol %, less than about 0.5 mol %, less than about 0.1 mol %.
  • the metal deposit may contain less than about 5 mol % of each oxygen, carbon and chlorine, such as less than about 4 mol %, less than about 3 mol %, less than about 2 mol %, less than about 1 mol %, less than about 0.5 mol %, less than about 0.1 mol %.
  • EDS electron-dispersive spectroscopy
  • compositions are disclosed herein which were used as electrolytes in the methods.
  • these compositions may comprise a trialkylamine halide, carboxamide, and a metal source.
  • these compositions may consist essentially of trialkylamine chloride, carboxamide, and a metal salt. That is, the electrolyte may be of a composition where the trialkylamine halide is a trialkylamine chloride and the metal source may be a metal salt.
  • the compositions may comprise trialkylamine chloride and carboxamide in molar ratio between 1:1 and 1:30 to form an ionic liquid, wherein the trialkylamine chloride is trimethylamine chloride (TMACl), triethylamine chloride (TEACl), or combinations of the two.
  • the metal salt may have the formula MX y , wherein M is a metal, X is a halide, and y is an oxidation number of M.
  • the metal salt may be in a concentration between about 0.2 and about 1.5 moles per liter of the ionic liquid. Any metal salt MX y described herein is suitable for use in these compositions. Also, any variation of the ranges of molar ratios or concentrations described herein are suitable for these compositions. These compositions encompass any molar ratio, metal salt, or concentration of metal salt described herein.
  • the composition may consist essentially of trimethylamine/triethylamine chloride, a carboxamide of Formula (I), and iron chloride.
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine chloride and carboxamide may be in molar ratio between 1:1 and 1:30 to form an ionic liquid.
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio between about 1:1 and about 1:2, between about 1:2 and about 1:3, between about 1:3 and about 1:4, between about 1:4 and about 1:5, between about 1:5 and about 1:6, between about 1:6 and about 1:7, between about 1:7 and about 1:8, between about 1:8 and about 1:9, between about 1:9 and about 1:10, between about 1:10 and about 1:11, between about 1:11 and about 1:12, between about 1:12 and about 1:13, between about 1:13 and about 1:14, between about 1:14 and about 1:15, between about 1:15 and about 1:16, between about 1:16 and about 1:17, between about 1:17 and about 1:18, between about 1:18 and about 1:19, between about 1:19 and about 1:20, between about 1:20 and about 1:21, between about 1:21 and about 1:22, between about 1:22 and about 1:23, between about 1:23 and about 1:24, between about 1:24 and about 1:25, between about 1:25 and about 1:26, between about 1:
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio of greater than about 1:2, such as greater than about 1:5.
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio of less than about 1:30, such as less than about 1:20, or less than about 1:10.
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio of about 1:2.
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and carboxamide may also be in molar ratio of about 1:5.
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and carboxamide may be in molar ratio of about 1:10.
  • the carboxamide may be urea, wherein the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and urea may be in molar ratio of greater than about 1:2, such as greater than about 1:5.
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and urea may be in molar ratio of less than about 1:30, such as less than about 1:20, or less than about 1:10.
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and urea may be in molar ratio of about 1:2.
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and urea may also be in molar ratio of about 1:5.
  • the trimethylamine/triethylamine halide and urea may be in molar ratio of about 1.10.
  • the iron chloride may be in a concentration between about 0.2 and about 1.5 moles per liter of the ionic liquid; that is, between about 0.2 M and about 1.5 M. In various embodiments, the iron chloride may be at a concentration between about 0.2 M and about 0.25 M, between about 0.25 M and about 0.3 M, between about 0.3 M and about 0.35 M, between about 0.35 M and about 0.4 M, between about 0.4 M and about 0.45 M, between about 0.45 M and about 0.5 M, between about 0.5 M and about 0.55 M, or between about 0.55 M and about 0.6 M.
  • the concentration of iron chloride may be more than about 0.2 moles per liter of the ionic liquid.
