Classifications

• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
  • H01L27/00—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate
  • H01L27/14—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate including semiconductor components sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation
  • H01L27/144—Devices controlled by radiation
  • H01L27/146—Imager structures
  • H01L27/14643—Photodiode arrays; MOS imagers
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
  • H01L27/00—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate
  • H01L27/14—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate including semiconductor components sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation
  • H01L27/144—Devices controlled by radiation
  • H01L27/146—Imager structures
  • H01L27/14601—Structural or functional details thereof
  • H01L27/14603—Special geometry or disposition of pixel-elements, address-lines or gate-electrodes
  • H01L27/14607—Geometry of the photosensitive area
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
  • H01L27/00—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate
  • H01L27/14—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate including semiconductor components sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation
  • H01L27/144—Devices controlled by radiation
  • H01L27/146—Imager structures
  • H01L27/14601—Structural or functional details thereof
  • H01L27/1462—Coatings
  • H01L27/14621—Colour filter arrangements
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
  • H01L27/00—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate
  • H01L27/14—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate including semiconductor components sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation
  • H01L27/144—Devices controlled by radiation
  • H01L27/146—Imager structures
  • H01L27/14643—Photodiode arrays; MOS imagers
  • H01L27/14645—Colour imagers
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
  • H01L27/00—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate
  • H01L27/14—Devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor or other solid-state components formed in or on a common substrate including semiconductor components sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation
  • H01L27/144—Devices controlled by radiation
  • H01L27/146—Imager structures
  • H01L27/14643—Photodiode arrays; MOS imagers
  • H01L27/14649—Infrared imagers
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • H10K—ORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
  • H10K59/00—Integrated devices, or assemblies of multiple devices, comprising at least one organic light-emitting element covered by group H10K50/00
  • H10K59/60—OLEDs integrated with inorganic light-sensitive elements, e.g. with inorganic solar cells or inorganic photodiodes

Definitions

• the invention relates to color electronic image sensors comprising an array of photosensitive pixels measuring the amount of light they receive.
• the most widespread sensors were at the origin of sensors in CCD technology and are more and more often active pixel sensors in MOS technology.
• the invention will be described with regard to active pixels in MOS technology.
• a pixel active in MOS technology generally comprises a silicon photodiode and several transistors for detecting a quantity of electric charges generated in the photodiode under the effect of illumination.
• the detected signal level in the pixel is transferred outside the matrix to read circuits, for example a reading circuit per column of pixels, the reading being carried out line by line in parallel on the different columns.
• a mosaic of different color filters most often a so-called Bayer mosaic comprising a regular arrangement of groups of four primary color filters which are a red filter, a blue filter and two green filters. Arrangements with complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow secondary color filters are also possible.
• the filters are made from pigments colored in organic matter. But they have the defect to greatly reduce the amount of light received by the photodiodes of the sensor; a pixel covered with a red filter receives at most only 75% of the light received in the red wavelengths, and in the same way a pixel covered with a blue or green filter does not uniformly convert all the light emitted in blue or green; this results from the fact that the transmission curve of the filter as a function of the frequency is not rectangular but rather Gaussian and that the peak of transmission is not 100%.
• white pixels will collect all of the light and provide the main luminance information.
• the colored pixels will collect less light and provide chrominance information.
• This chrominance information will have a lower resolution than with a Bayer filter matrix, and a signal level lower than the white pixel level since it comes from pixels receiving less light, but it is a secondary disadvantage because the luminance information in low light is more important than the colorimetric accuracy.
• the more white pixels the more luminance information faithfully represents the luminance of the image.
• a filter completely cutting the visible wavelengths but allowing the infrared to pass.
• a filter can be produced using organic pigments such as other filters, for example by superimposing, at the location of the pixels concerned, a red filter and a blue filter. If a Bayer mosaic is modified, then an individual pixel group includes a red pixel, a blue pixel, two green pixels, and a black pixel; these pixels are close to each other and receive substantially the same dose of infrared rays from the scene observed.
• the signals produced by the red, green, blue pixels, which are affected by the infrared radiation are subtracted from the black pixel immediately adjacent and receiving only the infrared radiation. This subtraction performed for all the pixels eliminates the harmful influence of the infrared radiation on these pixels.
