Classifications

• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
  • G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
  • G01T1/16—Measuring radiation intensity
  • G01T1/167—Measuring radioactive content of objects, e.g. contamination
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
  • G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
  • G01T1/16—Measuring radiation intensity
  • G01T1/169—Exploration, location of contaminated surface areas
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
  • G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
  • G01T1/36—Measuring spectral distribution of X-rays or of nuclear radiation spectrometry
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G06—COMPUTING; CALCULATING OR COUNTING
  • G06N—COMPUTING ARRANGEMENTS BASED ON SPECIFIC COMPUTATIONAL MODELS
  • G06N3/00—Computing arrangements based on biological models
  • G06N3/02—Neural networks
  • G06N3/08—Learning methods

Definitions

• the invention relates to a method and a device for identifying species emitting X or gamma radiation, and preferably for quantitatively determining the contribution of each species to the radiation. It falls within the technical field of nuclear instrumentation, and more precisely of
• the invention is applicable whenever it is necessary to identify radionuclides and / or atomic species exhibiting X-ray fluorescence in a sample or in an environment: radiochemistry, chemical and radiochemical analyzes, decontamination and dismantling nuclear sites, etc.
• X or gamma radiation is understood to mean electromagnetic radiation of energy greater than 100 eV; more particularly, in the context of the invention, we are interested in radiation of energy between about 2 keV and 2 MeV.
• an X-ray radiation has an origin
• the invention makes it possible to identify radionuclides (isotopes) from their gamma radiation spectrum and atomic species that are not necessarily radioactive from their X-ray fluorescence spectrum.
• the atomic species can be identified from their spectrum.
• radionuclides that can be identified from their gamma spectrum are referred to together as "emitting species”.
• emitting species are radionuclides but, unless otherwise indicated, all that will be said can also apply to X emitters.
• the conventional methods of identifying radionuclides from their gamma radiation are mainly based on the extraction of the peaks photoelectric in the spectrum resulting from the acquisition of the detector or on the study of areas of interest in the spectrum. See for example (Lutter 2018).
• radionuclides of interest gamma or X lines
• gamma or X lines are fitted with a Gaussian model and a continuous background to deduce their position in energy.
• One or more peaks present in the spectrum are compared simultaneously with the tables of nuclear lines of the radioactive isotopes (or with the X-ray fluorescence lines of the various elements), which allows their identification.
• Such methods can be accompanied by artificial intelligence techniques, and in particular neural networks.
• igneron 1995 had proposed to analyze gamma emission peaks by means of a neural network of the "multilayer perceptron" type to determine the rate
• US 2019/034786 discloses, in general and with few details, the use of a multilayer perceptron to detect or identify
• the perceptron can present several outputs, each corresponding to an emitting species or to a group of emitting species.
• CN 109,063,741 also discloses the use of neural networks to detect or identify radionuclides. More specifically, the document discloses the conversion of spectra into two-dimensional images by means of a Hilbert curve before the application of a neural network.
• the invention aims to overcome the aforementioned drawbacks of the prior art. More particularly, it aims to allow the identification of any number of emitting atomic species in a mixture from the X or gamma spectrum of the latter, and this regardless of the configuration of the scene (presence of absorbing or diffusing material between the source (s) present in environment and spectrometric detector) and without sophisticated pre-processing including the identification of regions of interest in the spectrum.
• the invention aims to determine the probability of the presence of each of the emitting species, and preferably an uncertainty about this probability.
• the invention aims to determine the proportion in the signal of each identified source, as well as to provide an uncertainty on this proportion.
• the invention aims to allow the use of different types of spectrometric detector (CdTe, CdZnTe, Hgl 2 , Nal, HPGe or any type of gamma spectrometer operating in the energy band from keV to
• MeV Considering that it is capable of measuring and restoring the energy of each event detected, event by event, or at least, of providing the spectrum of the energies measured.
• the invention aims to make it possible to avoid long and complex fine-energy calibration operations and to overcome possible drifts of the detector or of operational conditions over time.
• a factory calibration with an error of around 2% should be sufficient to identify the emitting species and, if necessary, determine their proportion.
