US20110044902A1 - Modulation of the Immune Response - Google Patents

Modulation of the Immune Response Download PDF

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US20110044902A1
US20110044902A1 US12/743,680 US74368008A US2011044902A1 US 20110044902 A1 US20110044902 A1 US 20110044902A1 US 74368008 A US74368008 A US 74368008A US 2011044902 A1 US2011044902 A1 US 2011044902A1
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cells
foxp3
ahr
tcdd
treg
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Howard Weiner
Francisco J. Quintana
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Brigham and Womens Hospital Inc
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Publication of US20110044902A1 publication Critical patent/US20110044902A1/en
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Definitions

  • This invention relates to methods and compositions for increasing the number and/or activity of regulatory T cells (Tregs) in vivo and in vitro.
  • Tregs regulatory T cells
  • Treg Regulatory T cells
  • Treg cells are a specialized subset of T cells involved in the control of pathogenic autoimmunity (Sakaguchi et al., Arm. Rev. Immunol., 22:531-562, 2004.
  • the importance of Treg for immunoregulation is highlighted by the immune disorders that result from Treg depletion with antibodies (Sakaguchi et al., J. Immunol. 155, 1151-64 (1995)); as a result of the thymectomy of 3 day old newborns (Sakaguchi et al., J Exp Med.
  • Treg deficiencies have been described in several autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis (Viglietta et al., J. Exp. Med. 199, 971-9 (2004)), rheumatoid arthritis (Ehrenstein et al., J Exp Med. 200, 277-85 (2004)), diabetes (Brusko et al., Diabetes. 54, 1407-14 (2005); Lindley et al., Diabetes. 54, 92-9 (2005)), and lupus (Mudd et al., Scand. J. Immunol. 64(3):211-218 (2006)).
  • the present invention is based, at least in part, on the discovery that transcription factors capable of modulating (e.g., increasing or decreasing) the expression and/or activity of the Foxp3 gene provide useful targets for therapeutic immunomodulation. Accordingly, the present invention provides, inter alia, compositions and methods for the prevention or treatment of diseases caused by an abnormal (e.g., autoimmune) or absent (e.g., including insufficient) immune response.
  • an abnormal e.g., autoimmune
  • absent e.g., including insufficient
  • the present invention features compositions including a ligand that binds specifically to an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) transcription factor, linked to a biocompatible nanoparticle.
  • AHR aryl hydrocarbon receptor
  • the ligand can be, e.g., a small molecule that competes for binding to the AHR competitively with 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and activates AHR-dependent signaling.
  • TCDD 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
  • the ligand is 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), tryptamine (TA), 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE), or 6-formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole (FICZ).
  • TCDD 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
  • TA tryptamine
  • ITE 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester
  • FICZ 6-formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole
  • the composition also includes an inhibitor of degradation of the ligand, e.g., a monoamine oxidase inhibitor such as tranylcypromine.
  • the inhibitor can be present on (i.e., linked to) the same nanoparticles, linked to different nanoparticles (of the same or different types) or free in solution.
  • the methods and compositions described herein include the use of a ligand that binds specifically to an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) transcription factor, and an inhibitor of degradation thereof, e.g., tryptamine and tranylcypromine, wherein neither is linked to a nanoparticle.
  • AHR aryl hydrocarbon receptor
  • the composition also includes an antibody that selectively binds to an antigen present on a T cell, a B cell, a dendritic cell, or a macrophage.
  • the antibody can be present on (i.e., linked to) the same nanoparticles, linked to different nanoparticles (of the same or different types) or free in solution.
  • the invention features methods for increasing the number or activity of CD4/CD25/Foxp3-expressing T regulatory (Treg) cells in a population of T cells.
  • the methods include contacting the population of cells with a sufficient amount of a composition comprising one or more AHR ligands selected from the group consisting of 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), tryptamine (TA), and 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE), wherein the ligand is linked to a biocompatible nanoparticle, and optionally evaluating the presence and/or number of CD4/CD25/Foxp3-expressing cells in the population.
  • the method results in an increase in the number and/or activity of regulatory T cells (Treg).
  • the initial population of T cells includes one or both of na ⁇ ve T cells or CD4 + CD62 ligand + T cells.
  • the population of T cells can be isolated, i.e., in vitro, or in a living mammalian subject, e.g., a subject who has an autoimmune disorder, e.g., multiple sclerosis.
  • the methods can include administering the one or more ligands orally, mucosally, or intravenously.
  • Treg cells generated or activated using a method described herein are administered to a subject suffering from an autoimmune disorder, in an amount sufficient to improve or ameliorate a symptom of the disorder.
  • the methods include providing a cell expressing a reporter construct comprising a binding sequence for the Aryl Hyrocarbon Receptor (AHR) in a mammalian Foxp3 promoter sequence, wherein said binding sequence is operably linked to a reporter gene, for example a reporter gene selected from the group consisting of luciferase, green fluorescent protein, and variants thereof; contacting the cell with a test compound; and evaluating an effect of the test compound on expression of the reporter gene.
  • a test compound that increases or decreases expression of the reporter gene is a candidate compound that modulates generation of Treg.
  • the methods can optionally include measuring expression of the reporter construct in the presence of a known AHR ligand selected from the group consisting of TCDD, tryptamine, and (ITE), or a compound that binds to the AHR competitively therewith; determining whether the candidate compound competes for binding to the AHR with the known compound; and selecting the candidate compound if it binds the AHR competitively with the known compound.
  • a known AHR ligand selected from the group consisting of TCDD, tryptamine, and (ITE)
  • the present invention provides methods of identifying candidate compounds that modulate the generation of regulatory T cells (Treg). These methods include providing a cell expressing a reporter construct containing a binding sequence for a transcription factor operably linked to a reporter gene. Suitable binding sequences for inclusion in the reporter construct include NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC, and Delta EF1. The cell is then contacted with a test compound, and the effect of the test compound on expression of the reporter gene is evaluated. A test compound that increases or decreases expression of the reporter gene is a candidate compound that modulates generation of Treg.
  • Treg regulatory T cells
  • the present invention provides methods of identifying candidate compounds that modulate generation of regulatory T cells (Treg). These methods include providing a living zebrafish, e.g., a zebrafish embryo, e.g., 30 minutes after the egg is laid; contacting the zebrafish with a test compound, e.g., by putting the test compound in water in which the zebrafish is living or microinjecting the compound into an embryo; and evaluating an effect of the test compound on Foxp3 expression in the zebrafish, wherein a test compound that increases or decreases expression of Fox-3 in the zebrafish is a candidate compound that modulates generation of Treg.
  • a living zebrafish e.g., a zebrafish embryo, e.g., 30 minutes after the egg is laid
  • a test compound e.g., by putting the test compound in water in which the zebrafish is living or microinjecting the compound into an embryo
  • compositions comprising transcription factor ligands capable of promoting increased expression, activity, or both of a Foxp3 gene.
  • the present invention provides methods for increasing the numbers of Treg in a population of T cells. These methods include contacting the cell with one or more transcription factor ligands, e.g., selected from the group consisting of 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), tryptamine (TA), and 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE), wherein the method results in an increase in the number and/or activity of regulatory T cells (Treg).
  • the methods include determining levels of Foxp3 expression in the cells.
  • the present invention provides methods for increasing the numbers of Treg in a patient. These methods include administering one or more transcription factor ligands to a patient selected for treatment, e.g., 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE), wherein the method results in an increase in the number and/or activity of regulatory T cells (Treg).
  • TCDD 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
  • TA tryptamine
  • ITE 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester
  • treatment means any manner in which one or more of the symptoms of a disease or disorder are ameliorated or otherwise beneficially altered.
  • amelioration of the symptoms of a particular disorder refers to any lessening, whether permanent or temporary, lasting or transient of the symptoms, that can be attributed to or associated with treatment by the compositions and methods of the present invention.
  • an effective amount and “effective to treat,” as used herein, refer to an amount or a concentration of one or more of the compositions described herein utilized for a period of time (including acute or chronic administration and periodic or continuous administration) that is effective within the context of its administration for causing an intended effect or physiological outcome.
  • patient is used throughout the specification to describe an animal, human or non-human, rodent or non-rodent, to whom treatment according to the methods of the present invention is provided.
  • Veterinary and non-veterinary applications are contemplated.
  • the term includes, but is not limited to, mammals, e.g., humans, other primates, pigs, rodents such as mice and rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, cows, horses, cats, dogs, sheep and goats.
  • Typical patients include humans, farm animals, and domestic pets such as cats and dogs.
  • gene refers to an isolated or purified gene.
  • isolated or purified when applied to a nucleic acid molecule or gene, includes nucleic acid molecules that are separated from other materials, including other nucleic acids, which are present in the natural source of the nucleic acid molecule.
  • An “isolated” nucleic acid molecule, such as an mRNA or cDNA molecule, can be substantially free of other cellular material, or culture medium when produced by recombinant techniques, or substantially free of chemical precursors or other chemicals when chemically synthesized.
  • an “isolated” or “purified” polypeptide, peptide, or protein is substantially free of cellular material or other contaminating proteins from the cell or tissue source from which the protein is derived, or substantially free from chemical precursors or other chemicals when chemically synthesized. “Substantially free” means that the preparation of a selected protein has less than about 30%, (e.g., less than 20%, 10%, or 5%) by dry weight, of non-selected protein or of chemical precursors. Such a non-selected protein is also referred to herein as “contaminating protein”.
  • the isolated therapeutic proteins, peptides, or polypeptides are recombinantly produced, it can be substantially free of culture medium, i.e., culture medium represents less than about 20%, (e.g., less than about 10% or 5%) of the volume of the protein preparation.
  • culture medium represents less than about 20%, (e.g., less than about 10% or 5%) of the volume of the protein preparation.
  • the invention includes isolated or purified preparations of at least 0.01, 0.1, 1.0, and 10 milligrams in dry weight.
  • FIG. 1A is a bar graph of proliferative response to MT or ConA of splenocytes from six-month old zebrafish, 14 days after immunization with MT or PBS in IFA. Results are presented as the mean cpm+s.d. of triplicates.
  • FIG. 1B-1D are bar graphs of expression of CD3 ( 1 B), IL-17 ( 1 C) and IFNg ( 1 D) in six month old zebrafish 14 or 28 days after immunization with zebrafish brain homogenate (zCNS) or PBS in CFA, as measured by real time PCR (mean+s.d. of triplicates).
  • FIG. 1E is a sequence comparison of putative FoxP3 genes of zebrafish, human and mouse.
  • the stars indicate identity, dashes were introduced for optimal alignment.
  • the zinc finger, leucine zipper and forkhead domains are highlighted with a blue, green or red box, respectively.
  • FIG. 1F is a bar graph of zFoxp3 expression in 293T cells cotransfected with constructs coding for His-labeled zFoxp3 and Renilla -labeled Foxp3. The results are normalized for the total amount of luciferase before precipitation (mean+s.d. of triplicates).
  • FIG. 1G is a radial gene tree showing the Foxp1, Foxp2, Foxp3 and Foxp4 proteins in mammals and fish, where the Ciona intestinalis Foxp sequence is the outgroup.
  • the branch lengths are proportional to the distance between the sequences.
  • Mm Mus musculus
  • Hs Homo sapiens
  • Dr Danio rerio
  • Ga Gasterosteus aculeatus (stickleback)
  • Ci Ciona intestinalis.
  • FIG. 2A is a pair of bar graphs of 293T cells co-transfected with reporter constructs coding for luciferase under the control of a NF-kB or NFAT responsive promoters, and p65 NF-kB (top graph) or NFAT (bottom graph) in the presence of vectors coding for zFoxp3, Foxp3 or control (empty vector). Luciferase activity was normalized to the renilla activity of a co-transfected control (mean+s.d. of triplicates)
  • FIG. 2B is a pair of Western blots of 293T cells co-transfected with His-tagged zFoxp3, Foxp3 and NF-kB (top graph) or HA-flagged NFAT (bottom graph) and immunoprecipitated with antibodies to His antibodies.
  • the precipitates were resolved by PAGE-SDS and detected by western blot with antibodies to NF-kB or HA antibodies.
  • FIG. 2C is a set of four graphs of MACS-purified CD4 + CD25 ⁇ T-cells that were transduced with a bicistronic retrovirus coding for GFP and zFoxp3 or an empty control retrovirus, and the GFP + population was analyzed for the surface expression of (from left to right) CD25, GITR, CD152 and CD4.