• the invention is based on the remark that the matrices comprising colored pixels and white pixels can be treated differently because the luminance produced by the infrared rays and received by white pixels when they exist is not necessarily troublesome . Indeed, the radiation received by the white pixels does not distort the colorimetry, and on the contrary contributes to the representation of the overall luminance of a scene, especially in case of low light where a higher signal level is desirable for the quality of the electronic image.
• the invention proposes a color image sensor comprising a matrix of N active photosensitive pixels, a pixel comprising a photodiode for providing an electrical signal which is a function of the electric charges generated in the photodiode by the light, the matrix being covered with a mosaic of colored filters arranged in correspondence with the pixels of the matrix to form pixels called colored pixels, the filters being of K different types corresponding to a number K of different colors at least equal to two, and the pixels of each color being distributed in the matrix, with P pixels, P ⁇ N, so-called white pixels, not covered with a color filter and distributed in the matrix, characterized in that the photodiodes of the colored pixels are constituted differently from the photodiodes of the white pixels, the photodiodes of the colored pixels having, for the infrared wavelengths, a coefficient of conversion of photons into charges significantly lower than conversion coefficient of photodiodes of white pixels for these same wavelengths.
• the photodiodes of the colored pixels are less sensitive to infrared radiation than the photodiodes of the white pixels.
• the shortest wavelengths are the ones that penetrate the least in silicon and therefore generate electrical charges at a shallow depth (100 to 300 nanometers for blue wavelengths) ; green and red wavelengths penetrate deep into the silicon and generate charges a little deeper (up to a micrometer typically); the infrared wavelengths are the ones that penetrate the deepest silicon and generate charges to a depth that can be significantly higher (several micrometers for the near infrared).
• Means are therefore provided to prevent the light from producing payloads (i.e., charges recoverable by the photodiode to be read) beyond a certain depth from which only infrared rays are practically penetrate.
• payloads i.e., charges recoverable by the photodiode to be read
• the electrons created in depth out of the space charge area of the photodiode of a pixel can not be collected by the pixel and therefore do not constitute payloads for the pixel; these electrons recombine indeed elsewhere than in the space charge zone and do not migrate to the cathode of the photodiode.
• the charges are collected and discharged to a drain and not to the photodiode.
• the photodiodes are formed by an NP junction between an N-type doped localized region and a P-doped active layer and brought to a reference potential, the active layer having a depth H below the junction.
• the photodiodes of the colored pixels comprise a P + type localized region, more doped than the P-type doped active layer, this more doped localized region reducing to a value H 'less than H the P-type active layer depth located directly above below the junction and limiting at this depth H 'the space charge area produced in operation by the inverse polarization of the photodiode, and the white pixels not comprising such a localized region of P + type so that their charging zone space can extend to a depth greater than H '.
• the photodiodes of the pixels covered with color filters having a buried localized region of N + type, located at a depth H "below the junction, a depth such that the active layer located below the buried localized region receives mainly infrared rays but not or almost no visible radiation, the buried localized region being brought to a potential for draining the charges generated by the infrared radiation; below this region.
• the pixels covered with color filters may be juxtaposed so that they touch each other on one side or, strictly speaking, by a corner to allow the continuity of the buried regions N + of the pixels to be formed. colored, continuity up to an edge of the matrix.
• the buried layers of N + type of all these pixels can be connected to each other and it is then easier to connect the N + buried layer to a positive potential from the edge of the matrix. This avoids providing link contacts within the pixel. It is also possible, however, even with white pixels separating the colored pixels, to create a layer continuity buried N + by giving it a grid shape surrounding the white pixels without coming below the white pixels and thus without significantly modifying the constitution and behavior of the photodiode of these white pixels.
• FIG. 1 shows schematically the organization of a color electronic image sensor comprising a matrix of silicon-based pixels, coated with a mosaic of color filters with unfiltered pixels distributed in the matrix;
• FIG. 2 represents an example of possible spectral responses of the pixels coated with color filters
• FIG. 3 shows an example of a mosaic of the prior art making it possible to compensate the influence of radiation in the near infrared
• FIG. 4 represents the organization of a sensor according to the invention
• FIG. 5 represents an embodiment of photodiodes with attenuation of the influence of the infrared on the colored pixels
• FIG. 6 represents another embodiment according to the invention.
• FIG. 7 represents a way of connecting the N + regions under the photodiodes of non-adjacent colored pixels
• FIG. 8 represents several interesting configurations of the mosaic of pixels according to the invention.
