EP3800521A1 - Auf tiefenlernen basierende bewegungssteuerung eines fahrzeugs - Google Patents

Auf tiefenlernen basierende bewegungssteuerung eines fahrzeugs Download PDF

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EP3800521A1
EP3800521A1 EP19465568.4A EP19465568A EP3800521A1 EP 3800521 A1 EP3800521 A1 EP 3800521A1 EP 19465568 A EP19465568 A EP 19465568A EP 3800521 A1 EP3800521 A1 EP 3800521A1
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controller
model
neural network
autonomous
processor
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EP3800521B1 (de
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Sorin Mihai Grigorescu
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Elektrobit Automotive GmbH
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Elektrobit Automotive GmbH
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Priority to US17/060,259 priority patent/US20210096576A1/en
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    • G—PHYSICS
    • G05—CONTROLLING; REGULATING
    • G05D—SYSTEMS FOR CONTROLLING OR REGULATING NON-ELECTRIC VARIABLES
    • G05D1/00—Control of position, course, altitude or attitude of land, water, air or space vehicles, e.g. using automatic pilots
    • G05D1/02—Control of position or course in two dimensions
    • G05D1/021—Control of position or course in two dimensions specially adapted to land vehicles
    • G05D1/0212—Control of position or course in two dimensions specially adapted to land vehicles with means for defining a desired trajectory
    • G05D1/0221—Control of position or course in two dimensions specially adapted to land vehicles with means for defining a desired trajectory involving a learning process
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G06—COMPUTING; CALCULATING OR COUNTING
    • G06N—COMPUTING ARRANGEMENTS BASED ON SPECIFIC COMPUTATIONAL MODELS
    • G06N3/00—Computing arrangements based on biological models
    • G06N3/004—Artificial life, i.e. computing arrangements simulating life
    • G06N3/006—Artificial life, i.e. computing arrangements simulating life based on simulated virtual individual or collective life forms, e.g. social simulations or particle swarm optimisation [PSO]
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G06—COMPUTING; CALCULATING OR COUNTING
    • G06N—COMPUTING ARRANGEMENTS BASED ON SPECIFIC COMPUTATIONAL MODELS
    • G06N3/00—Computing arrangements based on biological models
    • G06N3/02—Neural networks
    • G06N3/04—Architecture, e.g. interconnection topology
    • G06N3/044—Recurrent networks, e.g. Hopfield networks
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G06—COMPUTING; CALCULATING OR COUNTING
    • G06N—COMPUTING ARRANGEMENTS BASED ON SPECIFIC COMPUTATIONAL MODELS
    • G06N3/00—Computing arrangements based on biological models
    • G06N3/02—Neural networks
    • G06N3/04—Architecture, e.g. interconnection topology
    • G06N3/045—Combinations of networks
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G06—COMPUTING; CALCULATING OR COUNTING
    • G06N—COMPUTING ARRANGEMENTS BASED ON SPECIFIC COMPUTATIONAL MODELS
    • G06N3/00—Computing arrangements based on biological models
    • G06N3/02—Neural networks
    • G06N3/04—Architecture, e.g. interconnection topology
    • G06N3/049—Temporal neural networks, e.g. delay elements, oscillating neurons or pulsed inputs
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G06—COMPUTING; CALCULATING OR COUNTING
    • G06N—COMPUTING ARRANGEMENTS BASED ON SPECIFIC COMPUTATIONAL MODELS
    • G06N3/00—Computing arrangements based on biological models
    • G06N3/02—Neural networks
    • G06N3/08—Learning methods
    • G06N3/084—Backpropagation, e.g. using gradient descent

Definitions

  • the present invention is related to a controller for a vehicle, in particular for an autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicle, to a computer program implementing such a controller, and to an autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicle comprising such a controller.
  • the invention is further related to a method, a computer program and an apparatus for training the controller.
  • the invention is related to a nonlinear approximator for an automatic estimation of an optimal desired trajectory and to a computer program implementing such a nonlinear approximator.
  • An autonomous vehicle is an intelligent agent, which observes its environment, makes decisions and performs actions based on these decisions.