  • FIGS. 2 D(i)-(iii) and 2 E(i)-(iii) are bar graphs of MACS-purified CD4 + CD25 ⁇ T-cells transduced with a bicistronic retrovirus coding for GFP and zFoxp3, Foxp3 or an empty control retrovirus.
  • the GFP + population was analyzed for its proliferation, IL-2 and IFNg secretion upon activation with plate bound antibodies to CD3 (mean cpm or pg/ml+s.d.
  • FIG. 3A is a bar graph of expression of zFoxP3 determined by real time PCR in zebrafish monocytes, lymphocytes and erythrocytes sorted by FACS (mean+s.d. of triplicates).
  • FIG. 3B is a list of the conserved AHR binding site (CABS) on zebrafish, human and mouse Foxp3 sequence indicated and highlighted in yellow.
  • CABS conserved AHR binding site
  • FIG. 3C is a pair of bar graphs of FoxP3 (left) and AHR (right) expression in FACS sorted CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + and CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ T cells as measured by real time PCR (mean+s.d. of triplicates normalized to GAPDH expression).
  • FIG. 3D is a bar graph of zFoxp3 expression 72 hours after TCDD was added to the water of three-day post-fertilization zebrafish embryos, as determined by real time PCR (mean+s.d. of triplicates normalized to GAPDH expression).
  • FIG. 3E is a bar graph of frequency of CD4 + FoxP3 + T cells in the CD4 + T-cell population as determined in the draining lymph nodes by FACS from na ⁇ ve C57BL/6J mice 11 days after after administration of 1 mg/mouse TCDD or corn oil as control, and 10 days after the mice were immunized (or not) with 100 mg/mouse of MOG 35-55 /CFA (mean+s.d. of three mice).
  • FIG. 3G is a set of three FACS plots of CD4 + Foxp3:GFP T cells in the CD4 + T-cell population from Foxp3 gfp knock in mice stimulated with plate bound antibodies to CD3 and CD28 for 5 days in the presence of normal media (control, left panel) TCDD (middle panel) or TGFb1 (right panel).
  • FIG. 3H is a bar graph of Foxp3:GFP CD4+ T-cells positive for the donor-specific marker CD90.2, isolated and analyzed by FACS from host mice that received FACS-purified CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ 2D2 T cells from CD90.2 Foxp3 gfp knock in donor mice treated with 1 mg/mouse of TCDD or corn oil as control and then immunized with 100 mg/mouse MOG 35-55 /CFA. The results are presented as the mean+s.d., five mice were included per group. *P ⁇ 0.02, unpaired t-test.
  • FIG. 3I Sequences corresponding to non-evolutionary conserved AHR-binding sites (NCABS)-1, -2 and -3.
  • FIG. 3J is a schematic representation of the foxp3 gene. Arrows indicate location of PCR primers used in ChIP assays, exons are depicted in red, with their number indicated below them.
  • FIG. 3K is a bar graph of activation of the transcription of Renilla luciferase-tagged foxp3 (BACFoxp3:Ren) by expression in EL-4 cells of mouse AHR or a constitutively activated TGF receptor II. Renilla activity was normalized to the luciferase activity of a co-transfected control (mean+s.d. of triplicates).
  • FIG. 3L is a bar graph of ChIP analysis of the interaction of AHR with NCABS and CABS in foxp3 and cyp1a1 in CD4+ T cells treated with TCDD.
  • FIG. 3M is a bar graph of ChIP analysis of the interaction of AHR to the CABS and NCABS in foxp3 and cyp1a1 in thymic CD4 + T cells from TCDD ⁇ or control-treated mice.
  • FIGS. 3 N(i)-(iii) are bar graphs of AHR (N(i)), CYP1A1 (N(ii)) and Foxp3 (N(iii)) expression measured by real time PCR on CD4+Foxp3:GFP ⁇ T cells (GFP ⁇ ), CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg (GFP + ) and CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg treated with resveratrol for 5 h (GFP + +R) (mean+s.d. of triplicates normalized to GAPDH expression).
  • FIG. 3O is a bar graph of the effect of AHR-inactivation with resveratrol on the suppressive activity of CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg that were FACS-sorted from naive Foxp3gfp mice, assayed using CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ cells activated with antibodies to CD3 as effector T cells in the presence of resveratrol. Cell proliferation is indicated as cpm+s.d. in triplicate wells.
  • FIG. 3P is a bar graph of MOG 35-55 -specific suppressive activity of Treg purified from TCDD or control-treated mice, assayed using CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ 2D2 T cells. Cell proliferation is indicated as cpm+s.d. in triplicate wells.
  • FIG. 3Q is a bar graph of suppressive activity of natural Treg, or Treg induced with TGF ⁇ 1 (TGFb1) or TCDD (TCDD). Cell proliferation is indicated as cpm+s.d. in triplicate wells.
  • FIG. 3R is a bar graph showing the effect of AHR activation with TCDD on the proliferation of CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg and CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ T cells that were FACS-sorted from naive Foxp3gfp mice. Cell proliferation is indicated as cpm+s.d. in triplicate wells.
  • FIG. 3S is a bar graph of the effect of AHR-activation with TCDD on the suppressive activity of CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg that were FACS-sorted from naive Foxp3gfp mice, assayed using CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ cells activated with antibodies to CD3 as effector T cells in the presence of resveratrol. Cell proliferation is indicated as cpm+s.d. in triplicate wells.
  • FIGS. 4C-D are bar graphs of the proliferative response to MOG 35-55 ( 4 C) or antibodies to CD3 ( 4 D) of lymph node cells taken from TCDD or control treated animals 10 days after immunization with MOG 35-55 /CFA. Cell proliferation is indicated as cpm+s.d. in triplicate wells.
  • FIGS. 4 E(i)-(iii) are bar graphs of cytokine secretion (expressed as pg/ml) triggered by MOG 35-55 in lymph node cells taken from TCDD or control treated animals 10 days after immunization with MOG 35-55 /CFA.
  • FIGS. 4 F(i)-(ii) are bar graphs showing the decreased frequency of CD4 + IL17 + and CD4 + IFNg + T cells associated to the inhibition of EAE by AHR activation with TCDD.
  • Draining lymph node cells were isolated from TCDD or control treated mice 10 days after immunization with MOG 35-55 /CFA, activated with MOG 35-55 , and stained for intracellular Foxp3, IL-17 or IFNg.
  • Data represent the mean percentage of cytokine + cells within the effector CD4 + Foxp3 ⁇ T cell population+s.d., five mice were included per group. *P ⁇ 0.04, unpaired t-test.
  • FIGS. 4G-I are bar graphs showing that AHR activation by TCDD inhibits CNS inflammation, demyelination and axonal loss. Briefly, quantification of the cellular infiltrate, demyelination and axonal loss on the spinal cord of TCDD-treated and control mice. Spinal cords were taken on day 19 after EAE induction and stained with hematoxylin & eosin, luxol fast blue or silver stain to quantify the cellular infiltrate (g), demyelination (h) and axonal loss (i), respectively. The effect of TCDD-treatment was analyzed using Student's t-test.
  • FIG. 5A is a bar graph illustrating the effects on EAE of TCDD, or oil as control, administered ip to C57BL/6 mice.
  • EAE was induced 24 hours later by immunization with MOG 35-55 /CFA.
  • the frequency of CD4 + FoxP3 + T cells in the spleen CD4 + T-cell population was determined 21 days after EAE induction by FACS (mean+s.d. of five mice). *P ⁇ 0.02, unpaired t-test.
  • FIG. 5B is a bar graph illustrating the proliferative response to MOG 35-55 of CD4 + CD25 ⁇ lymph node cells taken from TCDD or control treated animals 10 days after immunization with MOG 35-55 /CFA. Cell proliferation is indicated as cpm+s.d. in triplicate wells.
  • FIG. 5D is a bar graph showing the proliferative response of lymph node cells taken from TCDD-treated animals 10 days after immunization with MOG 35-55 /CFA, activated in vitro with MOG 35-55 in the presence of blocking antibodies to IL-4, IL-10, TGFb or isotype control. Cell proliferation is indicated as cpm+s.d. in triplicate wells.
  • FIG. 5F is a bar graph of proliferation to MOG 35-55 of CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ lymph node cells from TCDD ⁇ or control-treated Foxp3gfp mice, (cpm+s.d. in triplicate wells).
  • FIG. 5G is a bar graph of the recall cytokine response to MOG 35-55 of CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ lymph node cells taken from TCDD or control treated Foxp3gfp mice 10 days after immunization with MOG 35-55 /CFA. Cytokine secretion is expressed as pg/m in triplicate wells.
  • FIG. 5I is a pair of FACS plots from draining lymph node cells recovered on day 18, stimulated with PMA/ionomycin and stained for CD4 and intracellular IL-17 and IFN ⁇ .
  • the numbers in the quadrants show percentages of cytokine positive cells in the CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ T cell gate.
  • FIGS. 6A-C are bar graphs showing that endogenous AHR ligands control EAE development.
  • ITE 100 mg/mouse
  • TA 100 mg/mouse
  • PBS PBS
  • FIGS. 7A-B show the results of phylogenetic footprinting for the identification of putative TFBS.
  • the genomic sequences of human, mouse, rat, dog and zebrafish Foxp3 were analyzed by phylogenetic footprinting.
  • 7 A presents a phylogenetic tree; Tree distances are in # of substitutions per 1 kb.
  • 7 B is a graph illustrating the dynamic visualization of the location of putative TFBS conserved between human (SEQ ID NO: 1) and zebrafish (SEQ ID NO: 2).
  • FIGS. 8A-E and 9 A-E are bar graphs showing expression levels of transcription factors in cells transfected with Foxp3.
  • FIGS. 8A-E show an increase in FOXP3 ( 8 A) and NKX2.2 ( 8 B), and a decrease in EGR1 ( 8 C), EGR2 ( 8 D), and EGR3 ( 8 E) in transfected cells.
  • FIGS. 9A-D show an increase in NKX2.2, and a decrease in EGR1, EGR2, and EGR3 expression in Foxp3 transfected cells at days 3 and 6.
  • FIG. 10 is a list of the binding sites of NKX22, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC and Delta EF1 in the mouse Foxp3 gene, relative to the numbering of the gene as shown in GenBank Acc. No. NT — 039700.6.
  • FIGS. 11 A-G are a list of all the AHR binding sites on the mouse Foxp3 gene, GenBank Acc. No. NT — 039700.6.
  • FIGS. 12A-F is the genomic sequence of the zebrafish Foxp3, NW — 644989.1.
  • FIG. 13 is a bar graph showing the effect of the monoamine oxidase inhibitor Tranylcypromine on the suppression of EAE by TA.
  • C57BL/6 mice (4-7/group) were treated with TA or TA and Tranylcypromine (INH), EAE was induced and the mice were monitored for the development of EAE.
  • FIG. 14 is a bar graph of the expression of a renilla -tagged mouse foxp3 locus on zebrafish embryos in the presence of increasing amounts of TCDD.
  • FIGS. 15A-B are bar graphs of IP- and oral-ITE suppression of EAE.
  • ITE 200 ⁇ g/mouse
  • FIGS. 16 and 17 are FACS plots ( 16 ) and bar graphs ( 17 ) showing the induction of FoxP3 + T reg by IP administration of ITE.
  • FIGS. 18 and 19 are FACS plots ( 18 ) and bar graphs ( 19 ) showing the induction of FoxP3 + T reg by oral administration of ITE.
  • FIGS. 20A and B are FACS plots ( 20 A) and bar graphs ( 20 B) showing the: induction of FoxP:GFP3 + T reg by IP administration of ITE to FoxP3 gfp mice.
  • FIGS. 21A and B are FACS plots ( 21 A) and bar graphs ( 21 B) showing the: induction of FoxP:GFP3 + T reg by IP administration of ITE to FoxP3 gfp mice.
  • FIG. 22C is a set of six bar graphs of cytokine expression in the same cells as in 22 A and B.
  • FIGS. 23A and B are a line graph ( 23 A) and a set of six bar graphs ( 23 B) showing that IP-ITE interferes with the generation of T H 1 and T H 17 cells.
  • FIGS. 24A and B are FACS plots ( 24 A) and bar graphs ( 24 B) showing that oral-ITE decreases the recall response to MOG.
  • FIGS. 25A and B are FACS plots IP-ITE increases the Treg:Teff ratio of MOG 35-55 specific T cells.