• At least some of these goals are achieved through the use of a plurality of convolutional-type neural networks, each responsible for identifying a single emitter species.
• each neuron could be tasked with identifying a distinct group of emitter species.
• At least some of these goals are achieved through the use of a second plurality of convolutional type neural networks, each responsible for determining the proportion of a only emitting species (or group of emitting species) already identified.
• these neural networks are trained from synthetic spectral data.
• the spectra supplied as input to the neural networks for identifying the emitting species are previously converted to the logarithmic scale.
• a "dropout" operation (random extinction of a fraction of the neurons of the inner layers) is applied to these neural networks in order to determine the levels of uncertainty on the presence. , and where appropriate on the proportion, of each emitting species.
• the different neural networks each have a pair of complementary output neurons, for example using an activation function of the "softmax" type.
• this information is used to perform an energy "self-calibration" of the detector.
• An object of the invention is therefore a method for identifying species emitting X or gamma radiation in a scene, the method comprising the following steps:
• a) acquire, by means of a spectrometric detector, a spectrum of X or gamma radiation from the scene;
• each convolutional neural network of said first set being associated with a respective emitting species to be identified, or with a group of emitting species to identify respective and having at least one output;
• steps a) to d) being implemented by means of a signal processing circuit.
• Another object of the invention is a computer program product
• Yet another object of the invention is a device for identifying species emitting X or gamma radiation in a scene, comprising:
• circuits for processing signals generated by a spectrometric detector said circuit being configured or programmed for:
• each event being associated with a physical quantity representative of an energy value of an X or gamma photon detected by said spectrometric detector;
• each convolutional neural network of said first set being associated with a respective emitting species, or with a respective group of emitting species, and having at least one outlet;
• the signal processing circuit generated by the radiation detector can also be configured or programmed for:
• each convolutional neural network of said second set being associated with one or more respective emitting species having been determined as being present in the scene and having at least one outlet;
• each convolutional neural network of the second set determines as a function of said scalar output or pair of scalar outputs, a signal proportion of the species or of the corresponding emitting species.
• the signal processing circuit generated by the radiation detector can also be configured or programmed to determine optimal values of said calibration parameters by maximizing a correlation function between an acquired spectrum and a theoretical spectrum calculated as a function emitter species determined to be present in the scene.
• Each convolutional neural network can be associated with a single respective emitter species.
• Each convolutional neural network can comprise a pair of complementary output neurons.
• the X or gamma photons detected can exhibit an energy in at least part of the range between 2 keV and 2 MeV.
• the device can also include said spectrometric detector (SPM).
• SPM spectrometric detector
• FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a device according to one embodiment of the invention.
• FIG. 2 is a representation of a convolutional neural network that can be used in a device and / or a method according to the invention.
• FIG. 3 is a flowchart of a method according to one embodiment of the invention.
• FIG. 4 is an example of an X or gamma radiation spectrum.
• FIG. 5 illustrates the identification of atomic species at the origin of
• FIG. 6 illustrates the determination of the proportions of these atomic species.
• FIG. 7F illustrate the benefit of using neural networks with two complementary outputs rather than a single output.
• FIG. 8C illustrate the benefit of using separate neural networks for the identification of atomic species and for the quantification of their contribution to radiation.
• the device of [Fig. 1] comprises a spectrometric detector of
• X or gamma radiation i.e. a detector sensitive to the energy of the photons detected
• CTS processing circuit for signals generated by the radiation detector.
• the SPM spectrometric detector comprises a sensitive element ES, preferably pixelated, an analog reading circuit EL and a converter
• the spectrometric detector acquires photons from an SC scene in which are located different radionuclides (or atomic species emitting X fluorescence radiation) S, (Si ... SN) of activity A, (Ai ... AN) - whose identity and relative abundance are unknown a priori - potentially located at different distances from the detector.
• Absorbent or diffusing ABS material may lie between one or more sources and the detector.
• Each radionuclide S emits photons P, at energies E k , i.
• Pi (E k, i ) denotes a photon of energy E k, i emitted by the first radionuclide Si.