  • autonomous driving systems are based on separated environment perception systems, which pass the obtained information to path planners, which further pass a calculated path planning to a motion controller of the car.
  • autonomous driving systems map sensory input to control output and are implemented either as modular perception-planning-action pipelines [1], or as End2End [2] or Deep Reinforcement Learning [3] systems, which directly map observations to driving commands.
  • modular pipeline the main problem is divided into smaller sub-problems, where each module is designed to solve a specific task and offer input to the adjoining component.
  • such an approach does not scale to a large number of driving scenarios and the intrinsic relations between perception, path planning and motion control are not taken into account.
  • Deep learning has become a leading technology in many domains, enabling autonomous vehicles to perceive their driving environment and take actions accordingly.
  • the current solutions for autonomous driving are typically based on machine learning concepts, which exploit large training databases acquired in different driving conditions.
  • deep learning is mainly used for perception.
  • the detected and recognized objects are further passed to a path planner which cc-the reference trajectory for the autonomous vehicle's motion controller.
  • the motion controller uses an a priori vehicle model and the reference trajectory calculated by the path planner to control the longitudinal and lateral velocities of the car.
  • End2End and Deep Reinforcement Learning systems are model-free approaches, where the driving commands for the motion controller are estimated directly from the input sensory information. Although the latter systems perform better in the presence of uncertainties, they do not have a predictable behavior, which a model-based approach can offer.
  • the stability is investigated here in the sense of the learning algorithm's convergence and not in the overall closed-loop stability principles.
  • a controller according to claim 1 by a computer program code according to claim 5, which implements this controller, by a nonlinear approximator according to claim 6, by a computer program code according to claim 10, which implements this nonlinear approximator, by a method for training the controller according to claim 11, by a computer program code according to claim 13, which implements this method, and by an apparatus for training the controller according to claim 14.
  • the dependent claims include advantageous further developments and improvements of the present principles as described below.
  • a controller for an autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicle is configured to use an a priori process model in combination with a behavioral model and a disturbance model, wherein the behavioral model is responsible for estimating a behavior of a controlled system in different operating conditions and to calculate a desired trajectory for a constrained nonlinear model predictive controller, and wherein the disturbance model is used for compensating disturbances.
  • a computer program code comprises instructions, which, when executed by at least one processor, cause the at least one processor to implement a controller according to the invention.
  • the term computer has to be understood broadly. In particular, it also includes electronic control units, embedded devices and other processor-based data processing devices.
  • the computer program code can, for example, be made available for electronic retrieval or stored on a computer-readable storage medium.
  • a nonlinear approximator for an automatic estimation of an optimal desired trajectory for an autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicle is configured to use a behavioral model and a disturbance model, wherein the behavioral model is responsible for estimating a behavior of a controlled system in different operating conditions and to calculate a desired trajectory, and wherein the disturbance model is used for compensating disturbances.
  • a computer program code comprises instructions, which, when executed by at least one processor, cause the at least one processor to implement a nonlinear approximator according to the invention.
  • the term computer has to be understood broadly. In particular, it also includes electronic control units, embedded devices and other processor-based data processing devices.
  • the computer program code can, for example, be made available for electronic retrieval or stored on a computer-readable storage medium.
  • the proposed solution integrates the perception and path planning components within the motion controller itself, without having the need to decouple perception and path planning components from the motion controller of the vehicle, thus enabling better autonomous driving behavior in different driving scenarios.
  • a deep learning based behavioral nonlinear model predictive controller for autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicles is introduced.
  • the controller uses an a priori process model in combination with behavioral and disturbance models.
  • the behavioral model is responsible for estimating the controlled system's behavior in different operating conditions and also to calculate a desired trajectory for a constrained nonlinear model predictive controller, while the disturbances are compensated based on the disturbance model.
  • This formulation exploits in a natural way the advantages of model-based control with the robustness of deep learning, enabling to encapsulate path planning within the controller.
  • path planning i.e. the automatic estimation of the optimal desired trajectory, is performed by a nonlinear behavioral and disturbance approximator.
  • the only required input to the controller is the global route that the car has to follow from start to destination.
  • the behavioral model and the disturbance model are encoded within layers of a deep neural network.
  • the deep neural network is a recurrent neural network.