  • FIG. 26 is a set of four line graphs showing that IP-ITE suppresses the CD4+ T cell response to MOG 35-55 .
  • FIGS. 27A and B are bar graphs showing that IP-ITE potentiates MOG 35-55 -specific T reg activity.
  • FIG. 27C is a bar graph showing that this effect could be inhibited with antibodies blocking antibodies to TGFb1.
  • FIG. 28 is a pair of line graphs showing that CD4 + T cells can transfer the protection against EAE induced by IP and oral-ITE.
  • FIG. 31 is a schematic diagram of gold nanoparticles for AHR-ligand delivery.
  • FIG. 32 is a pair of graphs showing the functionality of gold nanoparticles containing AHR-ligands. Nanoparticles were evaluated for their ability to activate the luciferase activity of an AHR reporter cell line.
  • FIG. 34 is a set of nine FACS plots showing induction of FoxP3 + Treg by nanoparticle-mediated delivery of ITE.
  • FIGS. 35A and B show nanoparticle-mediated delivery of ITE suppresses the recall response to MOG.
  • FIG. 35B shows the cytokine response in the same cells.
  • FIG. 36 is a set of FACS plots showing induction of human CD4+FoxP3+ T cells by TCDD.
  • CD4 + CD62L + CD45RO ⁇ T cells were isolated by FACS and differentiated in vitro for 5 days with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 in the presence of TCDD 100 nM or TGF ⁇ 1 2.5 ng/ml or both.
  • FIG. 37 is a set of four FACS plots demonstrating heterogeneity in the induction of human CD4 + FoxP3 + T cells by TCDD.
  • CD4 + CD62L + CD45RO ⁇ T cells were isolated by FACS and differentiated in vitro for 5 days with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 in the presence of TCDD 100 nM or TGF ⁇ 1 2.5 ng/ml or both.
  • FIG. 38 is a pair of bar graphs showing activation of human T cells in the presence of TCDD induces suppressive T cells.
  • CD4 + CD62L+ CD45RO ⁇ T cells were isolated by FACS and differentiated in vitro for 5 days with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 in the presence of TCDD or TGF ⁇ 1 2.5 ng/ml or both, and after repurification by FACS, CD4 + CD25 High and CD4 + CD25 Low T cells were assayed for their suppressive activity on non-treated effector T cells activated with antibodies to CD28 and CD3.
  • FIG. 39 is a: FoxP3 expression by in vitro differentiated human T cells.
  • CD4 + CD62L + CD45RO ⁇ T cells were isolated by FACS and differentiated in vitro for 5 days with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 in the presence of TCDD 100 nM or TGF ⁇ 1 2.5 ng/ml or both, and FoxP3 expression was analyzed by real-time PCR on CD25 High or CD25 Low sorted CD4 T cells.
  • FIG. 40 is a pair of bar graphs showing AHR expression by in vitro differentiated human T cells.
  • CD4 + CD62L + CD45RO ⁇ T cells were isolated by FACS and differentiated in vitro for 5 days with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 in the presence of TCDD 100 nM or TGF ⁇ 31 2.5 ng/ml or both, and AHR expression was analyzed by real-time PCR on CD25 High or CD25 Low sorted CD4 T cells.
  • FIG. 41 is a pair of bar graphs showing IL-10 production by in vitro differentiated human T cells.
  • CD4 + CD62L + CD45RO ⁇ T cells were isolated by FACS and differentiated in vitro for 5 days with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 in the presence of TCDD 100 nM or TGF ⁇ 1 2.5 ng/ml or both, and IL-10 production was analzyed by real-time PCR on CD25 High or CD25 Low sorted CD4 T cells.
  • FIG. 42 is a bar graph showing the suppressive activity of human CD4 + CD25 High T cells induced with TCDD is dependent on IL-10.
  • CD4 + CD62L + CD45RO ⁇ T cells were isolated by FACS and differentiated in vitro for 5 days with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 in the presence of TCDD or TGF ⁇ 1 2.5 ng/ml or both, and after re-purification by FACS, CD4 + CD25 High T cells were assayed for their suppressive activity on non-treated effector T cells activated with antibodies to CD28 and CD3 in the presence of blocking antibodies to IL-10.
  • Tregs play in immunomodulation
  • characterization of the pathways and identification of compounds capable of modulating these pathways, e.g., to promote the generation (e.g., differentiation of cells to or towards) Treg cells or that promote increased activity of Tregs is important for the treatment of, e.g., autoimmunity, infections and cancer.
  • the present invention provides, inter alia, compositions and methods useful for therapeutic immunomodulation.
  • the present invention is based, at least in part, on the discovery that modulation of the AhR by compounds described herein can be used to modulate (e.g., increase or decrease the number and/or activity of) immunomodulatory cells in vitro and in vivo.
  • the present invention is based on the identification of the ligand-activated transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) as a Foxp3 dependent regulator of Treg differentiation (e.g., generation) and/or activity in vitro and in vivo. Also described herein are ligands of a transcription factor (e.g., AHR) that cause increased Treg expression and/or activity.
  • AHR ligand-activated transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor
  • AHR-specific ligands e.g., the high affinity AHR ligand 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE), to promote an increase in the number and/or activity of Treg immunomodulatory cells, which will be useful to suppress the immune response in the treatment of diseases or disorders caused by an abnormal (e.g., an excessive, elevated, or inappropriate) immune response, e.g., an autoimmune disease or disorder.
  • effective doses of TCDD can be administered intravenously or orally.
  • AHR transcription factor ligands are described in Denison and Nagy, Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 43:309-34, 2003, and references cited herein, all of which are incorporated herein in their entirety.
  • Other such molecules include planar, hydrophobic HAHs (such as the polyhalogenated dibenzopdioxins, dibenzofurans, and biphenyls) and PAHs (such as 3-methylcholanthrene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzanthracenes, and benzoflavones), and related compounds. (Denison and Nagy, 2003, supra). Nagy et al., Toxicol. Sci.
  • those ligands useful in the present invention are those that bind competitively with TCDD, TA, and/or ITE.
  • the present invention provides methods useful for identifying transcription factors (e.g., ligand-activated transcription factors) and/or ligands (e.g., ligands capable of promoting an increased association between a ligand-activated transcription factor and Foxp3) capable of modulating (e.g., increasing or decreasing) Foxp3 expression or activity.
  • transcription factors e.g., ligand-activated transcription factors
  • ligands e.g., ligands capable of promoting an increased association between a ligand-activated transcription factor and Foxp3
  • Foxp3 e.g., increasing or decreasing
  • the present invention includes the identification of specific transcription factor binding sites in the Foxp3 gene. These binding sites include, i.e., NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC, and Delta EF1.
  • manipulating activity and/or levels of those TFs can alter expression of Foxp3, and thus modulate (e.g., promote) generation and/or increased activity of Treg in vivo and in vitro.
  • Compounds that modulate the activity and/or levels of those TFs to increase generation and/or activity of Treg are useful, e.g., in the treatment of disorders in which it is desirable to decrease an aberrant immune response, e.g., autoimmune diseases.
  • Sequences useful in the methods described herein include, but are not limited to, e.g., NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC and Delta EF1 sequences, and TF binding sequences therefore, all of which are known in the art.
  • the methods include the use of nucleic acids or polypeptides that are at least 80% identical to a human NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC, or Delta EF1 sequence, e.g., at least 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% identical to a human sequence as described herein.
  • the sequences are aligned for optimal comparison purposes (e.g., gaps can be introduced in one or both of a first and a second amino acid or nucleic acid sequence for optimal alignment and non-homologous sequences can be disregarded for comparison purposes).
  • the length of a reference sequence aligned for comparison purposes is at least 60%, e.g., at least 70%, 80%, 90%, 100% of the length of the reference sequence.
  • the amino acid residues or nucleotides at corresponding amino acid positions or nucleotide positions are then compared. When a position in the first sequence is occupied by the same amino acid residue or nucleotide as the corresponding position in the second sequence, then the molecules are identical at that position.
  • the percent identity between the two sequences is a function of the number of identical positions shared by the sequences, taking into account the number of gaps, and the length of each gap, which need to be introduced for optimal alignment of the two sequences.
  • the comparison of sequences and determination of percent identity between two sequences can be accomplished using a mathematical algorithm.
  • the percent identity between two amino acid sequences is determined using the Needleman and Wunsch ((1970) J. Mol. Biol. 48:444-453) algorithm which has been incorporated into the GAP program in the GCG software package (available on the world wide web at www.gcg.com), using a Blossum 62 scoring matrix with a gap penalty of 12, a gap extend penalty of 4, and a frameshift gap penalty of 5.
  • Active fragments of TFs useful in the methods described herein are those fragments that bind to the same DNA sequence (e.g., promoter sequence) that the full-length TF binds to, and has at least 30% of the transcription initiating activity of the full-length TF, e.g., at least 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more of the activity of the full-length protein, on the same promoters and the same genes as the full-length protein.
  • Treg differentiation and function is driven by the transcription factor Foxp3 (Fontenot et al., Nat. Immunol., 4:330-336, 2003; Hori et al., Science, 299:1057-61, 2003).
  • Foxp3 may also be important for human Treg; mutations in Foxp3 have been linked to various immunological conditions (e.g., autoimmune conditions), for example, autoimmune syndrome immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, and enteropathy X-linked (IPEX) (Chatila et al., J. Clin. Invest., 106:R75-81 (2000); Gavin et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 103: 6659-64 (2006)).
  • autoimmune conditions e.g., autoimmune conditions
  • IPEX enteropathy X-linked
  • Foxp3-negative Tregs have also been described, see, e.g., Roncarolo and Gregori, Eur J Immun
  • Exemplary human Foxp3 mRNA sequences are known in the art and include Genbank Acc. No. NM — 014009.2; the amino acid sequence of the protein is Genbank Acc. No. NP — 054728.2.
  • the sequence of the human Foxp3 gene can be found at NC — 000023.9; the mouse gene is at NT — 039700.6.
  • the Foxp3 promoter has been identified and sequenced, see, e.g., Mantel et al., J. Immunol. 176 (6): 3593 (2006). All of the binding sites for AHR in the mouse Foxp3 gene are highlighted, e.g., in FIGS. 11A-G ; the binding sites for the other TFs are identified in FIGS. 10A-B .
  • NKX22, AHR, and Delta EF1 increase transcription of Foxp3. Therefore, compounds that increase levels and/or activity of these TFs would increase the generation and/or activity of Treg. Conversely, compounds that decrease levels and/or activity of these TFs would be expected to decrease generation of Tregs, thereby increasing the immune response.
  • Exemplary human AhR mRNA sequences are known in the art and include Genbank Acc. No. NM — 001621.3; the amino acid sequence of the protein is Genbank Acc. No. NP — 001612.1.
  • Active fragments of AhR are DNA binding fragments with transcription activity, and contain at least one PAS region, e.g., amino acids 122-224 or 282-381 of NP — 001612.1.
  • Consensus recognition sequences that bind AhR include the sequence TNGCGTG.
  • Exemplary human DeltaEF1 mRNA sequences are known in the art and include Genbank Acc. No. NM — 030751.3; the amino acid sequence of the protein is Genbank Acc. No. NP — 110378.2.
  • Consensus recognition sequences that bind DeltaEF1 include the sequences CACCT and CACCTG (Sekido et al., Genes Cells 2:771-783 (1997)).
  • NKX2.2 mRNA sequences are known in the art and include Genbank Acc. No. NM — 002509.2; the amino acid sequence of the protein is Genbank Acc. No. NP — 002500.1.
  • Consensus recognition sequences that bind NKX2.2 include the sequences ACTTGAT and T(T/C)AAGT(A/G)(C/G)TT (Watada et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97 (17):9443-9448 (2000))
  • EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, and NGFIC decrease transcription of Foxp3. Therefore, compounds that increase levels and/or activity of these TFs would decrease generation of Tregs, thereby increasing the immune response. Conversely, compounds that decrease levels and/or activity of these TFs would be expected to increase generation of Tregs, reducing the immune response.
  • egr1 protein is available in the GenBank database at Accession No. NP — 001955.1; the mRNA is at Accession No. NM — 001964.2. Additional information regarding egr1 can be found on the internet at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, in the UniGene database at UniGene Hs.326035, and in the Entrez Gene database at GeneID: 1958. Consensus recognition sequences that bind EGR1 include the sequence 5′GCG(G/T)GGGCG3′ (Nakagama et al., Mol. Cell. Biol., 15 (3):1489-1498 (1995)).
