JPH08160965A - Sound absorbing and shielding material - Google Patents
Sound absorbing and shielding materialInfo
- Publication number
- JPH08160965A JPH08160965A JP6304504A JP30450494A JPH08160965A JP H08160965 A JPH08160965 A JP H08160965A JP 6304504 A JP6304504 A JP 6304504A JP 30450494 A JP30450494 A JP 30450494A JP H08160965 A JPH08160965 A JP H08160965A
- Authority
- JP
- Japan
- Prior art keywords
- sound absorbing
- sound
- rubber
- layers
- layer
- Prior art date
- Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
- Granted
Links
- 239000000463 material Substances 0.000 title abstract description 10
- 239000011358 absorbing material Substances 0.000 claims abstract description 50
- 239000011810 insulating material Substances 0.000 claims description 30
- XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N water Substances O XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims description 8
- 230000003373 anti-fouling effect Effects 0.000 claims description 6
- 244000005700 microbiome Species 0.000 claims description 5
- 239000013013 elastic material Substances 0.000 abstract description 5
- 239000000853 adhesive Substances 0.000 abstract description 4
- 230000001070 adhesive effect Effects 0.000 abstract description 4
- 238000010030 laminating Methods 0.000 abstract description 2
- 230000001413 cellular effect Effects 0.000 abstract 1
- 230000003247 decreasing effect Effects 0.000 abstract 1
- 229910000831 Steel Inorganic materials 0.000 description 5
- 239000010959 steel Substances 0.000 description 5
- 230000005855 radiation Effects 0.000 description 3
- 241000238586 Cirripedia Species 0.000 description 2
- 241000237502 Ostreidae Species 0.000 description 2
- 238000013016 damping Methods 0.000 description 2
- 230000007423 decrease Effects 0.000 description 2
- 230000002542 deteriorative effect Effects 0.000 description 2
- 238000010586 diagram Methods 0.000 description 2
- 230000000694 effects Effects 0.000 description 2
- 238000009413 insulation Methods 0.000 description 2
- 235000020636 oyster Nutrition 0.000 description 2
- 239000013535 sea water Substances 0.000 description 2
- 238000003466 welding Methods 0.000 description 2
- 230000002301 combined effect Effects 0.000 description 1
- 239000002131 composite material Substances 0.000 description 1
- 230000006866 deterioration Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000000034 method Methods 0.000 description 1
- 239000003973 paint Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000002210 silicon-based material Substances 0.000 description 1
Abstract
Description
【0001】[0001]
【産業上の利用分野】この発明は、吸遮音材に係わり、
さらに詳しくは吸音材と遮音材とを組み合わせて一体的
に構成した吸遮音材に関するものである。BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a sound absorbing and insulating material,
More specifically, the present invention relates to a sound absorbing and insulating material integrally formed by combining a sound absorbing material and a sound insulating material.
【0002】[0002]
【従来の技術】従来、ソーナーを有する船舶に対する水
中放射雑音低減の対策としては、ソーナー近傍船底内側
に制振材を施工することが行われていた。2. Description of the Related Art Conventionally, as a measure for reducing underwater radiation noise in a ship having a sonar, a damping material has been installed inside the bottom of the ship near the sonar.
【0003】[0003]
【発明が解決しようとする課題】しかしながら、上記の
ような制振材を使用したものでは、水中放射雑音の低減
量は満足いくものではなかった。また、吸音材及び遮音
材を単独に使用する方法も提案されているが、これらは
それぞれ単独の効果を意図したものであり、吸音材と遮
音材との複合化した効果を考慮した構造のものではな
く、吸音材と遮音材との複合化したものは未だ存在して
いないのが現状である。However, in the case of using the above-described vibration damping material, the amount of reduction of underwater radiated noise was not satisfactory. In addition, there have been proposed methods of using the sound absorbing material and the sound insulating material alone, but these are intended to have a single effect, and have a structure considering the combined effect of the sound absorbing material and the sound insulating material. At present, there is no composite material of a sound absorbing material and a sound insulating material.