  • the concentration of iron chloride may be less than about 1.5 moles per liter of the ionic liquid. In particular, the concentration of iron chloride may be about 0.3 moles per liter of the ionic liquid.
  • the composition may consist of trimethylamine/triethylamine chloride, carboxamide and iron chloride. These compositions encompass the molar ratios and concentrations of metal salt described herein
  • Example 1 Metal Deposition from Ionic Liquids Under Varying Current Density, Reduction Potential, and Concentration of the Metal Source
  • Two ionic liquids were prepared by mixing triethylamine hydrochloride or trimethylamine hydrochloride with urea in a 1:2 molar ratio at 110° C. Iron electrodeposition used of these ionic liquids at different potentials, current densities, and varying concentrations of iron chloride (FeCl 3 ) under ambient conditions and variable temperature. A GamryTM Reference 3000 potentiostat/galvanostat/zero-resistance ammeter was employed to conduct the electrochemical experiment within a three-electrode electrochemical cell.
  • the electrochemistry of ionic liquids with and without FeCl 3 were investigated using a glassy carbon (geometric area of about 0.07 cm 2 ) working electrode, Pt wire counter electrode, and a Pt electrode reference electrode. Iron was deposited onto mild steel substrates, which were prepared by washing sequentially with 2-propanol, 6 M HCl(aq) and deionized water. In these measurements, an iron plate was used as the counter and reference electrodes.
  • an electrochemical window (potential range of relative stability) of about 2.9 V was evinced by the cyclic voltammograms for 1:2 (mol/mol) triethylamine chloride (TEACl)/urea (solid line) and 1:2 (mol/mol) trimethylamine chloride (TMACl)/urea (dashed line) ionic liquids on a glassy carbon electrode in the absence of iron(III) chloride (FeCl 3 ). (The scan rate was 50 mv/s at 100° C.) The oxidation and reduction decompositions of ionic liquids were observed at 1.8 V and ⁇ 1.1 V relative to a Pt reference electrode. This stability window is more than double that of previously known, water-based iron deposition methods.
  • the cyclic voltammogram of Fe(III) for 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea (dashed line) and 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea (solid line) with 0.3 M FeCl 3 showed two redox couples: c1/a1 and c2/a2, associated with the reductions of Fe(III) to Fe(II) and Fe(II) to Fe 0 , as well as the oxidations of Fe (II) to Fe(III) and Fe 0 to Fe(II), respectively.
  • the scan rate was 50 mv/s at 100° C.
  • Both cyclic voltammograms also exhibited nucleation loop and overpotential of the iron electrodeposition at ⁇ 1.5 V.
  • the reduction peak of Fe(II) to Fe 0 in 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea represented a higher electrodeposition rate (larger current) than did 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea.
  • “Overpotential” refers to the energy deviation from an electrode's equilibrium potential necessary to initiate a particular reaction.
  • the overpotential is then the equilibrium potential plus the change (V+ ⁇ V), necessary to shift the surface reactions away from equilibrium and toward iron deposition.
  • the nucleation loop occurs because of the energetic difference between a bare surface (initial surface) and a surface on which some Fe atoms have already nucleated.
  • the current at X volts past the overpotential is low. Once some iron is deposited, the energy barrier to deposit even more decreases. As such, when X volts is reached in a scan over the other direction, the current is higher in magnitude because of that lower energy barrier.
  • the cyclic voltammogram shows that without urea, only one redox couple (c1/a1) associated with the charge transfer from Fe (III) to Fe(II) is observed, and vice versa. (The scan rate was 50 my/s, 20° C.) No reduction peaks were observed for iron deposition of Fe(II) to Fe 0 . Hence, urea is a necessary component for iron electrodeposition.
  • FIG. 5A shows the current efficiency versus varying the concentrations of FeCl 3 in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid at a constant current of 20 mA.
  • the current efficiency increases little between the concentrations 0.6 M and 1.0 M FeCl 3 .
  • FIG. 5B shows the effect of varying potentials
  • FIG. 5C shows the effect of varying current densities with 0.3 M FeCl 3 in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid.