  • Active fragments of egr1 include those portions of the protein that bind DNA, e.g., one or more of the two C2H2 type DNA-binding zinc fingers (see, e.g., Sukhatme et al., 1988, supra), e.g., amino acids 338-362 and/or 368-390 of GenBank Acc. No. NP — 001955.1.
  • Exemplary active fragments are described in Huang et al., Cancer Res. 1995; 55 (21):5054-5062, and in Jain et al., J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271 (23):13530-6.
  • Inhibitors of egr-1 are described in WO2007/118157.
  • the sequence of human egr2 protein is available in the GenBank database at Accession No. NP — 000390.2; the mRNA is at Accession No. NM — 000399.2.
  • Consensus recognition sequences that bind EGR2 include the sequences GCGGGGGCG and T-G-C-G-T/g-G/A-G-G-C/a/t-G-G/T (lowercase letters indicate bases selected less frequently) (Swirnoff and Milbrandt, Mol. Cell. Biol. 15:2275-2287 (1995)).
  • the sequence of human egr3 protein is available in the GenBank database at Accession No. NP — 004421.2; the mRNA is at Accession No. NM — 004430.2.
  • Consensus recognition sequences that bind EGR3 include the sequences GCGGGGGCG and T-G-C-G-T/g-G/A-G-G-C/a/t-G-G/T (lowercase letters indicate bases selected less frequently) (Swirnoff and Milbrandt, Mol. Cell. Biol. 15:2275-2287 (1995)).
  • Exemplary human NGFIC mRNA sequences are known in the art and include Genbank Acc. No. NM — 001965.2; the amino acid sequence of the protein is Genbank Acc. No. NP — 001956.2. See Crosby et al., Mol Cell Biol. 11 (8):3835-41 (1991).
  • Consensus recognition sequences that bind NGFIC include the sequences GCGGGGGCG and T-G-C-G-T/g-G/A-G-G-C/a/t-G-G/T (lowercase letters indicate bases selected less frequently) (Swirnoff and Milbrandt, Mol. Cell. Biol. 15:2275-2287 (1995)).
  • a number of methods are known in the art for evaluating whether a compound alters expression, levels or activity of one or more of NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC, and/or Delta EF1.
  • Methods of assessing expression include, but are not limited to, Northern analysis, ribonuclease protection assay, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), real time PCR, and RNA in situ hybridization (see, e.g., Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3 rd Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (2001)).
  • RNA in situ hybridization see, e.g., Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3 rd Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (2001)).
  • Levels of peptides can be monitored by, e.g., Western analysis, immunoassay, or in situ hybridization.
  • Activity e.g., altered promoter binding and/or transcription activity
  • Activity can be determined by, e.g., electrophoretic mobility shift assay, DNA footprinting, reporter gene assay, or a serine, threonine, or tyrosine phosphorylation assay.
  • the effect of a test compound on expression, level or activity is observed as a change in glucose tolerance or insulin secretion of the cell, cell extract, co-culture, explant, or subject.
  • the effect of a test compound on expression, level, or activity of one or more of NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC, and/or Delta EF1 is evaluated in a transgenic cell or non-human animal, or explant, tissue, or cell derived therefrom, having altered glucose tolerance or insulin secretion, and can be compared to a control, e.g., wild-type animal, or explant or cell derived therefrom.
  • a test compound on expression, level, or activity can be evaluated in a cell, e.g., a cultured mammalian cell, a pancreatic beta cell, cell lysate, or subject, e.g., a non-human experimental mammal such as a rodent, e.g., a rat, mouse, or rabbit, or a cell, tissue, or organ explant, e.g., pancreas or pancreatic cells.
  • a cell e.g., a cultured mammalian cell, a pancreatic beta cell, cell lysate, or subject, e.g., a non-human experimental mammal such as a rodent, e.g., a rat, mouse, or rabbit, or a cell, tissue, or organ explant, e.g., pancreas or pancreatic cells.
  • the ability of a test compound to modulate level, expression or activity of one or more of NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC and/or Delta EF1 is evaluated in a knockout animal, or other animal having decreased expression, level, or activity of one or more of NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC and/or Delta EF1 conditional knockout transgenic animal.
  • the ability of a test compound to modulate e.g., increase or decrease, e.g., permanently or temporarily, expression from one or more of NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC, and/or Delta EF1 promoter can be evaluated by, e.g., a routine reporter (e.g., LacZ or GFP) transcription assay.
  • a routine reporter e.g., LacZ or GFP
  • a cell or transgenic animal whose genome includes a reporter gene operably linked to an NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC and/or Delta EF1 promoter can be contacted with a test compound; the ability of the test compound to increase or decrease the activity of the reporter gene or gene product is indicative of the ability of the compound to modulate expression of the TF.
  • a cell or transgenic animal whose genome includes a reporter gene operably linked to a promoter comprising a recognition sequence for one of those TFs, e.g., all or a portion of the Foxp3 promoter comprising recognition sequences for one of those TFs, can be contacted with a test compound; the ability of the test compound to increase or decrease the activity of the reporter gene or gene product is indicative of the ability of the compound to modulate activity of the TF.
  • the test compound can be administered to a cell, cell extract, explant, or subject (e.g., an experimental animal) expressing a transgene comprising an NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC, and/or Delta EF1 promoter or recognition sequence fused to a reporter such as GFP or LacZ (see, e.g., Nehls et al., Science, 272:886-889 (1996), and Lee et al., Dev. Biol., 208:362-374 (1999), describing placing the beta-galactosidase reporter gene under control of the whn promoter).
  • a transgene comprising an NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC, and/or Delta EF1 promoter or recognition sequence fused to a reporter such as GFP or LacZ
  • a reporter such as GFP or LacZ
  • Enhancement or inhibition of transcription of a transgene e.g., a reporter such as LacZ or GFP
  • a transgene e.g., a reporter such as LacZ or GFP
  • Enhancement or inhibition of transcription of a transgene can be used to assay an effect of the test compound on transcription of one or more of the TFs identified herein.
  • Reporter transcript levels can also be monitored by other known methods, e.g., Northern analysis, ribonuclease protection assay, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or RNA in situ hybridization (see, e.g., Cuncliffe et al., Mamm Genome, 13:245-252 (2002); Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3 rd Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (2001)).
  • RT-PCR reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction
  • Test compounds can also be evaluated using a cell-free system, e.g., an environment including a promoter-reporter transgene (e.g., an ARNT promoter-LacZ transgene), transcription factors binding the promoter, a crude cell lysate or nuclear extract, and one or more test compounds (e.g., a test compound as described herein), wherein an effect of the compound on promoter activity is detected as a color change.
  • a promoter-reporter transgene e.g., an ARNT promoter-LacZ transgene
  • transcription factors binding the promoter e.g., an ARNT promoter-LacZ transgene
  • a crude cell lysate or nuclear extract e.g., a crude cell lysate or nuclear extract
  • test compounds e.g., a test compound as described herein
  • the screening methods described herein include the use of a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay, in which cells, e.g., pancreatic beta cells, expressing one or more of the TFs identified herein, are exposed to a test compound.
  • the cells are optionally subjected to crosslinking, e.g., using UV or formaldehyde, to form DNA-protein complexes, and the DNA is fragmented.
  • the DNA-protein complexes are immunoprecipitated, e.g., using an antibody directed to one or more of the TFs identified herein.
  • the protein is removed (e.g., by enzymatic digestion) and analyzed, e.g., using a microarray. In this way, changes in binding of the transcription factor to its target genes can be evaluated, thus providing a measure of activity of the TFs identified herein.
  • Test compounds for use in the methods described herein are not limited and can include crude or partially or substantially purified extracts of organic sources, e.g., botanical (e.g., herbal) and algal extracts, inorganic elements or compounds, as well as partially or substantially purified or synthetic compounds, e.g., small molecules, polypeptides, antibodies, and polynucleotides, and libraries thereof.
  • organic sources e.g., botanical (e.g., herbal) and algal extracts, inorganic elements or compounds
  • partially or substantially purified or synthetic compounds e.g., small molecules, polypeptides, antibodies, and polynucleotides, and libraries thereof.
  • a test compound that has been screened by a method described herein and determined to increase expression, levels, or activity of one or more of the TFs described herein can be considered a candidate compound for the treatment of a disorder treatable with immune therapy (i.e., by increasing or decreasing control of the immune response by increasing or decreasing levels of Treg), e.g., cancer, or an autoimmune disorder.
  • a candidate compound that has been screened, e.g., in an in vivo model of a disorder treatable with immune therapy, e.g., cancer, or an autoimmune disorder, and determined to have a desirable effect on the disorder, e.g., on one or more symptoms of the disorder can be considered a candidate therapeutic agent.
  • Candidate therapeutic agents once screened and verified in a clinical setting, are therapeutic agents.
  • Candidate therapeutic agents and therapeutic agents can be optionally optimized and/or derivatized, and formulated with physiologically acceptable excipients to form pharmaceutical compositions.
  • the present invention is based, at least in part, on the identification of useful targets for therapeutic immunomodulation. Accordingly, the present invention provides compositions and methods for treating a patient (e.g., a human) with an immunological condition Immunological conditions that will benefit from treatment using the present invention include those diseases or disorders caused by an autoimmune response or an absent or insufficient immune response.
  • Autoimmunity is presently the most common cause of disease in the world and is the third most prevent disease in the U.S.
  • Autoimmune conditions that may benefit from treatment using the compositions and methods described herein include, but are not limited to, for example, Addison's Disease, alopecia, ankylosing spondylitis, antiphospholipid syndrome, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, autoimmune hepatitis, autoimmune oophoritis, Bechet's disease, bullous pemphigoid, celiac disease, chronic fatigue immune dysfunction syndrome (CFIDS), chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Churg-Strauss syndrome, cicatricial pemphigoid, cold agglutinin disease, CREST Syndrome, Crohn's disease, diabetes (e.g., type I), dysautonomia, endometriosis, eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome, essential mixed cryoglobulinemia, fibromyalgia,
  • a patient with one or more autoimmune conditions can be treated by increasing the number of Treg cells and/or the activity of Treg cells in the patient using, e.g., a therapeutically effective amount of one or more transcription factors (e.g., a ligand-activated transcription factor such as AHR) and/or one or more transcription factor ligands (e.g., TCDD, tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE)) that are capable of promoting an increase in the expression and/or activity of Foxp3, and thereby promoting an increase in the number or activity of Treg cells in vitro and/or in vivo.
  • transcription factors e.g., a ligand-activated transcription factor such as AHR
  • transcription factor ligands e.g., TCDD, tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbon
  • the methods include administering (e.g., to a population of T cells or to a subject) a composition comprising a nucleic acid encoding a transcription factor as described herein, e.g., e.g., NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC and/or Delta EF1.
  • the nucleic acid can be in an expression vector, e.g., a modified viral vector such as is known in the art, e.g., a lentivirus, retrovirus, or adenovirus. Methods for using these vectors in cell or gene therapy protocols are known in the art. For cell therapy methods, it is desirable to start with a population of T cells taken from the subject to be treated.
  • the methods include administering a composition comprising a ligand that activates a transcription factor described herein, e.g., the AHR receptor.
  • the ligand is co-administered with one or more inhibitors of its degradation, e.g., tryptamine together with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor, e.g., tranylcypromine.
  • the inhibitor can be administered in the same or in a separate composition.
  • the invention also includes compositions comprising tryptamine and an inhibitor of its degradation, e.g., a MAOI, e.g., tranylcypromine.
  • a patient in need of treatment can be administered a pharmaceutically effective dose of one or more ligands capable of promoting an increase in the expression and/or activity of Foxp3 and thereby promoting an increase in the number or activity of Treg cells in vitro and/or in vivo (e.g., TCDD, tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE)).
  • TCDD TCDD
  • tryptamine TA
  • ITE 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester
  • a population of cells capable of differentiation into Treg cells can be contacted with a transcription factor ligand capable of promoting increase in Foxp3 expression and/or activity (e.g., TCDD, tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE)) in vitro, thereby effectively promoting an increase in the number of Treg cells in the population.