  • both models are encoded within the layers of a deep neural network.
  • This deep neural network acts as a nonlinear approximator for the high order state-space of the operating conditions, based on historical sequences of system states and observations integrated by an augmented memory component. This approach allows estimating the optimal behavior of the system in different cases which cannot be modeled a priori.
  • the deep neural network is composed of two or more convolutional neural networks and at least one long short-term memory.
  • One challenge in using basic recurrent neural networks is the vanishing gradient encountered during training.
  • the gradient signal can end up being multiplied a large number of times, as many as the number of time steps.
  • a traditional recurrent neural network is not suitable for capturing long-term dependencies in sequence data.
  • the weights of the network will not be effectively updated, ending up with very small weight values.
  • the use of long short-term memories solves the vanishing gradient problem by incorporating three gates, which control the input, output and memory state.
  • a method for training a controller comprises:
  • a computer program code comprises instructions, which, when executed by at least one processor, cause the at least one processor to train a controller according to the invention by performing the steps of:
  • computer has to be understood broadly. In particular, it also includes workstations, distributed systems and other processor-based data processing devices.
  • the computer program code can, for example, be made available for electronic retrieval or stored on a computer-readable storage medium.
  • an apparatus for training a controller comprises a processor configured to:
  • the proposed solution may use the Bellman optimality principle to train the learning controller with a modified version of the deep Q-Learning algorithm. This allows estimating the desired state trajectory as an optimal action-value function.
  • the environment observation inputs comprise synthetic and real-world training data.
  • the training of the behavioral model may be based on synthetic generated data, while the disturbance model may be trained on real-world data.
  • the use of synthetic generated data has the advantage that at least some of the necessary data can be provided without time-consuming test drives.
  • an autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicle comprises a controller according to the invention.
  • a controller according to the invention.
  • processor or “controller” should not be construed to refer exclusively to hardware capable of executing software, and may implicitly include, without limitation, digital signal processor (DSP) hardware, read only memory (ROM) for storing software, random access memory (RAM), and nonvolatile storage.
  • DSP digital signal processor
  • ROM read only memory
  • RAM random access memory
  • any switches shown in the figures are conceptual only. Their function may be carried out through the operation of program logic, through dedicated logic, through the interaction of program control and dedicated logic, or even manually, the particular technique being selectable by the implementer as more specifically understood from the context.
  • any element expressed as a means for performing a specified function is intended to encompass any way of performing that function including, for example, a combination of circuit elements that performs that function or software in any form, including, therefore, firmware, microcode or the like, combined with appropriate circuitry for executing that software to perform the function.
  • the disclosure as defined by such claims resides in the fact that the functionalities provided by the various recited means are combined and brought together in the manner which the claims call for. It is thus regarded that any means that can provide those functionalities are equivalent to those shown herein.
  • Nonlinear model predictive control [4] and reinforcement learning [5] are both methods for optimal control of dynamic systems, which have evolved in parallel in the control systems and computational intelligence communities, respectively.
  • a notation is used which brings together both the control system community and the computational intelligence community.
  • Vectors and matrices are indicated by bold symbols.
  • the value of a variable is defined either for a single discrete time step t , written as superscript ⁇ t >, or as a discrete sequence value on the interval ⁇ t, t + k >, where k represents the sequence length.
  • the value of a state variable z is defined either at a discrete time t as z ⁇ t > or for the sequence interval z ⁇ t,t + k > .
  • Synthetic and real-world training data are used for estimation of the optimal action-value function used to calculate the desired trajectory for the nonlinear model predictive controller.
  • Fig. 1 schematically illustrates a controller 1 according to the invention for an autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicle.
  • the only input required by the controller 1 is the global start-to-destination route z ref ⁇ t ⁇ ⁇ , t + ⁇ > for the autonomous car 50, which, from a control theoretical perspective, varies in the [ t - ⁇ , t + ⁇ ] interval.
  • ⁇ i , ⁇ o and t represent input and output horizons and discrete time, respectively.
  • the dotted lines illustrate the flow of data used only during training.
  • u ⁇ t > is the control output provided by the controller 1.
  • z ⁇ t > is the real state of the vehicle, while ⁇ ⁇ t > is the estimated or measured state.