• the sensitive element ES can be of any type suitable for detecting X / gamma photons from the scene in at least a portion of the range
• spectral 2 keV - 2 MeV It may be, for example, a semiconductor pixel made of Si, Ge, CdTe, etc., a scintillator sensor, a perovskite sensor, etc.
• the sensitive element generates a signal in the form of a physical quantity, generally electrical, representative of the energy of each X or gamma photon received (typically, it is a current pulse whose charge electric is proportional to this energy).
• the EL reading electronic circuit performs conventional analog preprocessing of the signals coming from the sensitive element: amplification, pulse shaping, detection of their height or energy.
• the analog signals SA from the readout electronics are converted into digital format by the ADC converter.
• the photons are detected one by one, their energy is recorded and dated by the detector.
• This information contained in the digital data stream FDN coming from the converter ADC, is transmitted to the processing circuit CTS.
• the latter can be on board or deported; in the latter case, a telecommunications link must be established between the spectrometric detector and the processing circuit.
• the signal processing circuit can comprise one or more generic processors, or ones specialized for the digital processing of signals, programmed in a timely manner. As a variant or in addition, it can include dedicated digital circuits. In general, moreover, it includes random access memories to store the data to be processed (in particular the events generated by the spectrometric detector) and active and / or dead memories to store calibration parameters, neural network coefficients, etc. . In general, the invention is not limited to a particular technology for making the signal processing circuit. In the following description of this circuit, the breakdown into blocks and modules is purely functional, these blocks and modules do not necessarily correspond to distinct physical elements.
• the signal processing circuit CTS comprises three modules: a source identification module ID, a learning module APP and a self-calibration module AE.
• the training module may be absent, in which case the training of the neural networks of the identification module is performed by means of another device and the coefficients of the learned neural networks are simply transferred to the issuing species identification device.
• the self-calibration module may be absent, but this means that an accurate calibration must be performed beforehand (for example, in a laboratory metrology) and that precautions should be taken to minimize drifts in the response of the spectrometric detector.
• the FDN digital data stream from the spectrometric detector is received by the identification module of the CTS circuit and stored in an MEV event memory.
• An MCS spectra building module converts these events into spectra using a TE calibration table, stored in memory, which allows photon energy to be associated with each detection event.
• This calibration table established beforehand, can be relatively imprecise, with an error in the energy values which can reach 2%.
• the AE auto-calibration module allows updating of calibration tables improving their accuracy. In the case of a pixelated detector, the calibration is done pixel by pixel, with a different calibration table for each pixel.
• Each spectrum is in fact an energy histogram: an energy value is assigned to each event; the events are grouped into energy classes ("bins") and the spectrum is made up of the number of events belonging to each class.
• the term "spectrum” therefore means the spectral distribution of the photons detected over a given time interval, the duration of which can be fixed or chosen by the user.
• a module for transforming MTD data then performs preprocessing of the spectra.
• preprocessing of the spectra In the embodiment considered here, two separate pre-treatments are carried out.
• each acquired spectrum is converted to the logarithmic scale, then normalized.
• the spectrum thus transformed, SNlog is used for the identification of the emitting species. More specifically, let Si be the number of events in the i-th energy class. We apply a first operation
• [0072] is used to determine the proportions of the identified emitting species.
• the preprocessing can be a transformation of scale.
• the preprocessed spectra remain one-dimensional.
• the SNlog spectrum is supplied as input to a CBNNJD module which implements a plurality of M “bayesian” convolutional neural networks, each taking the entire spectrum as input and providing at its output a value PPj indicative of a probability of the presence in the scene of a particular radionuclide (identified by the index "j"), as well as a level of confidence in this probability.
• PPj a probability of the presence in the scene of a particular radionuclide
• An MS thresholding module is used to determine which emitting species are considered to be actually present in the scene. For this, the thresholding module takes into account the probability of presence and, possibly, its level of uncertainty.
• the spectrum normalized in standard 1, SN1 is supplied as input to a CBNN_PRO module which implements a plurality of M “bayesian” convolutional neural networks, each corresponding to a particular radionuclide.