  • a transcription factor ligand capable of promoting increase in Foxp3 expression and/or activity e.g., TCDD, tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE)
  • a population of cells containing Treg cells e.g., isolated Treg cells (e.g., 100%) or a population of cells containing at least 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, or 99% Treg cells
  • a transcription factor ligand capable of promoting an increase in Foxp3 expression and/or activity e.g., TCDD, tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE)
  • the cells can be contacted with an expression vector, e.g., a viral vector such as a lentivirus, retrovirus, or adenovirus, comprising a nucleic acid encoding a transcription factor described herein, e.g., NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC and Delta EF1.
  • an expression vector e.g., a viral vector such as a lentivirus, retrovirus, or adenovirus
  • the cells are also activated, e.g., by contacting them with an effective amount of a T cell activating agent, e.g., a composition of one or both of anti-CD3 antibodies and anti-CD28 antibodies.
  • One or more cells from these populations can then be administered to the patient alone or in combination with one or more ligands capable of promoting an increase in the expression and/or activity of Foxp3 and thereby promoting an increase in the number or activity of Treg cells in vitro and/or in vivo (e.g., TCDD, tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE).
  • TCDD TCDD
  • TA tryptamine
  • ITE 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester
  • compositions and methods described herein are of particular use for treating a patient (e.g., a human) that would benefit from therapeutic immunomodulation (e.g., a patient in need of a suppressed immune response).
  • the methods include selecting a patient in need of treatment and administering to the patient one or more of the compositions described herein.
  • a subject in need of treatment can be identified, e.g., by their medical practitioner.
  • the methods include determining presence and/or levels of autoantibodies to an autoantigen specific for the disease, e.g., the presence and/or levels of autoantibodies to an autoantigen listed in Table 1 or 2.
  • the results can be used to determine a subject's likelihood or risk of developing the disease; subjects can be selected for treatment using a method described herein based on the presence and/or levels of autoantibodies.
  • a patient can be assessed at one or more time points, for example, using methods known in the art for assessing severity of the specific autoimmune disease or its symptoms, to determine the effectiveness of the treatment.
  • levels of autoantibodies to an autoantigen specific for the disease can also be monitored, e.g., levels of autoantibodies to an autoantigen listed in Table 1 or 2; a decrease (e.g., a significant decrease) in levels of autoantibodies would indicate a positive response, i.e., indicating that the treatment is successful; see, e.g., Quintana et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 101 (suppl. 2):14615-14621 (2004).
  • Treatment can then be continued without modification, modified to improve the progress or outcome (e.g., increase dosage levels, frequency of administration, the amount of the pharmaceutical composition, and/or change the mode of administration), or stopped.
  • a therapeutically effective amount of one or more of the compositions described herein can be administered by standard methods, for example, by one or more routes of administration, e.g., by one or more of the routes of administration currently approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA; see, for example world wide web address fda.gov/cder/dsm/DRG/drg00301.htm), e.g., orally, topically, mucosally, intravenously or intramuscularly.
  • FDA United States Food and Drug Administration
  • one or more of the ligands described herein can be administered orally with surprising effectiveness.
  • compositions e.g., including, but not limited to, one or more of the small molecule ligands, for example TCDD, tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE)
  • TCDD small molecule ligands
  • TA tryptamine
  • ITE 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester
  • compositions suitable for administration to a subject, e.g., a human.
  • Such compositions typically include the composition and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • pharmaceutically acceptable carrier is intended to include any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like, compatible with pharmaceutical administration.
  • the use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically active substances are known. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the active compound, such media can be used in the compositions of the invention.
  • Supplementary active compounds can also be incorporated into the compositions, e.g., an inhibitor of degradation of the ligand.
  • the composition can also include an autoantigen, e.g., an autoantigen listed in Table 1 or 2, or another autoantigen known in the art to be associated with an autoimmune disease.
  • an autoantigen e.g., an autoantigen listed in Table 1 or 2, or another autoantigen known in the art to be associated with an autoimmune disease.
  • a pharmaceutical composition can be formulated to be compatible with its intended route of administration.
  • Solutions or suspensions used for parenteral, intradermal, or subcutaneous application can include the following components: a sterile diluent such as water for injection, saline solution, fixed oils, polyethylene glycols, glycerine, propylene glycol or other synthetic solvents; antibacterial agents such as benzyl alcohol or methyl parabens; antioxidants such as ascorbic acid or sodium bisulfite; chelating agents such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; buffers such as acetates, citrates or phosphates and agents for the adjustment of tonicity such as sodium chloride or dextrose. pH can be adjusted with acids or bases, such as hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide.
  • the parenteral preparation can be enclosed in ampoules, disposable syringes or multiple dose vials made of glass or plastic.
  • compositions suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersion.
  • suitable carriers include physiological saline, bacteriostatic water, Cremophor ELTM (BASF, Parsippany, N.J.) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS).
  • the composition must be sterile and should be fluid to the extent that easy syringability exists. It must be stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be preserved against the contaminating action of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.
  • the carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, and liquid polyethylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof.
  • the proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use of surfactants.
  • Prevention of the action of microorganisms can be achieved by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, ascorbic acid, thimerosal, and the like.
  • isotonic agents for example, sugars, polyalcohols such as mannitol, sorbitol, sodium chloride in the composition.
  • Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about by including in the composition an agent which delays absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin.
  • Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating the composition (e.g., an agent described herein) in the required amount in an appropriate solvent with one or a combination of ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filtered sterilization.
  • dispersions are prepared by incorporating the active compound into a sterile vehicle which contains a basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above.
  • the preferred methods of preparation are vacuum drying and freeze-drying which yields a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desired ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered solution thereof.
  • Oral compositions generally include an inert diluent or an edible carrier. They can be enclosed in gelatin capsules or compressed into tablets. For the purpose of oral therapeutic administration, the active compound can be incorporated with excipients and used in the form of tablets, troches, or capsules. Oral compositions can also be prepared using a fluid carrier for use as a mouthwash, wherein the compound in the fluid carrier is applied orally and swished and expectorated or swallowed. Pharmaceutically compatible binding agents, and/or adjuvant materials can be included as part of the composition.
  • the tablets, pills, capsules, troches and the like can contain any of the following ingredients, or compounds of a similar nature: a binder such as microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth or gelatin; an excipient such as starch or lactose, a disintegrating agent such as alginic acid, PRIMOGELTM (sodium carboxymethyl starch), or corn starch; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate or STEROTESTM ; a glidant such as colloidal silicon dioxide; a sweetening agent such as sucrose or saccharin; or a flavoring agent such as peppermint, methyl salicylate, or orange flavoring.
  • a binder such as microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth or gelatin
  • an excipient such as starch or lactose, a disintegrating agent such as alginic acid, PRIMOGELTM (sodium carboxymethyl starch), or corn starch
  • a lubricant such as magnesium stearate
  • Systemic administration can also be by transmucosal or transdermal means.
  • penetrants appropriate to the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation.
  • penetrants are generally known, and include, for example, for transmucosal administration, detergents, bile salts, and fusidic acid derivatives.
  • Transmucosal administration can be accomplished through the use of nasal sprays or suppositories.
  • the active compounds are formulated into ointments, salves, gels, or creams as generally known in the art.
  • the active compounds are prepared with carriers that will protect the compound against rapid elimination from the body, such as a controlled release formulation, including implants and microencapsulated delivery systems.
  • a controlled release formulation including implants and microencapsulated delivery systems.
  • Biodegradable, biocompatible polymers can be used, such as ethylene vinyl acetate, polyanhydrides, polyglycolic acid, collagen, polyorthoesters, and polylactic acid. Methods for preparation of such formulations will be apparent to those skilled in the art.
  • the materials can also be obtained commercially from Alza Corporation and Nova Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
  • Liposomal suspensions (including liposomes targeted to infected cells with monoclonal antibodies to viral antigens) can also be used as pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. These can be prepared according to methods known to those skilled in the art, for example, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,522,811.
  • Nucleic acid molecules can be inserted into vectors and used as gene therapy vectors.
  • Gene therapy vectors can be delivered to a subject by, for example, intravenous injection, local administration (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,328,470) or by stereotactic injection (see e.g., Chen et al., PNAS 91:3054-3057, 1994).
  • the pharmaceutical preparation of the gene therapy vector can include the gene therapy vector in an acceptable diluent, or can include a slow release matrix in which the gene delivery vehicle is imbedded.
  • the pharmaceutical preparation can include one or more cells which produce the gene delivery system.
  • the pharmaceutical compositions can be included in a container, pack, or dispenser together with instructions for administration.
  • the pharmaceutical compositions can be included as a part of a kit.
  • the dosage used to administer a pharmaceutical compositions facilitates an intended purpose for prophylaxis and/or treatment without undesirable side effects, such as toxicity, irritation or allergic response.
  • side effects such as toxicity, irritation or allergic response.
  • human doses can readily be extrapolated from animal studies (Katocs et al., Chapter 27 In: “Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences”, 18th Ed., Gennaro, ed., Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., 1990).
  • the dosage required to provide an effective amount of a formulation will vary depending on several factors, including the age, health, physical condition, weight, type and extent of the disease or disorder of the recipient, frequency of treatment, the nature of concurrent therapy, if required, and the nature and scope of the desired effect(s) (Nies et al., Chapter 3, In: Goodman & Gilman's
  • compositions comprising nanoparticles linked to AHR ligands are surprisingly effective in delivering the ligand, both orally and by injection, and in inducing the Treg response in living animals.
  • the invention further includes compositions comprising AHR ligands linked to biocompatible nanoparticles, optionally with antibodies that target the nanoparticles to selected cells or tissues.
  • AHR-specific ligands e.g., the high affinity AHR ligand 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), tryptamine (TA), and/or 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE), promote an increase in the number and/or activity of Treg immunomodulatory cells, which will be useful to suppress the immune response in the treatment of diseases or disorders caused by an abnormal (e.g., an excessive, elevated, or inappropriate) immune response, e.g., an autoimmune disease or disorder.
  • an abnormal immune response e.g., an excessive, elevated, or inappropriate
  • AHR transcription factor ligands are described in Denison and Nagy, Ann Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 43:309-34, 2003, and references cited herein, all of which are incorporated herein in their entirety.
  • Other such molecules include planar, hydrophobic HAHs (such as the polyhalogenated dibenzo-pdioxins, dibenzofurans, and biphenyls) and PAHs (such as 3-methylcholanthrene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzanthracenes, and benzoflavones), and related compounds. (Denison and Nagy, 2003, supra). Nagy et al., Toxicol. Sci.
  • those ligands useful in the nanoparticle compositions are those that bind competitively with TCDD, TA, and/or ITE.
  • the nanoparticles useful in the methods and compositions described herein are made of materials that are (i) biocompatible, i.e., do not cause a significant adverse reaction in a living animal when used in pharmaceutically relevant amounts; (ii) feature functional groups to which the binding moiety can be covalently attached, (iii) exhibit low non-specific binding of interactive moieties to the nanoparticle, and (iv) are stable in solution, i.e., the nanoparticles do not precipitate.
  • the nanoparticles can be monodisperse (a single crystal of a material, e.g., a metal, per nanoparticle) or polydisperse (a plurality of crystals, e.g., 2,3, or 4, per nanoparticle).
  • biocompatible nanoparticles are known in the art, e.g., organic or inorganic nanoparticles. Liposomes, dendrimers, carbon nanomaterials and polymeric micelles are examples of organic nanoparticles. Quantum dots can also be used.
  • Inorganic nanoparticles include metallic nanoparticle, e.g., Au, Ni, Pt and TiO2 nanoparticles. Magnetic nanoparticles can also be used, e.g., spherical nanocrystals of 10-20 nm with a Fe2+ and/or Fe3+ core surrounded by dextran or PEG molecules.
  • colloidal gold nanoparticles are used, e.g., as described in Qian et al., Nat.
  • the nanoparticles are attached (linked) to the AHR ligands described herein via a functional groups.
  • the nanoparticles are associated with a polymer that includes the functional groups, and also serves to keep the metal oxides dispersed from each other.
  • the polymer can be a synthetic polymer, such as, but not limited to, polyethylene glycol or silane, natural polymers, or derivatives of either synthetic or natural polymers or a combination of these.
  • Useful polymers are hydrophilic.
  • the polymer “coating” is not a continuous film around the magnetic metal oxide, but is a “mesh” or “cloud” of extended polymer chains attached to and surrounding the metal oxide.
  • the polymer can comprise polysaccharides and derivatives, including dextran, pullanan, carboxydextran, carboxmethyl dextran, and/or reduced carboxymethyl dextran.