  • Fig. 2 schematically illustrates a nonlinear approximator 9 used in a controller 1 according to the invention for an autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicle 50.
  • the nonlinear approximator 9 is configured to estimate the desired trajectory z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > for the constrained nonlinear model predictive controller 8 by combined behavioral h ( ⁇ ) and disturbance g ( ⁇ ) models.
  • the observations I ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > are provided as occupancy grids by a dedicated perception component 7, whereas the system states are provided by a dedicated localization component 6.
  • the nonlinear approximator 9 is implemented as a deep neural network composed of a number of convolutional neural networks (CNN) 11 and at least one long short-term memory (LSTM) 10.
  • CNN convolutional neural networks
  • LSTM long short-term memory
  • recurrent neural networks are especially good in processing temporal sequence data, such as text or video streams.
  • a recurrent neural network contains a time dependent feedback loop in its memory cell. Given a time dependent input sequence [ s ⁇ t - ⁇ i > ,...
  • a recurrent neural network can be unfolded ⁇ i + ⁇ o times to generate a loop-less network architecture matching the input length, as illustrated in Fig. 3 .
  • Fig. 3a shows a folded recurrent neural network
  • Fig. 3b shows the corresponding unfolded recurrent neural network.
  • t represents a temporal index
  • ⁇ i and ⁇ o are the lengths of the input and output sequences, respectively.
  • both the input s ⁇ t - ⁇ i ,t > and output z ⁇ t +1, t + ⁇ o > sequences share the same weights w ⁇ > .
  • An unrolled network thus has ⁇ i + ⁇ o + 1 identical layers, i.e. each layer shares the same learned weights w ⁇ > .
  • a recurrent neural network can be trained using the backpropagation through time algorithm. When compared to a conventional neural network, the only difference is that the learned weights in each unrolled copy of the network are averaged, thus enabling the network to share the same weights over time.
  • a main challenge in using basic recurrent neural networks is the vanishing gradient encountered during training.
  • the gradient signal can end up being multiplied a large number of times, as many as the number of time steps.
  • a traditional recurrent neural network is not suitable for capturing long-term dependencies in sequence data. If a network is very deep, or processes long sequences, the gradient of the network's output would have a hard time in propagating back to affect the weights of the earlier layers. Under gradient vanishing, the weights of the network will not be effectively updated, ending up with very small weight values.
  • long short-term memories solve the vanishing gradient problem by incorporating three gates, which control the input, output and memory state.
  • Recurrent layers exploit temporal correlations of sequence data to learn time dependent neural structures.
  • ⁇ u ⁇ t > ⁇ W u s ⁇ t > + U u o ⁇ t ⁇ 1 > + b u
  • ⁇ f ⁇ t > ⁇ W f s ⁇ t > + U f o ⁇ t ⁇ 1 > + b f
  • ⁇ o ⁇ t > ⁇ W o s ⁇ t > + U o o ⁇ t ⁇ 1 > + b o
  • ⁇ u ⁇ t > ⁇ W u ⁇ t > , ⁇ f ⁇ t > , and ⁇ o ⁇ t > are gate functions of the input gate, forget gate, and output gate, respectively.
  • c ⁇ t > ⁇ u ⁇ t > ⁇ tanh W c s ⁇ t > + U c o ⁇ t ⁇ 1 > + b c + ⁇ f ⁇ t > ⁇ c ⁇ t ⁇ 1 > ,
  • the operator * symbolizes element-wise multiplication.
  • z d ⁇ t + 1 > is a predicted trajectory set-point at time t + 1.
  • ⁇ i and ⁇ o are not necessarily equal input and output temporal horizons, namely ⁇ i ⁇ ⁇ o .
  • a desired trajectory set-point z d ⁇ t > is a collection of variables describing the desired future states of the plant, i.e. in the present case the vehicle.
  • s ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > will be defined as a sequence variable with data instances [ s ⁇ t - ⁇ i > , ..., s ⁇ t -1> , s ⁇ t > ] in a specific time interval [ t - ⁇ i , t ].
  • s ⁇ t > ( z ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > , I ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > ) is defined as the system's state and the measured state of the environment, both at time t .