【0004】[0004]
【発明の目的】この発明は、かかる従来の課題に着目し
て案出されたもので、船舶の水中放射雑音を有効に低減
させることが出来る吸遮音材を提供することを目的とす
るものである。また、この発明の他の目的は吸音材層の
表面に、カキ、フジツボ類等が付着するのを防止し、吸
遮音材の耐久性及び吸遮音性能の低下を防止するように
した吸遮音材を提供することを目的とするものである。SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been devised in view of such conventional problems, and has as its object to provide a sound absorbing and insulating material capable of effectively reducing underwater radiated noise of a ship. is there. Another object of the present invention is to provide a sound-absorbing material that prevents oysters, barnacles, and the like from adhering to the surface of the sound-absorbing material layer, thereby preventing the durability and the sound absorbing and insulating performance of the sound absorbing and insulating material from being deteriorated. The purpose is to provide.
【0005】[0005]
【課題を解決するための手段】この発明は上記目的を達
成するため、ゴム状弾性体の内部に円柱状の空気層を有
する吸音層と、ゴム状弾性体の内部に空気層として独立
気泡ゴムにより構成した遮音層とを一体的に成形し、前
記吸音材層の固有音響インピーダンスを水の固有音響イ
ンピーダンスより小さい特性を有するようにしたことを
要旨とするものである。To achieve the above object, the present invention has a sound absorbing layer having a cylindrical air layer inside a rubber-like elastic body, and a closed-cell rubber as an air layer inside the rubber-like elastic body. The gist of the present invention is to integrally mold the sound insulation layer constituted by the above, so that the characteristic acoustic impedance of the sound absorbing layer is smaller than the characteristic acoustic impedance of water.
【0006】また、前記、吸遮音材の吸音層部の厚み
(Tm)は対象とする音波の波長(λm)との間に次の
関係式が成立する範囲に設定し、 さらに、前記吸音層の表面は、海洋微生物等の付着防止
用防汚ゴムを処理するようにしたものである。Further, the thickness (Tm) of the sound absorbing layer portion of the sound absorbing / insulating material is set within a range in which the following relational expression is established with the wavelength (λm) of the target sound wave, Further, the surface of the sound absorbing layer is treated with an antifouling rubber for preventing adhesion of marine microorganisms and the like.
【0007】[0007]
【発明の作用】この発明は上記のように構成され、船舶
の喫水下船底部に空気層として独立気泡ゴムを内在する
遮音材層を船体側に、さらにその上層にゴム状弾性体の
内部に円柱状の空気層を有する吸音材層を接着等により
一体的に積層構成して成る吸・遮音材を船体外板に接
着、スタッドボルト止め、又は薄鋼板に予め薄ゴムを加
硫接着し、この上に接着剤を用いて、接着し鋼板部分を
船体に溶接する事により、船舶の水中放射雑音低減する
ことを特徴としている。The present invention is constructed as described above, and a sound insulating material layer having a closed cell rubber therein as an air layer is provided on the hull side as an air layer at the bottom of the ship under the draft of the ship. A sound absorbing / insulating material formed by integrally laminating a sound absorbing material layer having a columnar air layer by bonding or the like is bonded to a hull outer plate, stud bolted, or thin rubber is previously vulcanized and bonded to a thin steel plate. It is characterized in that underwater radiation noise of ships is reduced by bonding using an adhesive and welding the steel plate to the hull.
【0008】また、吸音層の表面を、海洋微生物等の付
着防止用防汚ゴムで処理することにより、吸遮音材の耐
久性及び吸遮音性能の低下を防止することが出来るもの
である。Further, by treating the surface of the sound absorbing layer with an antifouling rubber for preventing the adhesion of marine microorganisms and the like, it is possible to prevent the durability and the sound absorbing and insulating performance of the sound absorbing and insulating material from deteriorating.
【0009】[0009]
【実施例】以下、添付図面に基づき、この発明の実施例
を説明する。図1は、この発明を実施した吸遮音材本体
1の一部断面図を示し、この吸遮音材本体1は、吸音材
層2と、遮音材層3とが接着剤等により一体的に積層構
成されている。Embodiments of the present invention will be described below with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a partial cross-sectional view of a sound absorbing and insulating material main body 1 embodying the present invention. In the sound absorbing and insulating material main body 1, a sound absorbing material layer 2 and a sound insulating material layer 3 are integrally laminated with an adhesive or the like. It is configured.