  • the metal oxide can be a collection of one or more crystals that contact each other, or that are individually entrapped or surrounded by the polymer.
  • the nanoparticles are associated with non-polymeric functional group compositions.
  • Methods are known to synthesize stabilized, functionalized nanoparticles without associated polymers, which are also within the scope of this invention. Such methods are described, for example, in Halbreich et al., Biochimie, 80 (5-6):379-90, 1998.
  • the nanoparticles have an overall size of less than about 1-100 nm, e.g., about 25-75 nm, e.g., about 40-60 nm, or about 50-60 nm in diameter.
  • the polymer component in some embodiments can be in the form of a coating, e.g., about 5 to 20 nm thick or more.
  • the overall size of the nanoparticles is about 15 to 200 nm, e.g., about 20 to 100 nm, about 40 to 60 nm; or about 60 nm.
  • the nanoparticles can be prepared, but in all methods, the result must be a nanoparticle with functional groups that can be used to link the nanoparticle to the binding moiety.
  • AHR ligands can be linked to the metal oxide through covalent attachment to a functionalized polymer or to non-polymeric surface-functionalized metal oxides.
  • the nanoparticles can be synthesized according to a version of the method of Albrecht et al., Biochimie, 80 (5-6): 379-90, 1998.
  • Dimercapto-succinic acid is coupled to the nanoparticle and provides a carboxyl functional group.
  • functionalized is meant the presence of amino or carboxyl or other reactive groups that can be used to attach desired moieties to the nanoparticles, e.g., the AHR ligands described herein or antibodies.
  • the AHR ligands are attached to the nanoparticles via a functionalized polymer associated with the nanoparticle.
  • the polymer is hydrophilic.
  • the conjugates are made using oligonucleotides that have terminal amino, sulfhydryl, or phosphate groups, and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles bearing amino or carboxy groups on a hydrophilic polymer. There are several methods for synthesizing carboxy and amino derivatized-nanoparticles. Methods for synthesizing functionalized, coated nanoparticles are discussed in further detail below.
  • Carboxy functionalized nanoparticles can be made, for example, according to the method of Gorman (see WO 00/61191). Carboxy-functionalized nanoparticles can also be made from polysaccharide coated nanoparticles by reaction with bromo or chloroacetic acid in strong base to attach carboxyl groups. In addition, carboxy-functionalized particles can be made from amino-functionalized nanoparticles by converting amino to carboxy groups by the use of reagents such as succinic anhydride or maleic anhydride.
  • Nanoparticle size can be controlled by adjusting reaction conditions, for example, by varying temperature as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,262,176. Uniform particle size materials can also be made by fractionating the particles using centrifugation, ultrafiltration, or gel filtration, as described, for example in U.S. Pat. No. 5,492,814.
  • Nanoparticles can also be treated with periodate to form aldehyde groups.
  • the aldehyde-containing nanoparticles can then be reacted with a diamine (e.g., ethylene diamine or hexanediamine), which will form a Schiff base, followed by reduction with sodium borohydride or sodium cyanoborohydride.
  • a diamine e.g., ethylene diamine or hexanediamine
  • Dextran-coated nanoparticles can also be made and cross-linked, e.g., with epichlorohydrin.
  • the addition of ammonia will react with epoxy groups to generate amine groups, see Hogemann et al., Bioconjug. Chem. 2000. 11 (6):941-6, and Josephson et al., Bioconjug. Chem., 1999, 10 (2):186-91.
  • Carboxy-functionalized nanoparticles can be converted to amino-functionalized magnetic particles by the use of water-soluble carbodiimides and diamines such as ethylene diamine or hexane diamine.
  • Avidin or streptavidin can be attached to nanoparticles for use with a biotinylated binding moiety, such as an oligonucleotide or polypeptide. See e.g., Shen et al., Bioconjug. Chem., 1996, 7 (3):311-6. Similarly, biotin can be attached to a nanoparticle for use with an avidin-labeled binding moiety.
  • low molecular weight compounds can be separated from the nanoparticles by ultra-filtration, dialysis, magnetic separation, or other means.
  • the unreacted AHR ligands can be separated from the ligand-nanoparticle conjugates, e.g., by size exclusion chromatography.
  • colloidal gold nanoparticles are made using methods known in the art, e.g., as described in Qian et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 26 (1):83-90 (2008); U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,060,121; 7,232,474; and U.S. P.G. Pub. No. 2008/0166706.
  • the nanoparticles are pegylated, e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,291,598; 5,145,684; 6,270,806; 7,348,030, and others.
  • the nanoparticles also include antibodies to selectively target a cell.
  • antibody refers to full-length, two-chain immunoglobulin molecules and antigen-binding portions and fragments thereof, including synthetic variants.
  • a typical full-length antibody includes two heavy (H) chain variable regions (abbreviated herein as VH), and two light (L) chain variable regions (abbreviated herein as VL).
  • antigen-binding fragment of an antibody, as used herein, refers to one or more fragments of a full-length antibody that retain the ability to specifically bind to a target.
  • antigen-binding fragments include, but are not limited to: (i) a Fab fragment, a monovalent fragment consisting of the VL, VH, CL and CH1 domains; (ii) a F(ab′) 2 fragment, a bivalent fragment comprising two Fab fragments linked by a disulfide bridge at the hinge region; (iii) a Fd fragment consisting of the VH and CH1 domains; (iv) a Fv fragment consisting of the VL and VH domains of a single arm of an antibody, (v) a dAb fragment (Ward et al., Nature 341:544-546 (1989)), which consists of a VH domain; and (vi) an isolated complementarity determining region (CDR).
  • a Fab fragment a monovalent fragment consisting of the VL, VH, CL and CH1 domains
  • F(ab′) 2 fragment a bivalent fragment comprising two Fab fragments linked by a disulfide bridge at the
  • the two domains of the Fv fragment, VL and VH are coded for by separate genes, they can be joined, using recombinant methods, by a synthetic linker that enables them to be made as a single protein chain in which the VL and VH regions pair to form monovalent molecules (known as single chain Fv (scFv); see e.g., Bird et al. Science 242:423-426 (1988); and Huston et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:5879-5883 (1988)).
  • scFv single chain Fv
  • Such single chain antibodies are also encompassed within the term “antigen-binding fragment.”
  • T cells T cells
  • B cells dendritic cells, and/or macrophages
  • antibodies selective for one or more of those cell types can be used.
  • T cells anti-CXCR4, anti-CD28, anti-CD8, anti-TTLA4, or anti-CD3 antibodies
  • B cells antibodies to CD20, CD19, or to B-cell receptors can be used
  • dendritic cell targeting exemplary antibodies to CD11c, DEC205, MHC class I or class II, CD80, or CD86 can be used
  • macrophages exemplary antiboduies to CD11b, MHC class I or class II, CD80, or CD86 can be used.
  • Other suitable antibodies are known in the art.
  • kits comprise one or more doses of a composition described herein.
  • the composition, shape, and type of dosage form for the induction regimen and maintenance regimen may vary depending on a patients requirements.
  • dosage form may be a parenteral dosage form, an oral dosage form, a delayed or controlled release dosage form, a topical, and a mucosal dosage form, including any combination thereof.
  • a kit can contain one or more of the following in a package or container: (1) one or more doses of a composition described herein; (2) one or more pharmaceutically acceptable adjuvants or excipients (e.g., a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, stereoisomer, and clathrate); (3) one or more vehicles for administration of the dose; (5) instructions for administration.
  • a pharmaceutically acceptable adjuvants or excipients e.g., a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, stereoisomer, and clathrate
  • vehicles for administration e.g., a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, stereoisomer, and clathrate
  • instructions for administration e.g., a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, stereoisomer, and clathrate
  • Embodiments in which two or more, including all, of the components (1)-(5), are found in the same container can also be used.
  • the different components of the compositions included can be packaged in separate containers and admixed immediately before use. Such packaging of the components separately can permit long term storage without loosing the active components' functions.
  • the bioactive agents may be (1) packaged separately and admixed separately with appropriate (similar of different, but compatible) adjuvants or excipients immediately before use, (2) packaged together and admixed together immediately before use, or (3) packaged separately and admixed together immediately before use. If the chosen compounds will remain stable after admixing, the compounds may be admixed at a time before use other than immediately before use, including, for example, minutes, hours, days, months, years, and at the time of manufacture.
  • compositions included in particular kits of the present invention can be supplied in containers of any sort such that the life of the different components are optimally preserved and are not adsorbed or altered by the materials of the container.
  • Suitable materials for these containers may include, for example, glass, organic polymers (e.g., polycarbonate and polystyrene), ceramic, metal (e.g., aluminum), an alloy, or any other material typically employed to hold similar reagents.
  • Exemplary containers may include, without limitation, test tubes, vials, flasks, bottles, syringes, and the like.
  • kits can also be supplied with instructional materials. These instructions may be printed and/or may be supplied, without limitation, as an electronic-readable medium, such as a floppy disc, a CD-ROM, a DVD, a Zip disc, a video cassette, an audiotape, and a flash memory device. Alternatively, instructions may be published on a internet web site or may be distributed to the user as an electronic mail.
  • an electronic-readable medium such as a floppy disc, a CD-ROM, a DVD, a Zip disc, a video cassette, an audiotape, and a flash memory device.
  • instructions may be published on a internet web site or may be distributed to the user as an electronic mail.
  • the zebrafish is an experimental model of vertebrate development; as described herein, it can also be used as an immunogenic model.
  • This example describes the cloning and characterize of the zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) functional homologue of mammalian Foxp3 (herein termed zFoxp3).
  • FIG. 1E A phylogenetic analysis placed zFoxp3 in a sub-tree together with mammalian and other fish orthologous predictions, suggesting that zFoxp3 is the zebrafish ortholog for mammalian Foxp3 ( FIG. 1F ).
  • Foxp3 is located in a well-conserved synteny block.
  • accession numbers for the amino acid sequences used in the gene tree analysis are as follows: Danio rerio Foxp1a Q08BX8 BC124513; Foxp1b Q2LE08 NM — 001039637; Foxp2 Q4JNX5 NM — 001030082; Foxp3 annotated (EST CK028390); Foxp4 annotated.
  • zFoxp3 was cloned from cDNA prepared from zebrafish kidney by using a TOPO® PCR cloning kit (Invitrogen, Calif., USA) according to the manufacturer's instructions.
  • the amino acids (aa) predicted to mediate the interaction of the forkhead domain with DNA (Stroud et al., Structure. 14, 159-66 (2006)) or the transcription factor NFAT (Wu et al., Cell 126, 375-87 (2006)) in mammalian Foxp3 are conserved in zFoxp3, as well as aa found to be mutated in humans with impaired Foxp3 activity (Ziegler, Annu Rev Immunol. 24, 209-26 (2006)) ( FIG. 1E ).
  • the zinc finger/leucine zipper domain is important for the homodimerization of Foxp3 and its transcriptional regulatory activities (Chae et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103, 9631-6 (2006)).
  • Tk- Renilla was used for standardization.
  • the transfected cells were lysed and immuno-precipitation was carried out as described (Bettelli et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102, 5138-43 (2005)); hemagglutinin (HA) labeled NFAT and NF-kB were detected with anti-HA and anti-P65 antibodies obtained from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, Calif., USA).
  • HA hemagglutinin
  • zFoxp3 pulled-down Foxp3-Ren indicating that zFoxp3 can homodimerize.
  • zFoxp3 has structural features common to mammalian Foxp3.
  • Foxp3 can physically interact with NF-kB and NFAT to down-regulate their transcriptional activities (Wu et al., (2006), supra; Bettelli et al., (2005), supra). As shown in FIG. 2 a , zFoxp3 interfered with the activation of NFAT and NF-KB responsive promoters. This effect was stronger for NF- ⁇ B. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments showed that zFoxp3 interacts both with NF- ⁇ B and NFAT. In agreement with the reduced inhibitory effect of Foxp3 on NFAT-driven reporters (see FIG. 2 a ), the zFoxp3-NFAT interaction was weaker (see FIG. 2 b ). These results suggest that zFoxp3 can directly interact with NFAT and NF- ⁇ B to interfere with their transcriptional activities.
  • MSCV GFP-RV retroviral DNA plasmids were transfected into the Phoenix packaging cell line and 72 hours later the retrovirus-containing supernatants were collected.