  • s ⁇ t > represents the set of historic dependencies integrated along time interval [ t - ⁇ i , t ] by the so-called augmented memory component.
  • the models f ( ⁇ ), h ( ⁇ ), and g ( ⁇ ) are nonlinear process models.
  • f ( ⁇ ) is a known process model, representing the knowledge of f true ( ⁇ )
  • h ( ⁇ ) is a learned behavioral model representing discrepancies between the response of the a priori model and the optimal behavior of the system in different corner-case situations.
  • the behavior and the initially unknown disturbance models are modeled as a deep neural network, which estimates the optimal behavior of the system in different cases which cannot be modeled a priori.
  • the role of the behavioral model is to estimate the desired future states of the system, also known as optimal desired policy.
  • a distinction is made between a given route z ref ⁇ t ⁇ ⁇ , t + ⁇ > , which, from a control perspective, is practically infinite, and a desired policy z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > , which is estimated over a finite time horizon ⁇ o .
  • z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > describes the quantitative deviation of the system from the reference trajectory, in order to cope with an unpredictable changing environment.
  • the role of the behavioral model is to estimate the optimal desired policy z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > using the temporal information stored in the augmented memory component and the reference trajectory z ref ⁇ t ⁇ ⁇ , t + ⁇ > .
  • the robust temporal predictions of a long short-term memory networks are combined with a generative approach, which allows learning behavioral models from synthetic data obtained in a simulation environment.
  • the behavioral modeling problem is formulated in a reinforcement learning setup.
  • the task is to learn a compensating behavior policy for navigating from state z ⁇ t > to the destination state z ref ⁇ t + ⁇ ⁇ > , where ⁇ o is the number of time steps for which the set-point trajectory is planned.
  • MDP Markov decision process
  • Z d represents a finite set of behavioral set-point sequences allowing the agent to navigate through the environment defined by I ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > , where z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ ⁇ > ⁇ Z d is the future predicted optimal behavior policy that the agent should perform in the next time interval [ t + 1, t + ⁇ o ].
  • the behavioral policy z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ ⁇ > is defined as the collection of estimated trajectory set-points from Eq. 7, which are used by the nonlinear model predictive controller to compute the optimal control actions.
  • R is a stochastic transition function, where describes the probability of arriving in state s ⁇ t + ⁇ o > after performing the behavioral actions z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > in state s ⁇ t > .
  • R : S ⁇ A ⁇ S ⁇ R is a scalar reward function, which controls the estimation of z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > , where R s ⁇ t > , z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > s ⁇ t + ⁇ o > ⁇ R .
  • the reward function is a distance feedback, which is smaller if the desired system's state follows a minimal energy trajectory to the reference state z ref ⁇ t + ⁇ o > , and large otherwise.
  • ⁇ is a discount factor controlling the importance of future versus immediate rewards.
  • the behavioral model's objective is to find the desired set-point policy that maximizes the associated cumulative future reward.
  • the following optimal action-value function Q *( ⁇ , ⁇ ) is defined, which estimates the maximal future discounted reward when starting in state s ⁇ t > and performing the nonlinear model predictive control actions u ⁇ t +1, t + ⁇ o > , given an estimated policy set-point z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > :
  • Q * s z d max ⁇ E R ⁇ t ⁇ >
  • the standard reinforcement learning method described above is not feasible due to the high dimensional observations space.
  • the observation space is mainly composed of sequences of sensory information made up of images, radar, Lidar, etc.
  • a non-linear parametrization of Q *( ⁇ , ⁇ ) for autonomous driving is used, encoded in the deep neural network illustrated in Fig. 4 .
  • the environment observation inputs I ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > are firstly passed through a series of convolutional layers 12, activation layers 13, and max pooling layers 14 of a convolutional neural network.
  • This builds an abstract representation which is stacked on top of the previous system's states z ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > and reference trajectory z ref ⁇ t ⁇ ⁇ i , t + ⁇ o > .
  • the stacked representation is processed by a fully connected neural network layer 15 of 256 units, before being fed as input to a long short-term memory network 10.
  • the optimal action-value function Q *( s , z d ) and the desired state trajectory z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > is computed solely from real-world observation sequences, e.g. from occupancy grid sequences.