  • the reference electrode was an iron plate, instead of the platinum that is typically used in this type of experiment.
  • ⁇ 2.2 V the highest current efficiency point on FIG. 5B
  • the current efficiency drops due to breakdown of the electrolyte. From these data, a potential of ⁇ 2.2V appears to yield the best operational current efficiency.
  • FIG. 5C showed the potential versus current density, showing that potential control may not achieve the highest current efficiency. If current density is locked instead, the actual potential may wander during the deposition but may potentially benefit the efficiency.
  • FIGS. 7A-F shows photos ( FIGS. 7A , C, and E) and scanning electromicrographs ( FIGS. 7B , D, and F) of Fe 0 deposits at differing current densities in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid with 0.3 M FeCl 3 , including current densities of 10 mA/cm 3 ( FIGS. 7A &B), 20 mA/cm 3 ( FIGS. 7C &D), and 40 mA/cm 3 ( FIGS. 7E &F).
  • FIGS. 8A-H show photos ( FIGS. 8A , C, E, and G) and scanning electron micrographs ( FIGS. 8B , D, F, and H) of Fe 0 deposits at differing concentrations of FeCl 3 in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid at a current density of 20 mA/cm 3 at 100° C.
  • the concentrations of FeCl 3 were 0.2 M ( FIGS. 8A &B), 0.3 M ( FIGS. 8C &D), 0.4 M ( FIGS. 8E &F), and 0.53 M ( FIGS. 8G &H).
  • concentration of FeCl 3 increased, the grain size appeared to increase slightly, possibly due to the increasing viscosity. Concentrations of greater than or equal to 0.5 M FeCl 3 showed the greatest change in surface morphology. At lower concentrations, the dependency was weak.
  • FIG. 9 this series of figures shows the visual trend of how varying potential affected the morphology of the iron deposit formed from TEACl/urea ionic liquid.
  • FIGS. 9A-J show photos ( FIGS. 9A , C, E, G, and I) scanning electron micrographs ( FIGS. 9B , D, F, H, and J) of potentials tested in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid with a concentration of 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • FIGS. 11A-B provide image mapping ( FIG. 11A ) and energy-dispersive spectrometric (EDS) data ( FIG. 11B ) of an iron deposit formed under a potential of ⁇ 1.2 V from 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid.
  • the highlighting shows the high iron (97%), the low carbon (3%), and low oxygen ( ⁇ 1%) content in the deposited iron metal deposit.
  • FIGS. 12A &B show grayscale ( FIG. 12A ) and color-coded ( FIG. 12B ) cross-sections of iron deposits prepared at ⁇ 2.0 V (reference electrode is iron) from in 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid with 0.3 M FeCl 3 . These measurements were repeated at ⁇ 1.8 V in TMACl/urea ionic liquid ( FIGS. 13A &B). These cross-sections show that the iron deposit was dense and adhered well to the mild steel substrate. In FIGS. 12B and 13B , the carbon-based epoxy remaining cross-sectioning process appeared in teal in the top parts of the figures.
  • FIG. 12 The cross-sections of FIG. 12 were electropolished. Referring to FIG. 14 , the electropolished cross-section showed significant corrosion and pitting of the mild steel substrate but very little corrosion on the iron deposit itself.
  • the iron deposit was very pure and dense, with higher corrosion resistance than the mild steel substrate.
  • the corroded areas of the substrate indicated that the iron deposit penetrated the rough surface features of steel substrate, leading to strong adhesion of the iron deposit to the substrate.
  • iron was provided to the electrolyte by stripping/corroding an iron plate into 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea ionic liquid, instead of including FeCl 3 in the electrolyte.
  • the iron ions formed Fe-urea complexes in the electrolyte.
  • the cyclic voltammetric data indicated that the Fe-urea complex formed from stripped iron and the dissolved FeCl 3 both exhibited a reduction nucleation loop.