【0010】前記、吸音材層2の構成は、ゴム状弾性体
から成る上層カバー層4と、ゴム状弾性体の内部に円柱
状空洞5を有する吸音材層2とを多段的に重ね合わせて
接着剤等を介して接着されており、また、吸音材層2の
下層の遮音材層3は、ゴム状弾性体の格子中に、独立気
泡ゴム6を空気層保持の為のゴム部7に接着させた一体
化構造となっている。The structure of the sound absorbing material layer 2 is such that an upper cover layer 4 made of a rubber-like elastic material and a sound absorbing material layer 2 having a columnar cavity 5 inside the rubber-like elastic material are multi-tiered. The sound-insulating material layer 3 below the sound-absorbing material layer 2 is bonded to the rubber portion 7 for holding an air layer in a lattice of a rubber-like elastic body. It has an integrated structure bonded.
【0011】なお、吸音材層2の上層カバー層4は、カ
キ、フジツボ類等の海洋微生物が付着するのを防止させ
る為に、防汚材混入の層とする事も可能であり、防汚材
としては、シリコン系材料より成る防汚塗料を使用で
き、このようにすることで、吸遮音材の耐久性及び吸遮
音性能の低下を防止することが出来るものである。次
に、異媒質界面に音波が垂直に入射する時の原理を説明
する。水の固有音響インピーダンスZ1 、吸音材の固有
音響インピーダンスZ2 とした場合 Z1 =ρ1 C1 , Z2 =ρ2 C2 (ρ…密度、C…音速)となり、吸音材背面ソフトの状
態では、それぞれの間のインピーダンスZ1 、Z2 の関
係が重要になる。The upper cover layer 4 of the sound absorbing material layer 2 may be a layer mixed with an antifouling material in order to prevent the adhesion of marine microorganisms such as oysters and barnacles. As the material, an antifouling paint made of a silicon material can be used, and by doing so, it is possible to prevent the durability of the sound absorbing and insulating material and the deterioration of the sound absorbing and insulating performance. Next, the principle when a sound wave is perpendicularly incident on the interface between different media will be described. When the specific acoustic impedance of water is Z 1 and the specific acoustic impedance of the sound absorbing material is Z 2 , Z 1 = ρ 1 C 1 , Z 2 = ρ 2 C 2 (ρ: density, C: sound speed). In the state, the relationship between the impedances Z 1 and Z 2 becomes important.
【0012】図2及び図3に示すように、Z1 >Z2 と
した場合、図2のように吸音材の厚さを、音の波長
(λ)のλ/4とした場合には、反射率はキャンセルさ
れてゼロになり、又吸音材の厚さを、図3に示すよう
に、λ/2とした場合には、音の反射波が相乗されて反
射率が高くなる事がわかる。したがって、図2及び図3
のケースのように吸音材、遮音材の組み合わせ構造に於
いては、単に適当な厚みの製品を組み合わせるだけで
は、吸音材として十分な性能を発揮しない場合がある。As shown in FIGS. 2 and 3, when Z 1 > Z 2 and the thickness of the sound absorbing material is λ / 4 of the sound wavelength (λ) as shown in FIG. 2, It can be seen that the reflectance is canceled and becomes zero, and when the thickness of the sound absorbing material is set to λ / 2, as shown in FIG. 3, the reflected waves of sound are synergized to increase the reflectance. . Therefore, FIG. 2 and FIG.
In the combination structure of the sound absorbing material and the sound insulating material as in the case (1), there is a case where the performance as the sound absorbing material is not sufficiently exhibited only by combining a product having an appropriate thickness.