  • the maximum likelihood estimation function from Eq. 11 is applied for calculating the weights of the deep Q-network.
  • the action space In comparison to traditional deep reinforcement learning setups, where the action space consisted of only a couple of actions, such as left, right, accelerate, decelerate, in the present approach the action space is much larger and depends on the prediction horizon ⁇ o .
  • the behavioral model is trained solely on synthetic simulation data obtained from GridSim.
  • GridSim is an autonomous driving simulation engine that uses kinematic models to generate synthetic occupancy grids from simulated sensors. It allows for multiple driving scenarios to be easily represented and loaded into the simulator.
  • the disturbance g ( ⁇ ) is modelled on top of the behavioral model h ( ⁇ ), both models being functions dependent on s ⁇ t > .
  • the learned disturbance model depends on disturbance observations from real-world data, collected during test trials with the real agent.
  • the weights of the Q-network of Fig. 4 are adapted using real-world training data and the Q-learning algorithm implemented in Eq. 21 and Eq. 22.
  • Fig. 5 illustrates an autonomous driving problem space.
  • the aim is to estimate the optimal driving control action u opt ⁇ t + 1 > at time t + a , such that the vehicle follows an optimal future state trajectory z ⁇ t +1, t + ⁇ o > .
  • the optimal future states are calculated by the constrained nonlinear model predictive controller, based on the desired states z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > estimated by the behavioral model h ( ⁇ ) and the disturbance model g ( ⁇ ).
  • x, y, and ⁇ represent the position and heading of the vehicle in the 2D driving plane, respectively.
  • the motivation for this specific model comes from a comparison in [8], where both the kinematic and dynamic models have been evaluated with respect to the statistics of the forecast error provided by a model predictive control system.
  • the single-track model also known as the car-like robot, or the bicycle model, consists of two wheels connected by a rigid link. The wheels are restricted to move in a 2D plane coordinate system.
  • u ⁇ t > ( v ⁇ t > , ⁇ ⁇ t > ).
  • the historic position state z ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > , the sensory information I ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > ) the reference trajectory z ref ⁇ t ⁇ ⁇ i , t + ⁇ o > , and the control actions u ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > recorded from a human driver are stored as sequence data.
  • Data acquisition is performed both in the GridSim simulation environment, as well as in real-world driving scenarios.
  • the reference trajectory is stored over a finite time horizon [ t - ⁇ i , t + ⁇ o ]. This data is used by the Q-learning algorithm to adapt the weights of the deep neural network of Fig. 4 , as described above. Once trained, the network can be queried for the optimal desired vehicle trajectory z d ⁇ t + 1 , t + ⁇ o > .
  • the driving environment is observed using occupancy grids constructed from fused raw radar data.
  • a single occupancy grid corresponds to an observation instance I ⁇ t >
  • a sequence of occupancy grids is denoted as I ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > .
  • These observations are axis-aligned discrete grid sequences in the time interval [ t - ⁇ i , t ], centered on the vehicle positions ( x ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > , y ⁇ t - ⁇ i , t > ).
  • Occupancy grids provide a birds-eye perspective of the traffic scene.
  • the basic idea behind occupancy grids is the division of the environment into 2D cells, each cell representing the probability, or belief, of occupation through color-codes. Pixels of a first color represent free space, a second color marks occupied cells or obstacles, and a third color signifies an unknown occupancy.
  • the intensity of the color may represent the degree of occupancy. For example, the higher the intensity of the first color is, the higher is the probability of a cell to be free.
  • Occupancy grids are often used for environment perception and navigation.
  • the occupancy grids may be constructed using the Dempster-Shafer theory, also known as the theory of evidence or the theory of belief functions.
  • synthetic data can be generated in GridSim based on an occupancy grid sensor model.
  • the localization of the vehicle that is, the computation of position state estimate ⁇ ⁇ t > , may be obtained through the fusion of the wheel's odometry and the double integration of the acceleration acquired from an inertial measurement unit (IMU) via Kalman filtering.
  • IMU inertial measurement unit
  • Fig. 6 schematically illustrates a method for training the controller according to the invention.