• Each neural network of the CBNN_PRO module which corresponds to a radionuclide “j” already identified as being present in the scene takes as input the entire spectrum and provides at its output a value PROj indicative of the proportion of this radionuclide in the recorded signal , as well as a level of confidence in this proportion.
• the value PROj corresponds to the percentage of recorded photons which can be attributed to the radionuclide "j" (by abuse of language one speaks more simply of the proportion of the radionuclide "j" in the scene, but this is only correct in special conditions, if all the emitters are at the same distance from the detector and in the presence of the same absorbent / scattering materials).
• neural networks can be of the same type as those used for
• the neural networks of the CBNNJD and CBNN_PRO modules were previously trained by supervised learning from a synthetic BDS database, that is to say simulated data, generated by the APP learning module.
• the learning produces two parameter databases, PRNJD and PRN_PRO, characterizing neural networks
• the synthetic spectra are created by a Monte-Carlo simulator (SS block in [Fig. 1]) which makes it possible to simulate the photon-matter interactions in the detector as well as in the direct environment of the detector and, advantageously, possible background noise. For each photon, it is then necessary to apply the response of the detector, that is to say, the energy resolution due to statistical fluctuations in the creation of electron-hole pairs, that due to electronic noise as well as the loss. load in the detector (RD block). It is a physical model which is applied only once for a list of given source of interest comprising as many sources as desired. Each emitting atomic species is simulated independently and the simulated data are restored in the form of a list of events giving the energy deposited by each photon in the spectrometric detector.
• MIX block mixtures of different radioelements are also generated synthetically: for this, energies are randomly drawn from the energy lists simulated for each radioelement in the mixture, with different statistics and different proportions. The proportion of photons attributed to each emitting atomic species is recorded.
• the AJD1 - AJDM blocks implement the supervised learning algorithms of the M convolutional neural networks of the CBNNJD block, and produce M sets of parameters characterizing each of these neural networks; these parameters are stored in the aforementioned BDNJD database.
• the A_PR01 - A_PROM blocks implement the supervised learning algorithms of the M convolutional neural networks of the CBNN_PRO block, and produce M sets of parameters characterizing each of these neural networks; these parameters are stored in the aforementioned BDN_PRO database.
• the synthetic sources of the SS block are also used by the AE module in order to implement a self-calibration process of the spectrometric detector.
• the AE module By knowing the radionuclides present in the source and their proportions (data provided by the ID identification module), it is indeed possible to use these synthetic sources to calculate an “expected” spectrum.
• a An adaptive mesh or genetic algorithm type algorithm is then used by the ECC block to find a set of calibration parameters which maximizes the correlation between this expected spectrum and that supplied by the MCS module. These parameters are used to update the calibration tables used by the ID module. Note that some blocks (MEV, MCS, SS, TE) appear in several places in [Fig. 1] for the sake of readability.
• the ECC block implements the energy calibration algorithm by correlation described in (Maier 2016).
• This calibration does not require user intervention and is based only on the measurement carried out in real time in the scene to be analyzed
• a convolutional network comprises a first part composed of several convolution layers making it possible to extract different characteristics of the input spectra and a second part consisting of a multilayer perceptron (in the English language literature we also speak of “fully-connected” layers, that is to say
• the input is an SP0 spectrum comprising 2000 channels, each channel being a representative value of the spectrum energy in a respective spectral range.
• the first convolutional layer CC1 comprises 16 convolutional neurons. Each convolutional neuron does the following:
• the size 2 MaxPooling operation consists of taking the spectrum and keeping only one channel out of two, the largest. This reduces the dimension of the spectrum by a factor of 2.
• the batch normalization operation known per se, see (loffe 2015) - consists in gathering the data from the learning database by subsets called batches or "batches", performing an iteration of learning on each of the batches (as will be described later), then normalize on average and in variance the outputs of each neuron corresponding to the batch considered. After training, the normalization settings across the database are saved to apply the same normalization when using neural networks for identifying and determining the proportions of emitter species.
• the ReLU activation function is defined by:
• ReLU (x) max (0, x).