【0013】また、一般に音速(C)と周波数(F)及
び波長(λ)の間には、次の関係式が成立する。 λ=C/F また、目的とする周波数(F)で反射低減量(ER)を
大きくする為には、吸音材層厚み(T)は、図2、3よ
りλ/4以下にする必要があるので、上式は のように表される。In general, the following relational expression is established between the sound velocity (C) and the frequency (F) and the wavelength (λ). λ = C / F Further, in order to increase the reflection reduction amount (ER) at the target frequency (F), the sound absorbing material layer thickness (T) needs to be λ / 4 or less from FIGS. So there is It is represented as
【0014】一方、吸音材層として、吸音効果を期待出
来ると予想され、円柱状空洞が確保可能な最小厚みtと
すれば、上式のTの範囲は以下のように表される。 さらに、吸音材裏面に遮音材を使用した背面ソフトの状
態で、吸音材の薄型化を考慮した場合、その条件は吸音
材の音響インピーダンスを水の音響インピーダンスより
小さくすること、 つまり ρ1 C1 >ρ2 C2 一般に水のρ1 C1 は、これを単位換算すれば、 水(1気圧 0℃) 1.41×106 Kg/m2 ・sec 海水(1気圧 0℃) 1.48×106 Kg/m2 ・sec (出典:超音波便覧 P13 表1.1) となり、吸音材のρ2 C2 <1.48×106 Kg/m2 ・se
c (海水)に設計することにより薄型を考慮した吸遮音
材構造としての吸音材を提供できるものである。On the other hand, assuming that the sound absorbing material layer can be expected to have a sound absorbing effect and the minimum thickness t at which a cylindrical cavity can be secured, the range of T in the above equation is expressed as follows. Furthermore, in the case of a soft back surface using a sound insulating material on the back surface of the sound absorbing material, when the thickness of the sound absorbing material is reduced, the condition is that the acoustic impedance of the sound absorbing material is smaller than the acoustic impedance of water, that is, ρ 1 C 1 > Ρ 2 C 2 Generally, ρ 1 C 1 of water can be converted into water as follows: water (1 atm 0 ° C) 1.41 × 10 6 Kg / m 2 · sec seawater (1 atm 0 ° C) 1.48 × 10 6 Kg / M 2 · sec (Source: Ultrasonic Handbook P13, Table 1.1), and ρ 2 C 2 <1.48 × 10 6 Kg / m 2 · se of the sound absorbing material
By designing c (seawater), it is possible to provide a sound-absorbing material as a sound-absorbing and sound-absorbing material structure in consideration of thinness.
【0015】また、遮音材の場合は、遮音層としての空
気層の面積空間率及び厚みにより、遮音性能及び周波数
特性が変化する。一般的に、面積空間率が大きく及び厚
みが厚くなると低周波特性が改善される傾向にある。面
積空間率の場合は、空間率が大きくなると、反対にゴム
部が少なくなり、伝搬経路としてのゴム部が少なくなる
事により低周波化、遮音性能を高めることができるので
ある。In the case of a sound insulating material, the sound insulating performance and the frequency characteristics vary depending on the area porosity and the thickness of the air layer as the sound insulating layer. Generally, when the area porosity is large and the thickness is large, the low frequency characteristics tend to be improved. In the case of the area porosity, as the porosity increases, the number of rubber parts decreases, and the number of rubber parts as a propagation path decreases, so that lower frequency and sound insulation performance can be improved.
【0016】この発明は、上記のように構成され、例え
ば船舶の喫水下船底部に空気層として独立気泡ゴム6を
内在する遮音材層3を船体側に、さらに、その上層にゴ
ム状弾性体の内部に円柱状の空気層を有する吸音材層2
を接着等により一体的に積層構成して成る吸遮音本体1
を船体外板に接着、スタッドボルト止め、又は、予め鋼
板に加硫接着した物の鋼板部を溶接して取り付けること
により、船舶の水中放射雑音低減及びプロペラ雑音低減
することかできるのである。The present invention is constructed as described above. For example, a sound insulating material layer 3 having a closed-cell rubber 6 as an air layer is provided on the hull side as an air layer at the bottom of a ship under draft, and a rubber-like elastic body is further provided thereon. Sound absorbing material layer 2 having a cylindrical air layer inside
Sound absorbing and insulating main body 1 which is integrally laminated by bonding or the like
The underwater radiated noise and the propeller noise of the ship can be reduced by bonding the steel plate to the outer hull of the hull, stud bolting, or welding a steel plate portion of a material previously vulcanized and bonded to the steel plate.