  • environment observation inputs are passed 20 through a series of convolutional layers, activation layers, and max pooling layers to build an abstract representation.
  • the environment observation inputs may comprise synthetic or real-world occupancy grids.
  • the abstract representation is stacked 21 on top of previous system states and a reference state trajectory.
  • the stacked representation is then processed 22 by a fully connected neural network layer.
  • the processed stacked representation is fed 23 as an input to a long short-term memory network.
  • Fig. 7 schematically illustrates a block diagram of a first embodiment of an apparatus 30 for training the controller according to the invention.
  • the apparatus 30 has an input 31 for receiving data, in particular environment observation inputs.
  • the environment observation inputs may comprise synthetic or real-world occupancy grids.
  • the apparatus 30 further has a processor 32, which is configured to pass environment observation inputs through a series of convolutional layers, activation layers, and max pooling layers to build an abstract representation.
  • the processor 32 is further configured to stack the abstract representation on top of previous system states and a reference state trajectory, and to process the stacked representation by a fully connected neural network layer.
  • the processed stacked representation may be fed as an input to a long short-term memory network via an output 35.
  • a local storage unit 34 is provided, e.g. for storing data during processing.
  • the output 35 may also be combined with the input 31 into a single bidirectional interface.
  • the processor 32 may be controlled by a controller 33.
  • a user interface 36 may be provided for enabling a user to modify settings of the processor 32 or the controller 33.
  • the processor 32 and the controller 33 can be embodied as dedicated hardware units. Of course, they may likewise be fully or partially combined into a single unit or implemented as software running on a processor, e.g. a CPU or a GPU.
  • FIG. 8 A block diagram of a second embodiment of an apparatus 40 for training the controller according to the invention is illustrated in Fig. 8 .
  • the apparatus 40 comprises a processing device 41 and a memory device 42.
  • the apparatus 40 may be a computer, a workstation or a distributed system.
  • the memory device 42 has stored instructions that, when executed by the processing device 41, cause the apparatus 40 to perform steps according to one of the described methods.
  • the instructions stored in the memory device 42 thus tangibly embody a program of instructions executable by the processing device 41 to perform program steps as described herein according to the present principles.
  • the apparatus 40 has an input 43 for receiving data. Data generated by the processing device 41 are made available via an output 44. In addition, such data may be stored in the memory device 42.
  • the input 43 and the output 44 may be combined into a single bidirectional interface.
  • the processing device 41 as used herein may include one or more processing units, such as microprocessors, digital signal processors, or a combination thereof.
  • the local storage unit 34 and the memory device 42 may include volatile and/or non-volatile memory regions and storage devices such as hard disk drives, optical drives, and/or solid-state memories.
  • the complete training workflow of the deep neural network of Fig. 4 is depicted in Fig. 9 .
  • a simulated occupancy grid sequence is received 60 from the augmented memory component.
  • a simulated vehicle state estimate sequence is received 61 from the augmented memory component.
  • a simulated vehicle route is received 62.
  • human driving commands are received 63 as driving labels.
  • the deep neural network i.e. its convolutional neural networks and the at least one long short-term memory, are then trained 64 on the simulation data using the Q-learning algorithm described above.
  • real-world data are used for training.
  • a real-world occupancy grid sequence is received 65.
  • a real-world vehicle state estimate sequence is received 65.
  • a real-world vehicle route is received 67.
  • real-world human driving commands are received 68 as driving labels.
  • the deep neural network which was initialized in the training step 64, is then trained 69 on the real-world data using the Q-learning algorithm.
  • FIG. 10 A complete deployment workflow of the deep neural network of Fig. 4 is illustrated in Fig. 10 .
  • An occupancy grid sequence is received 70 from the augmented memory component.
  • Each occupancy grid in the sequence is processed 71 using a convolutional neural network.
  • a vehicle state estimate sequence is received 72 from the augmented memory component.
  • a vehicle route is received 73.
  • the sequences of occupancy grids processed by a convolutional neural network is then stacked 74 with the vehicle state estimate sequence and the vehicle route. Based on this stacked data, a desired trajectory is calculated 75 using a long short-term memory. Finally, an optimal vehicle state trajectory is calculated 76 using constrained nonlinear model predictive control.

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