  • MACS-purified CD4+ T cells were activated 24 hours later with plate-bound antibodies to CD3 and CD28, and infected by centrifugation (45 minutes at 2000 rpm) with retrovirus-containing supernatant supplemented with 8 ⁇ g/ml Polybrene (Sigma-Aldrich) and recombinant human IL-2 (25 units/ml).
  • Cells were cultured in serum-free X-VIVO 20TM media (BioWhittaker, Walkersville, Md., USA) for 72 hours. During the last 16 hours, cells were pulsed with 1 ⁇ Ci of [ 3 H]thymidine (PerkinElmer, Waltham, Mass., USA) followed by harvesting on glass fiber filters and analysis of incorporated [ 3 H]thymidine in a beta-counter (1450 Microbeta, Trilux, PerkinElmer). Alternatively, culture supernatants were collected 48 after activation and the cytokine concentration was determined by ELISA using antibodies for IFN- ⁇ , IL-17 , IL-4, IL-10 from BD Biosciences and antibodies to TGF- ⁇ from R&D Systems.
  • MACS purified CD4 + CD25 ⁇ T cells from na ⁇ ve C57BL/6 mice (1-5 ⁇ 10 4 cells/well) were stimulated with antibodies to CD3 and C57BL/6 irradiated spleen cells (0.3-1.5 ⁇ 10 4 cells/well) for 3 days in the presence of different ratios of CD4 + GFP + retrovirus-transduced T cells.
  • Retroviral transduction of zFoxp3 into mouse T cells led to the up-regulation of surface molecules associated with Treg function such as CD25, CTLA-4 and GITR (see FIG. 2 c ). Moreover, ectopic expression of zFoxp3 in mouse T cells led to a significant decrease in their proliferation and cytokine secretion upon activation with antibodies to CD3 (see FIG. 2 d ). Moreover, zFoxp3 transduced T cells could inhibit the activation of other T cells, both in terms of T cell proliferation and of cytokine secretion, in a dose dependent manner (see FIG. 2 e ). In summary, expression of zFoxp3 in mouse T cells induced a Treg-like phenotype. These data suggest that zFoxp3 is a functional homologue of mammalian Foxp3, and that Foxp3 is capable of promoting a Treg like phenotype.
  • Foxp3 was quantified with specific primers and probes (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif., USA) on the GeneAmp 5500 Sequence Detection System (Applied Biosystems). Expression was normalized to the expression of the housekeeping gene, GAPDH.
  • zFoxp3 expression was restricted to the lymphocyte fraction. This observation is consistent with the expression pattern of mammalian Foxp3 and supports the conservation of the regulatory mechanisms of gene expression that control tissue specificity.
  • Phylogenetic footprinting is a method based on the analysis of sequence conservation between orthologous genes from different species to identify regions of DNA involved in the regulation of gene expression. Once identified, these conserved regions can be analyzed with TFBS detection algorithms to generate a list of putative TFBS.
  • FIGS. 7A-B show the results obtained using the sequences of Foxp3 in rat, mouse, dog, human and zebrafish.
  • Putative TFBS were found for 6 transcription factors, all of them known to be expressed and functional in T cells: NKX22, AHR, EGR1, EGR2, EGR3, NGFIC and Delta EF1.
  • the adaptive cellular immune response of 6 month old zebrafish immunized intraperitoneally (ip) with heat killed M. tuberculosis (MT) or PBS in incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA) was studied.
  • ip heat killed M. tuberculosis
  • IFA incomplete Freund's adjuvant
  • FIG. 1A spleen cells prepared 14 days after immunization with MT or PBS proliferated in response to stimulation with Concanavalin A (ConA), but only cells taken from MT-immunized fish proliferated upon activation with MT.
  • ConA Concanavalin A
  • C. elegans and D. melanogaster have been extremely useful for the identification of the genes governing innate immunity (Lemaitre et al., Nat Rev Immunol 4, 521-7 (2004)). These experimental models, however, lack an adaptive immune system and therefore cannot be used to study vertebrate-specific immune processes.
  • the zebrafish can serve as an experimental model for the study of pathways controlling adaptive immune processes such as Treg development.
  • NCABS non-evolutionary conserved AHR-binding sites
  • Foxp3 expression was measured in mouse Treg isolated from Foxp3 gpf knock in mice.
  • Foxp3 gpf knock in mice have a GFP reporter inserted in the Foxp3 gene, producing GFP in Foxp3 + Treg, which facilitates the identification and FACS sorting of GFP:Foxp3 + Treg (Bettelli et al., Nature 441, 235-8 (2006)).
  • CD4+ T cells were purified from Foxp3gfp knock in mice using anti-CD4 beads (Miltenyi, Auburn, Calif., USA) and sorted (FACSAriaTM cell sorter, BD Biosciences) into naive CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ or CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + T cells.
  • CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ T cells were stimulated with plate bound 1 ⁇ g/m1 of anti-CD3 (145-2C11, eBioscience) and 2 ⁇ g/ml of anti-CD28 (37.51, eBioscience) for 5 days, supplemented with recombinant IL-2 (50 U/ml) at day 2 and 4, and analyzed by FACS at day 5 for their differentiation into CD4 + Foxp3:GFP 4 Treg.
  • TGF ⁇ 1 2.5 ng/ml
  • CD4+ T cells were purified from Foxp3gfp knock in mice as described above. RNA was then extracted using RNAeasy columns (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif., USA). Complementary DNA was prepared as recommended (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, Calif., USA) and used as template for real time PCR. The expression of Foxp3 was quantified with specific primers and probes (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif., USA) on the GeneAmp 5500 Sequence Detection System (Applied Biosystems). Expression was normalized to the expression of the housekeeping genes, GAPDH or actin.
  • Renilla luciferase reporter after the ATG start codon More specifically, we used the RP23-267C15 BAC clone, which contains 200 kb of mouse genomic DNA, including the entire locus of the Foxp3 gene.
  • a Renilla cDNA cassette was the cloned immediately after the ATG start codon of Foxp3 gene by homologous recombination using the Red recombineering system contained in the DY 380 bacteria strain. The final construct was designated BACFoxp3:Ren.
  • Chromatin immunoprecipitation was then applied to analyze the interaction of AHR with the CABS and NCABS shown in FIGS. 3 b and 3 i, respectively.
  • Genomic DNA was prepared by treating aliquots of chromatin with RNase, proteinase K and heat for de-crosslinking, followed by ethanol precipitation. AHR-bound DNA sequences were immuno-precipitated with an AHR-specific antibody (Biomol SA-210). Crosslinks were reversed by incubation overnight at 65° C., and ChIP DNA was purified by phenol-chloroform extraction and ethanol precipitation. Quantitative PCR reactions were then performed using the following primer pairs:
  • Cyp1a1-845 F aggctcttctcacgcaactc (SEQ ID NO: ) and Cyp1a1-845 R: ctggggctacaaagggtgat; (SEQ ID NO: ) Foxp3 (NCAB-1)-2269 F: agctgcccattacctgttag (SEQ ID NO: ) and Foxp3 (NCAB-1)-2269 R: ggaggtctgcatggatcttag; (SEQ ID NO ) Foxp3 (NCAB-2)-1596 F: gccttgtcaggaaaactctg (SEQ ID NO: ) and Foxp3 (NCAB-2)-1596 R: gtcctcgatttggcacagac; (SEQ ID NO ) Foxp3 (NCAB-3)-800 F: cttgcccttctggtgatg (SEQ ID NO ) and Foxp3 (NCAB-3)-
  • Untr6 region in chromosome 6 located at chr6:120,258,582-120,258,797 was amplified as a control using Untr6 F: tcaggcatgaaccaccatac (SEQ ID NO) and Untr6 R: aacatccacacgtccagtga (SEQ ID NO).
  • TCDD 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
  • TCDD was also used to characterize the functional relationship between AHR and Foxp3. Treatment of 3-day post-fertilization zebrafish embryos with TCDD led to a dose-dependent increase in zFoxp3 expression, suggesting that the conserved AHR binding site in the zFoxp3 sequence is functional (see FIG. 3D ).
  • TCDD triggered the conversion of CD4 + Foxp3 ⁇ T cells into new Foxp3 + Treg cells
  • FACS sorted CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ T cells were activated in vitro with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 in the presence of TCDD, and the generation of CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg was followed by FACS.
  • TGFb1 was used as a positive control.
  • TCDD triggered the conversion of approximately 13% of the cells in culture into CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg. Additionally, as shown in FIG.
  • CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg induced by TCDD showed a suppressive activity similar to that of Treg induced in vitro with TGF ⁇ 1 or CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg sorted from na ⁇ ve Foxp3gpf mice.
  • AHR activation by the high affinity AHR ligand TCDD can trigger the conversion of CD4 + Foxp3 ⁇ T cells into functional CD4 + GFP + Treg.
  • CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg purified from na ⁇ ve mice did not proliferate and did not show increased suppressive activity upon stimulation with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 and TCDD.
  • CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ 2D2 T cells express a MOG 35-55 -specific T cell receptor.
  • the recipients were administered 1 ⁇ g/mouse TCDD and were immunized 2 days later with MOG 35-55 .
  • CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + CD90.2 T cells were then quantified by FACS.
  • the increase in the frequency of Treg that follows activation of AHR with TCDD is due, at least in part, to the conversion of CD4 + Foxp3:GFP ⁇ T cells into CD4 + Foxp3:GFP + Treg.
  • mice were given a single intraperitoneal (ip) dose of TCCD, and one day later EAE was induced by immunization with MOG 35-55 in CFA.
  • TCDD was also administered orally (1 ⁇ g/mouse) to determined whether an effective dose of this ligand can be delivered via oral administration and whether this dose is capable of reducing EAE development.
  • EAE was induced by injecting the mice subcutaneously with 100 ml of the MOG 35-55 peptide (MEVGWYRSPFSRVVHLYRNGK (SEQ ID NO:)) in complete Freund adjuvant oil.
  • the mice received 150 ng of pertussis toxin (Sigma-Aldrich) ip on days 0 and 2.
  • Clinical signs of EAE were assessed according to the following score: 0, no signs of disease; 1, loss of tone in the tail; 2, hind limb paresis; 3, hind limb paralysis; 4, tetraplegia; 5, moribund.
  • IP administered TCDD also reduced the histopathological signs of EAE.
  • AHR-d mice C57BL/6 mice carrying the d allele of the ahr gene. This allele codes for a mutant AHR with a 10 fold reduction in its affinity for TCDD and other ligands (Okey et al., Mol Pharmacol. 35, 823-30 (1989)) due to mutations in its ligand binding sites.
  • the administration of TCDD (1 ⁇ g/mouse) to AHR-d mice did not increase the levels of CD4 + Foxp3 + Treg in AHR-mt mice, and did not inhibit the progression of EAE, as shown in FIG. 4B and Table 4.
  • Antigen microarrays were then used to study the antibody response to myelin in mice that did not develop EAE as consequence of AHR activation by TCDD.
  • the antigens listed in Table 1 were spotted onto Epoxy slides (TeleChem, Sunnyvale, Calif., USA) as described (Quintana et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101 Suppl 2, 14615-21 (2004)).
  • Antigens were spotted in replicates of 6, the microarrays were blocked for 1 h at 37° C. with 1% bovine serum albumin, and incubated for 2 hours at 37° C. with a 1:100 dilution of the test serum in blocking buffer. The arrays were then washed and incubated for 45 min at 37° C.
  • the microarrays consisted of a collection of 362 CNS-related autoantigens including tissue lysates, recombinant proteins, peptide libraries spanning the whole sequence of myelin proteins and lipids found in the central and peripheral nervous system, a complete list of the antigens used is provided in Table 1.
  • Heat Shock Protein peptide aa 61-80 0.0055 Ceramide 0.0055 Myelin-Associated Oligodendrocytic Basic Protein peptide aa 91-110 0.0055 Proteolipid Protein peptide aa 137-150 0.0055 NOGO 0.00557 Olygodendrocyte-Specific Protein peptide aa 76-95 0.00557 b-Cristallin 0.0058 Myelin-Associated Oligodendrocytic Basic Protein peptide aa 121-140 0.00703 60 kDa.
  • Heat Shock Protein peptide aa 421-440 0.0118 Myelin Basic Protein peptide aa 173-186 0.0125 70 kDa.
  • Heat Shock Protein peptide aa 121-140 0.0132 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase peptide aa 391-410 0.0132 Olygodendrocyte-Specific Protein peptide aa 136-155 0.0132 Olygodendrocyte-Specific Protein peptide aa 106-125 0.0134 70 kDa.