【0017】[0017]
【発明の効果】この発明は、上記のようにゴム状弾性体
の内部に円柱状の空気層を有する吸音層と、ゴム状弾性
体の内部に空気層として独立気泡ゴムにより構成した遮
音層とを一体的に積層成型し、前記吸遮音材層の固有音
響インピーダンスを水の固有音響インピーダンスより小
さい特性を有するようにしたので、船舶の水中放射雑音
を有効に低減させることができる効果がある。As described above, according to the present invention, there is provided a sound absorbing layer having a cylindrical air layer inside the rubber-like elastic body, and a sound insulating layer made of closed-cell rubber as an air layer inside the rubber-like elastic body. Is integrally laminated, and the characteristic acoustic impedance of the sound absorbing / insulating material layer is smaller than the characteristic acoustic impedance of water, so that the underwater radiation noise of the ship can be effectively reduced.
【0018】また、吸音層の表面を、海洋微生物等の付
着防止用防汚ゴムで処理することにより、吸遮音材の耐
久性及び吸遮音性能の低下を防止することができるもの
である。Further, by treating the surface of the sound absorbing layer with an antifouling rubber for preventing adhesion of marine microorganisms and the like, it is possible to prevent the durability and the sound absorbing and insulating performance of the sound absorbing and insulating material from deteriorating.
【図1】この発明を実施した吸遮音材本体の一部断面図
である。FIG. 1 is a partial cross-sectional view of a sound absorbing and insulating material body embodying the present invention.
【図2】異媒体界面に音波が垂直入射する時の、反射率
の原理を示す説明図である。FIG. 2 is an explanatory diagram showing the principle of reflectance when a sound wave is perpendicularly incident on a different medium interface.
【図3】異媒体界面に音波が垂直入射する時の、反射率
の原理を示す説明図である。FIG. 3 is an explanatory diagram showing the principle of reflectance when a sound wave is perpendicularly incident on an interface between different media.
1 吸遮音材本体 2 吸音材層 3 遮音材層 4 上層カバー層 5 円柱状空洞 6 独立気泡ゴム 7 ゴム部 DESCRIPTION OF SYMBOLS 1 Sound absorbing and insulating material main body 2 Sound absorbing material layer 3 Sound insulating material layer 4 Upper cover layer 5 Cylindrical cavity 6 Closed cell rubber 7 Rubber part
───────────────────────────────────────────────────── フロントページの続き (72)発明者 三上 宏幸 神奈川県横須賀市森崎4−25−4 (72)発明者 鈴木 衛 神奈川県横須賀市久里浜台2−8−11 (72)発明者 菊地 英雄 神奈川県平塚市追分2−1 横浜ゴム株式 会社平塚製造所内 (72)発明者 松尾 行夫 神奈川県平塚市追分2−1 横浜ゴム株式 会社平塚製造所内 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────── ─── Continuation of the front page (72) Inventor Hiroyuki Mikami 4-25-4 Morisaki, Yokosuka City, Kanagawa Prefecture (72) Inventor Mamoru Suzuki 2-8-11, Kurihamadai, Yokosuka City, Kanagawa Prefecture (72) Hideo Kikuchi 2-1 Oiwake, Hiratsuka-shi, Kanagawa Yokohama Rubber Co., Ltd. Hiratsuka Factory (72) Inventor, Yukio Matsuo 2-1 Hiratsuka, Hiratsuka City, Kanagawa Hiratsuka Factory, Yokohama Rubber Co., Ltd.
Claims (3)
有する吸音層と、ゴム状弾性体の内部に空気層として独
立気泡ゴムにより構成した遮音層とを一体的に成形し、
前記吸音材層の固有音響インピーダンスを水の固有音響
インピーダンスより小さい特性を有するようにしたこと
を特徴とする吸遮音材。1. A sound absorbing layer having a cylindrical air layer inside a rubber-like elastic body, and a sound insulating layer made of closed-cell rubber as an air layer inside the rubber-like elastic body are integrally molded,
A sound absorbing and insulating material, characterized in that the sound absorbing material layer has a characteristic acoustic impedance smaller than that of water.
m)は対象とする音波の波長(λm)との間に次の関係
式が成立する範囲に設定した請求項1に記載の吸遮音
材。 2. The thickness (T) of the sound absorbing layer portion of the sound absorbing and insulating material.