• the output of the first convolutional layer therefore consists of 16 spectra of characteristics SP1, 0 - SP1, 15 of dimension 1000. These data are supplied as input to the second convolutional layer CC2 which is in all respects similar to the first , except in that it operates on data of dimension 1000.
• the output of the second convolutional layer therefore consists of 16 spectra of characteristics SP2.0 - SP2.15 of dimension 1000.
• These data are supplied as input to the third convolutional layer CC3 which is in all respects similar to the first two. , except in that it operates on data of dimension 500 and that its output therefore consists of 16 spectra of
• SPA4 vector of 4000 elements which are all supplied as input to each of the 20 neurons of a perceptron layer CP using, like the convolutional layers, a ReLU type activation function.
• the last layer, or output layer, CS of the perceptron is
• [0103] j being the index which identifies the two output neurons.
• the first neuron of the output layer gives a number between 0 and 1 which represents the absence or presence of the radioelement in the mixture, while the second neuron is the
• the first neuron gives a number between 0 and 1 which corresponds to the signal proportion of the
• radioelement while the second neuron is the signal proportion of all other elements.
• the parameters or coefficients of the neural networks are learned, in a supervised manner, using for example a gradient descent algorithm.
• a stochastic gradient descent algorithm is used with a learning rate of 0.01 which decreases by 0.001 at each iteration, a moment of 0.9 and the use of the Nesterov moment, the training being carried out over 10 iterations on batches of 1000 examples.
• the cost function used and minimized during the learning phase for this identification network is binary cross entropy, defined as:
• the learning of the ratio evaluation network is carried out with the synthetic spectra normalized to standard 1.
• the output to be predicted by the first neuron is the proportion of the radioelement in the mixture and that of the second neuron is the proportion of the other radioelements.
• Each neural network is applied a plurality of times to each input spectrum and, due to the random extinction of the neurons, each time it returns a different result, the statistical distribution of which provides information on the uncertainty affecting the identification of d 'an emitting atomic species and / or its proportion.
• the rate of neuron extinction is 50% for each of the intermediate layers and each neural network is applied 100 times.
• FIG. 3 schematically illustrates the process for identifying emitting atomic species described above.
• Step a) comprises acquiring a spectrum using the SPM spectrometric detector.
• Step b) comprises the transformation of the data prior to the application of the identification neural networks - that is to say, in a preferred embodiment of the invention - the conversion of the spectrum to the logarithmic scale and its normalization.
• Step c) comprises the application of convolutional neural networks, preferably Bayesian, to the spectrum transformed by step c).
• Step d) comprises the identification of the emitting species present in the scene as a function of the outputs of the identification neural networks.
• Step e) comprises the transformation of the data prior to the application of the proportion neural networks - that is to say, in a preferred embodiment of the invention - the normalization of the spectrum into a standard 1.
• Step f) comprises the application of convolutional neural networks, preferably Bayesian, to the spectrum transformed by step e).
• Step g) comprises determining the proportions of the emitting species identified in step d) according to the outputs of the proportion neural networks.
• Step h) corresponds to the self-calibration, which updates the tables
• the preliminary step app) corresponds to the learning of the neural networks used in steps c) and f).
• the process can stop at step c) if only the identification of the emitting species is required, or even at step g) if self-calibration is not used.
• the invention has been tested using, as a spectrometric detector, a pixelated spectro-imager based on CdTe semiconductor and its optimized read circuits (Gevin 2012).
• the spectro-imager comprises 256 pixels at 800 ⁇ m pitch with 2 mm thickness, an energy dynamic of 1 keV to 1 MeV, and an energy resolution of 0.7 keV (full width at half height) at 60 keV.
• the spectro-imager was installed in a vacuum chamber, cooled by Peltier modules to a temperature of approximately -15 ° C. and subjected to a polarization field of 300 V / mm.
• the signal recorded by the read circuits is transmitted to a Zynq programmable digital circuit via a CIF interface card.
• the digital circuit stores the events and transmits them to a control computer on which the spectro-identification process is carried out.
• the events are returned as a list containing the interaction pixel, the uncalibrated deposited energy and the interaction date.