  • the overpotential of the iron electrodeposition of the Fe-urea complex was more positive at ⁇ 1.2 V than ⁇ 1.4 V for FeCl 3 , possibly because additional Cl ⁇ from FeCl 3 changed the interfacial energy barriers, or because the stripped Fe was more stably reduced; that is, a higher concentration of the active Fe-urea complex was more easily reduced than was FeCl 3 .
  • FIGS. 16A &B are scanning electron micrographs of iron deposits in ( FIG. 16A ) 1:2 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid at ⁇ 1.8 V without FeCl 3 , and ( FIG. 16B ) 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea ionic liquid at ⁇ 1.4 V without FeCl 3 .
  • the counter and reference electrodes were an iron plate. Stripping this iron plate provided the iron source in the electrolyte.
  • the electromicrographs ( FIGS. 16A &B) showed that iron deposits from stripping iron plate had average grain sizes average both ionic liquids are between about 1 ⁇ m and about 3 ⁇ m, as previously demonstrated at these reduction potentials.
  • FIG. 16C shows the EDS data for FIG. 16A collected with 338,848 counts in 67 seconds, revealing 86.5% Fe, 6.9% 0, 5.8% C, and 0.5% Cl.
  • FIG. 15D shows the EDS data for FIG. 16B collected with 416,284 counts in 67 seconds, revealing 93.5% F, 5.9% 0, and 0.5% C.
  • the concentration of chloride was within the scanning electron microscope's detectable error.
  • the concentration of carbon was very low and potential-dependent for both ionic liquids.
  • the concentration of oxygen shown here did not represent the ultra-low oxygen concentrations content resulting from electrodeposition.
  • FIG. 17 shows a cyclic voltammogram TEACl/urea ionic liquid at molar ratios of (a) 1:1, (b) 1:2, (c) 1:3.5, (d) 1:7 and (e) 1:10, each with a concentration of 0.3 moles of FeCl 3 per liter of ionic liquid.
  • a 1:1 molar ratio of TEACl/urea had some precipitate in the mixture. The mixture was not completely melted at 100° C., but the reduction peak of Fe(II) to Fe 0 was nonetheless seen in the cyclic voltammetric data.
  • the urea concentration was increased to a molar ratio of 1:2-1:10, the solution had no precipitates and the reduction potential of Fe(II) to Fe 0 shifted to more positive.
  • FIGS. 18A-D show photographs ( FIGS. 18A &B) and scanning electron micrographs ( FIGS. 18C &D) of iron deposits formed from TEACl/urea ionic liquids with 0.3 M FeCl 3 —1:5 molar ratio at ⁇ 1.0 V ( FIGS. 18A &C), and 1:10 molar ratio at ⁇ 1.4 V ( FIGS. 18B &D).
  • a molar ratio of 1:5 produced a cyclic voltammogram with exceptionally low reduction overpotential ( FIG. 17 , trace (d)), which behavior likely depends on the FeCl 3 concentration. Any texture visible in the photographs is from the substrate itself, and not the deposit.
  • the grain size increased as the potential increased, with an average between about 500 nm and about 2 ⁇ m.
  • the surfaces of deposited layers from 1:10 molar ratio ionic liquid were much smoother and conformed to the substrate more than those prepared from the 1:2 ionic liquid.
  • the current efficiency with the tested potentials was almost constant, between about 60% and about 70%. Observed variances were likely due to systematic errors. Any texture visible in the photographs is from the substrate itself, and not the deposit.
  • the iron deposits had thicknesses between about 40 ⁇ m and about 70 ⁇ m, were very dense and lacked the dendritic growth seen in the conventional electrodeposition. These iron deposits adhered well to mild steel. The morphology of iron deposition was denser in TMACl/urea than in TEACl/urea.
  • an iron deposit was formed at ⁇ 1.4 V from 1:30 (mol/mol) TEACl/urea ionic liquid with a concentration of 0.3 M FeCl 3 .
  • the ionic liquid had a melting point of about 80° C., but significantly more agitation was needed to homogenize the ionic liquid.