The sound absorbing / insulating material according to claim 1, wherein m) is set in a range in which the following relational expression holds with the wavelength (λm) of the target sound wave.
着防止用防汚ゴムを処理した請求項1に記載の吸遮音
材。3. The sound absorbing and insulating material according to claim 1, wherein the surface of the sound absorbing layer is treated with an antifouling rubber for preventing adhesion of marine microorganisms and the like.
Priority Applications (1)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
JP6304504A JP2660257B2 (en) | 1994-12-08 | 1994-12-08 | Sound absorbing and insulating material |
Applications Claiming Priority (1)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
JP6304504A JP2660257B2 (en) | 1994-12-08 | 1994-12-08 | Sound absorbing and insulating material |
Publications (2)
Publication Number | Publication Date |
---|---|
JPH08160965A true JPH08160965A (en) | 1996-06-21 |
JP2660257B2 JP2660257B2 (en) | 1997-10-08 |
Family
ID=17933837
Family Applications (1)
Application Number | Title | Priority Date | Filing Date |
---|---|---|---|
JP6304504A Expired - Lifetime JP2660257B2 (en) | 1994-12-08 | 1994-12-08 | Sound absorbing and insulating material |
Country Status (1)
Country | Link |
---|---|
JP (1) | JP2660257B2 (en) |
Cited By (3)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
CN106049697A (en) * | 2016-07-14 | 2016-10-26 | 周小平 | Symmetrical sound insulation plate |
CN110580895A (en) * | 2019-09-24 | 2019-12-17 | 哈尔滨工程大学 | sound baffle combination for underwater detection equipment |
CN113823252A (en) * | 2021-08-26 | 2021-12-21 | 南京航空航天大学 | Petal-shaped channel-rubber composite underwater sound absorption structure |
Citations (5)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
JPS59222895A (en) * | 1983-05-31 | 1984-12-14 | 住友電気工業株式会社 | Sound absorbing material |
JPS62120800U (en) * | 1986-01-25 | 1987-07-31 | ||
JPH04130287A (en) * | 1990-09-20 | 1992-05-01 | Mitsubishi Heavy Ind Ltd | Underwater sound-absorbing body |
JPH0453576U (en) * | 1990-09-12 | 1992-05-07 | ||
JPH06222778A (en) * | 1993-01-21 | 1994-08-12 | Towa Seisakusho:Kk | Sound absorbing rubber |
-
1994
- 1994-12-08 JP JP6304504A patent/JP2660257B2/en not_active Expired - Lifetime
Patent Citations (5)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
JPS59222895A (en) * | 1983-05-31 | 1984-12-14 | 住友電気工業株式会社 | Sound absorbing material |
JPS62120800U (en) * | 1986-01-25 | 1987-07-31 | ||
JPH0453576U (en) * | 1990-09-12 | 1992-05-07 | ||
JPH04130287A (en) * | 1990-09-20 | 1992-05-01 | Mitsubishi Heavy Ind Ltd | Underwater sound-absorbing body |
JPH06222778A (en) * | 1993-01-21 | 1994-08-12 | Towa Seisakusho:Kk | Sound absorbing rubber |
Cited By (4)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
CN106049697A (en) * | 2016-07-14 | 2016-10-26 | 周小平 | Symmetrical sound insulation plate |
CN110580895A (en) * | 2019-09-24 | 2019-12-17 | 哈尔滨工程大学 | sound baffle combination for underwater detection equipment |
CN113823252A (en) * | 2021-08-26 | 2021-12-21 | 南京航空航天大学 | Petal-shaped channel-rubber composite underwater sound absorption structure |
CN113823252B (en) * | 2021-08-26 | 2023-12-19 | 南京航空航天大学 | Petal-shaped channel-rubber composite underwater sound absorption structure |
Also Published As
Publication number | Publication date |
---|---|
JP2660257B2 (en) | 1997-10-08 |
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