• the sum spectrum of all the pixels is pre-calibrated with a calibration table determined in advance by a unique initial calibration in the laboratory (as a variant, the theoretical transfer function of the acquisition chain could be applied).
• a Geant4 simulator can also be used to perform these simulations.
• the simulation domain has been extended to 2 electrodes on either side of the electrode on which the signal is induced.
• a finite element resolution method could have been used.
• the CCE pressure drop was calculated as a function of the depth zO using the Hecht equation:
• E CCE E f .
• the synthetic spectra were obtained by making a histogram composed of 2000 channels of 0.5 keV in width on an energy dynamic of 0 to 1 MeV.
• FIG. 4 shows a spectrum (shown on a logarithmic scale) obtained by exposing the spectro-imager to a mixture comprising 57Co and 137Cs. Note that the number of photons detected is relatively low, in the order of a few thousand.
• FIG. 5 illustrates the output values of several identification neural networks, corresponding to these nuclides but also to others which are not present in the scene (241 Am, 133Ba, 152Eu, 22Na). Specifically, as each neural network is applied 100 times by randomly switching off 50% of the neurons at each repetition, we obtain a statistical distribution of the outputs. The vertical bars represent the medians, the error boxes correspond to the first and third quartiles, and the error bars to the first and ninth deciles.
• the detection threshold is set at 0.5 on the median, which is natural if we consider that the output of an identification network represents the probability of the presence of the corresponding emitting species. We note that the statistical dispersion of the outputs is negligible for the radionuclides actually present and, for the others, sufficiently low not to create any risk of false positive.
• FIG. 6 illustrates the statistical distribution (median and error bar corresponding to the first and ninth deciles) of the proportions of 57Co and 137Cs (more precisely, of their contributions to the total number of photons detected), obtained by applying 100 times the networks of proportion neurons
• FIGs 7A to 7F illustrate the advantage provided by the use of neural networks having two complementary outputs with an activation function of the softmax type.
• the continuous line curves represent the rate of correct responses (1: absence of identification errors) in the case of a softmax activation function as a function of the number of photons detected, while the curve in hatched line corresponds to single output neurons, with a sigmoid activation function (the softmax function cannot be used with a single output neuron, it would always return 1).
• Each point in these graphs corresponds to the average rate of correct answers over 2,500 mixtures of sources.
• the different graphs correspond to different radionuclides: 241 Am ([Fig. 7A]), 133Ba ([Fig. 7B]), 22Na ([Fig. 3C]), 152Eu ([Fig. 7D]); 137Cs ([Fig. 7E]), 57Co ([Fig. 7F]).
• the rate of correct responses is close to or greater than 0.9 as soon as the number of photons reaches 103.
• An important aspect of the invention is the separation of the steps of identifying the emitter species and determining their proportions, which are carried out by distinct sets of neural networks.
• a neural network with a plurality of emitting species, for example a family of species exhibiting similar spectra. In this case, it is not individual species that are identified, but groups or families of species.
• convolutional-type neural networks confers great robustness with respect to calibration errors (temporal instability of the calibration law, variable instrumental responses from one spectrometric detector to another) as well as configuration changes (presence of absorbent or diffusing materials between the source (s) and the detector (s)
• Bayesian approach makes it possible to quantify an error in the probability of the presence of each source, which informs the user of the relevance of the results and therefore of the degree of confidence that he can grant to an automatic analysis.
• the number of convolutional and perceptron-type layers, the activation functions, the data reduction method, the size of the convolutional nuclei, etc. are given as an example only. Moreover, all neural networks do not have to be the same.
• Criteria other than a threshold of 0.5 can be used to determine whether an atomic species is considered to be present or absent, in particular if it is preferred to minimize the risk of false positives or, conversely, of false negatives.
• Each neural network can have more than two outputs - for example an output indicative of the probability of the presence of an emitting species, an output indicative of the probability of its absence and an output indicative of an indeterminate situation.
• these outputs are complementary (that is to say that their sum takes a fixed value, typically 1).
• the activation function outputs can be of the Softmax type, but other possibilities can be envisaged by those skilled in the art.

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