  • a solution of urea with FeCl 3 without TEACl yielded a mixture with an impractically high melting point.
  • the scanning electron micrograph of the iron deposit from 1:30 ionic liquid ( FIG. 23A ) showed very smooth and dense iron deposit with a small grain size.
  • the energy-dispersive spectrometric (EDS) data FIG.
  • FIG. 24 shows a photo ( FIG. 24A ), a scanning electoromicrograph ( FIG. 24B ), and energy-dispersive spectrometric data ( FIG. 24C ) of an iron deposit in formed in 1:20 (mol/nol) TEACl/urea with 1.5 M FeCl 3 at 100° C. with a high current density of 100 mA/cm 2 .
  • the EDS was collected over 362,433 counts in 76 seconds, showing that the metal deposit contained 91% Fe, 8% 0, and 1% Cl.
  • FIG. 25 shows a photo ( FIG. 25A ), a scanning electoromicrograph ( FIG. 25B ), and energy-dispersive spectrometric data ( FIG.
  • the active species for deposition of iron was the urea-FeCl x complex.
  • TEA-HCl or TMA-HCl disrupted the crystallization of this complex to allow dissolution at lower temperatures.
  • TEA-HCl added some conductivity to the solution by supplying Cl ⁇ ions, but the biggest impact was due to lowering the solution viscosity to increase ion mobility. Because the conductivity remained high and similar among all ratios tested, most of the charge-carrying species originated from FeCl 3 .
  • This stress may be relieved while maintaining excellent adhesion (that is, low delamination probability) by using an ionic liquid with a 1:5 molar ratio, or by using a conventional ON/OFF pulsing program during deposition, where Time-ON>>Time OFF.
  • the pressed anodes were made from metal powders of varying size distribution were mixed together in a vial at selected ratios and then added to a 13-mm diameter pellet die.
  • the interior of the die was evacuated using a vacuum line.
  • the entire die is placed into a hand-operated press.
  • the die was gradually pressed to a final load of 10 tons and held for about 30 minutes to allow compaction of the powder into a solid shape.
  • Pellets could then be removed from the die with final dimensions of about 13-mm diameter and depth between about 3 mm and about 6 mm.
  • pellets were seated in a custom-built polyterfluroroethylene (PTFE) electrode holder.
  • the holder contained a seated cover so that, when in operation, exposed 11 mm of the diameter of the pellet to the electrolyte.
  • a wire ran from electrical contact with the pellet through to the top of the holder.
  • the holder was configured to be placed into the electrolyte and operated as an electrode.
  • FIGS. 26A-J show grayscale ( FIGS. 26A , C, E, G, and I) and color-coded ( FIGS. 26B , D, F, H, and J) scanning electron micrographs of metal deposits formed from 1:2 (mol/mol) TMACl/urea, where the metal source was provided in the electrolyte by stripping pressed metal anodes: ( FIGS. 26A &B) Mo pressed anode, ( FIGS. 26C &D) Sn pressed anode, ( FIGS. 26E &F), Cu—Fe pressed anode, ( FIGS. 26G &H) Cu pressed anode, and ( FIGS. 26I &J) Cu—Sn pressed anode.
  • FIG. 27 shows the cyclic voltammogram of 1:2.5 (mol/mol) TEACl/biuret ionic liquid. Without FeCl 3 , the melting point is 150° C. With FeCl 3 , the melting point is 100° C.
  • FIG. 28 shows the cyclic voltammogram of 1:2.6 (mol/mol) triethanolamine chloride/urea (1:2.6) With FeCl 3 , the melting point is 80° C. Triethanolamine chloride forms a complex with iron due to its functional groups. Triethanolamine chloride cannot be used with complexing agents that bind iron more strongly than urea because the solution remains solid.
  • trialkylamine chloride and the carboxamide being in molar ratio between 1:1 and 1:30 to form an ionic liquid, wherein the trialkylamine chloride is trimethylamine chloride, triethylamine chloride, triethanolamine, or combinations thereof; and

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