  • Heat Shock Protein 0.0145 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase peptide aa 106-125 0.0158 Olygodendrocyte-Specific Protein peptide aa 195-217 0.0174 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase peptide aa 240-259 0.0187 70 kDa.
  • Heat Shock Protein peptide aa 181-199 0.0242 Olygodendrocyte-Specific Protein peptide aa 31-50 0.0242 Proteolipid Protein peptide aa 265-277 0.0242 Myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide aa 91-110 0.0249 Optic Nerve lysate 0.0249 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase peptide aa 361-380 0.0258 Lactosylceramide 0.0258 Myelin Protein 2 peptide aa 31-50 0.0258 Myelin Basic Protein peptide aa 1-20 0.028 NMDA receptor 0.0285 CNF 0.0289 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase peptide aa 136-155 0.0292 Myelin Basic Protein peptide aa 141-161 0.0298 70 kDa.
  • Heat Shock Protein 0.0421 Non h fatty acid ceramide 0.0421 Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein 0.0452 Myelin Basic Protein peptide aa 143-168 0.0452 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase peptide aa 91-110 0.047 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase peptide aa 181-199 0.0476 70 kDa. Heat Shock Protein peptide aa 255-275 0.0486 Brain ceramides 0.0486 Myelin Protein 2 peptide aa 46-65 0.0496
  • cells were stimulated in culture medium containing 100 ⁇ g/ml MOG 35-55 for 2 days or with PMA (50 ng/ml) (Sigma-Aldrich) and ionomycin (1 nM) (Calbiochem, San Diego, Calif., USA) for 4 hours, Golgistop (BD Biosciences) was added to the culture during the last 4 hours. After staining of surface markers, cells were fixed and permeabilized using Cytofix/Cytoperm and Perm/Wash buffer from BD Biosciences according to the manufacturer's instructions. All antibodies to cytokines (IFN-gamma, IL-17, IL-10) including the corresponding isotype controls were obtained from BD Biosciences.
  • cytokines IFN-gamma, IL-17, IL-10
  • FIG. 5H TCDD-treated mice showed a faster rebound in their Treg numbers (P ⁇ 0.04 at day 7) (see FIG. 5H ), concomitant with a significant delay in the onset of EAE (P ⁇ 0.03) and a significant reduction in IL-17+CD4+ T cells in the draining lymph nodes (P ⁇ 0.03; see FIGS. 51 and 5J ). Moreover, the transfer of 5 ⁇ 10 6 CD4 + T cells from TCDD-treated mice significantly inhibited the development of EAE, as shown in FIG.
  • TGFb1 has been linked to the suppressive activity of Treg in vitro and in vivo (Li et al., Annu Rev Immunol. 24, 99-146 (2006)).
  • TGFb1 has been linked to the suppressive activity of Treg in vitro and in vivo (Li et al., Annu Rev Immunol. 24, 99-146 (2006)).
  • FIGS. 4 d and 5 b we activated lymph node cells from TCDD treated mice in the presence of blocking antibodies to IL-4, IL-10, TGFb1, or an isotype-matched control.
  • FIG. 5 d shows that incubation with antibodies to TGFb1, but not to IL-4 or IL-10 could recover the recall response to MOG 35-55 .
  • AHR ligands such as TCDD could be useful in the control of Treg development.
  • Our data additionally demonstrate that AHR ligands such as TCDD can be used to suppress the development and/or progression of EAE.
  • TA tryptamine
  • TA tryptamine
  • Mouse Treg and non-Treg were isolated from Foxp3gpf knock in mice, mRNA was prepared and Foxp3 (see FIG. 8A ), NKX2.2 (see FIG. 8B ), EGR1 (see FIG. 8C ), EGR2 (see FIG. 8D ) and EGR3 (see FIG. 8E ) expression was quantified by real time PCR.
  • Foxp3gpf knock in mice have a GFP reporter inserted in the Foxp3 gene, producing GFP in Foxp3 + Treg and therefore facilitating the identification and FACS sorting of GFP:Foxp3 + Treg.
  • GFP ⁇ CD4 + T cells were isolated from Foxp3gpf knock in mice, and then were activated in vitro with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 in the presence of TGF ⁇ 1 to induce Treg differentiation in vitro.
  • mRNA was prepared at the beginning of the experiment and after 3 or 6 days in culture, and the expression of Foxp3 (see FIG. 9A ), NKX2.2 (see FIG. 9B ), EGR1 (see FIG. 9C ), EGR2 (see FIG. 9D ) and EGR3 (see FIG. 9E ) expression was quantified in the Foxp3:GFP + CD4 + T cells by real time PCR.
  • TA is rapidly degraded in vivo by monoamine oxidase inhibitors.
  • monoamine oxidase inhibitor trans-2-Phenylcyclopropylamine hydrochloride Tranylcypromine
  • TA is a TCDD-like ligand that, when used in combination with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor, can be used as a transcription factor ligand for promoting an increase in the number and/or activity of Treg.
  • a modified zebrafish based screening assay was established by microinjecting fertilized zebrafish eggs with a BAC construct encoding the complete mouse Foxp3 locus, with a renilla reporter inserted after the Foxp3 methionine start codon (ATG).
  • renilla activity was determined in total zebrafish lysates.
  • murine Foxp3 was expressed in the microinjected fish as determined by renilla luciferase activity. The activity increased in the presence of TCDD in a dose-dependent manner.
  • AHR The ligand-activated transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a regulator of zebrafish, mouse and human Foxp3 expression and T reg differentiation (Quintana et al., Nature 23, 23 (2008)).
  • TCDD 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
  • EAE experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis
  • tryptophan derivatives like tryptamine (TA) (Heath-Pagliuso et al., Biochemistry. 37, 11508 (1998))and the mucosal associated 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE) depicted in FIG. 1 (Song et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 99, 14694 (Nov. 12, 2002)).
  • TA tryptamine
  • ITE 2-(1′H-indole-3′-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester
  • ITE and TA have been shown to be high affinity AHR ligands, they do not display the toxic effects reported by TCDD (Heath-Pagliuso et al., (1998), supra; Henry et al., Arch Biochem Biophys. 450, 67 (2006)).
  • the non-toxic AHR ligand ITE administered intraperitoneally, orally or with pegylated gold nanoparticles can be used to induce functional T reg .
  • ITE To confirm the lack of toxicity of ITE, we administered it intraperitoneally for 14 days, 200 mg/mouse and studied the blood levels of biochemical indicators of liver function induction. Hepatocites are known to express high levels of AHR, thus toxic effects of AHR activation are manifested in the liver. Table 6 shows that at day 14 we did not detect any significant difference in the biochemical indicators of liver function, confirming the lack of toxicity in ITE.
  • ITE can be administered orally to activate AHR and expand the CD4 + FoxP3 + T reg compartment.
  • Foxp3 gpf knock in mice have a GFP reporter inserted in the Foxp3 gene, producing a GFP:Foxp3 fusion protein that facilitates the identification and FACS sorting of GFP:FoxP3 + T reg (Bettelli et al., Nature 441, 235 (2006)). Foxp3 gpf knock in mice were treated with ITE (200 mg/mouse administered ip, daily) and immunized with 100 mg/mouse of MOG 35-55 in CFA. Ten days later and CD4 + FoxP3:GFP + T reg were quantified by FACS.
  • CD4 + T cells from ITE-treated mice secreted higher amounts of TGFb1 and IL-10 and lower amounts of IL2, IL6, IFNg and IL17 upon activation with MOG 35-55 ( FIG. 22 ). Similar results were observed on the recall response to MOG 35-55 of mice treated with orally administered ITE ( FIG. 23 ).
  • IFNg + and IL17 + CD4 + T cells were quantified by FACS in the draining lymph nodes ten days after footpad immunization and intraperitoneal administration of ITE (200 mg/mice).
  • AHR activation with ITE led to a decrease in the frequency of CD4 + IL17 + and CD4 + IFNg + T cells ( FIG. 24 ).
  • Foxp3 gpf knock in mice were immunized with MOG 35-55 /CFA, treated daily with intreaperitoneal ITE (200 mg/mice) and MOG 35-55 -specific T reg (CD4 + FoxP3:GFP + ) and T eff (CD4 + FoxP3:GFP ⁇ ) were analyzed by FACS using recombinant MHC class II tetramers containing MBP 35-55 or the control peptide TMEV 70-86 .
  • CD4 + FoxP3:GFP + T reg To further analyze the MOG 35-55 -specific suppressive activity of the CD4 + FoxP3:GFP + T reg , they were cocultured at different ratios and assayed for the suppression of MOG 35-55 or anti-CD3-triggered proliferation of CD4 + FoxP3:GFP ⁇ T eff form 2D2 mice, which harbor a TCR specific for MOG 35-55 .
  • CD4 + FoxP3:GFP + T reg from ITE-treated mice displayed an increased MOG 35-55 -specific suppressive activity, which could be inhibited with antibodies blocking antibodies to TGFb1 ( FIGS. 27A-C ).
  • AHR is known to be expressed by antigen presenting cells (APC) such as dendritic cells (CD11c + ) and macrophages (CD11b + ) (Vorderstrasse and Kerkvliet, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 171, 117 (2001); Laupeze et al., J Immunol. 168, 2652 (2002); Hayashi et al., Carcinogenesis. 16, 1403 (1995); Komura et al., Mol Cell Biochem. 226, 107 (2001)).
  • APC antigen presenting cells
  • ITE is a tryptophan derivative which is thought to have a short half-life in vivo as a result of the activity of specific enzymes. Indeed, administration of ITE at weekly intervals, instead of daily, results in a complete loss of tis protective effects on EAE ( FIG. 30 ).
  • Gold colloid has been in use for over 50 years in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, these gold colloid nanoparticles have been shown to have little to no long-term toxicity or adverse effects (Paciotti et al., Drug Deliv. 11, 169 (2004)). Due to their small size (10-100nm diameter), gold colloid nanoparticles have large surface areas on which multiple small proteins or other molecules can be conjugated (Paciotti et al., Drug Deliv. 11, 169 (2004)). The PEGylation of gold colloid nanoparticles greatly enhances the overall stability of the molecule to which it is covalently bonded (Qian et al., Nat Biotechnol. 26, 83 (2008)).
  • PEGylated gold colloid nanoparticles carrying the AHR ligands FICZ, ITE or TCDD showed a typical spectrum of optical absorption ( FIG. 32 ). Moreover, FICZ, ITE or TCDD-loaded nanoparticles activated luciferase expression on an AHR-reporter cell line to levels similar to those achieved by 10 nM TCDD.
  • ITE-loaded nanoparticles can be used to activate AHR and expand the T reg compartment.
  • CD4 + T cells from mice treated with ITE-loaded nanoparticles secreted higher amounts of TGFb1 and IL-10 and lower amounts of IL2, IL6, IFNg and IL17 upon activation with MOG 35-55 ( FIG. 35 ).
  • T reg we activated purified na ⁇ ve CD4 + CD62L + CD45RO ⁇ T cells for healthy donors for 5 days with antibodies to CD3 and CD28 in the presence of TCDD 100 nM or TGFb1 2.5 ng/ml or both.
  • T cell activation in the presence of TCDD resulted in the induction of CD4 + FoxP3 + T cells in some ( FIG. 36 ) but not all human samples ( FIG. 37 ).
  • TGFb1 also up-regulated AHR expression levels several fold over the basal levels observed on T cells, however the AHR expression levels also did not correlate with the induction of suppressive activity as shown in co-culture assays ( FIG. 40 ).
  • TCDD treated expressed increased levels of IL-10, which where complete inhibited by TGFb1 ( FIG. 41 ). Accordingly, IL-10-specific blocking antibodies could interfere with the suppressive activity of T reg induced with TCDD, but not the of those induced with TGFb1 and TCDD ( FIG. 42 ).
  • TCDD-induced CD4 + CD25 High T cells are FoxP3 ⁇ regulatory cells whose suppressive activity is mediated, at least partially, via IL-10, resembling the phenotype of type 1 T reg (Roncarolo et al., Immunol Rev. 212, 28 (2006); Roncarolo and Gregori, Eur J Immunol. 38, 925 (2008)).

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US11179576B2 (en) 2010-03-19 2021-11-23 Avedro, Inc. Systems and methods for applying and monitoring eye therapy
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