• FIG. 9 represents configurations that also incorporate black pixels sensitive only to infrared rays.
• Figure 1 there is shown in top view the principle of a matrix sensor of the prior art. It comprises a matrix of lines and columns of photosensitive pixels. This matrix is covered with a mosaic of colored filters. In this example, there are both pixels called "colored" because they are covered with a filter of a given color and so-called white pixels that are not covered with a color filter.
• a regular distribution of groups of four pixels which are respectively a red pixel (R) covered by a filter allowing the red light to pass but not or not the other colors, a blue pixel (B) covered a filter allowing the blue light to pass but not the other colors, a green pixel (G) covered by a filter allowing the green light to pass but not or not the other colors, and a white pixel (T) not covered of a filter and thus letting all the colors pass.
• RGB red pixel
• B blue pixel
• G green pixel
• T white pixel
• the sensor is a silicon-based sensor, which converts the light it receives into electrical charges into a wavelength band of about 300 nanometers to about 1100 nanometers.
• Each pixel is constituted by a photodiode and a few transistors providing an electrical signal representing the illumination received by the pixel.
• the filters are generally filters comprising colored organic pigments that mainly pass through the wavelengths corresponding to the color in question, namely: about 300 to 530 nanometers for blue, 480 to 620 nanometers for green, and about 580 at 650 nanometers for red.
• FIG. 2 represents a typical sensitivity diagram of a silicon sensor covered with organic color filters.
• the scale on the abscissa is graduated in wavelengths; the ordinate scale is a sensitivity scale in arbitrary units, representing the output signal of a pixel for a given amount of photons at the wavelength considered.
• the RNF curve is the response curve of a white pixel, that is to say devoid of filter. It represents the intrinsic global sensitivity of silicon. It has a maximum in the red and it decreases on both sides of this maximum.
• the other curves RB, RG, RR are the sensitivity curves of the blue, green, and red pixels respectively, taking into account therefore the presence of a color filter. These three curves show a strong rise in sensitivity in the near-infrared range: beyond about 820 nanometers, the filters are all practically transparent, they do not eliminate these near-infrared wavelengths.
• the near infrared thus distorts the colorimetry of the image by suggesting for example that a blue pixel provides a signal representing the luminance for the blue wavelengths, while the signal represents a sum of a blue luminance and of an infrared luminance received on the pixel.
• each colored pixel provides a signal representing the sum of the luminance received in the color under consideration and the luminance received in the near infrared.
• the black pixel provides a signal representing only the luminance received in the near infrared. Subtraction between the signal from a color pixel and the signal from the nearest black pixel eliminates the infrared-related component in the color pixel signal.
• FIG. 4 represents the general organization of a sensor according to the invention, which is based on a different principle making it possible to avoid the use of an infrared filter in front of the sensor and making it possible to use a mosaic of filters also comprising white pixels in a way that maximizes the luminance of white pixels.
• the mosaic of filters which covers the sensor may be the same as that of FIG. 1, that is to say that it uses (R), (G), (B) so-called “colored” pixels because they are covered with colored filters, and pixels (T) called “white” which are not covered with colored filters.
• the colors of the filters are the primary colors red green blue but it could alternatively provide secondary color filters magenta, cyan, yellow.
• the particularity of the invention is the fact that the colored pixels are made in silicon from photodiodes which have a constitution different from the photodiodes of the white pixels.
• White pixels have photodiodes that are quite strongly sensitive to infrared radiation as in the prior art, but the colored pixels are made with different photodiodes that are significantly less sensitive to infrared radiation.
• the photodiodes of the colored pixels therefore have, for the infrared wavelengths, a conversion coefficient (or more generally a response level as a function of the wavelength) that is significantly lower than the photodiodes of the white pixels.
• the colored pixels R, G, B are shown in FIG. 4 with a dotted-surface disk which symbolizes the fact that the photodiode of these pixels is different from the photodiode of the white pixels.
• White pixels are represented without this dotted-surface disk and have a stronger response in the infrared range.
• the photodiodes of the usual sensors are generally formed by an NP junction in an active layer of P type monocrystalline silicon.
• an active layer of P type monocrystalline silicon P type monocrystalline silicon.
• the space charge zone also called depleted zone or deserted zone, is the region free of free carriers which appears in an NP junction, in particular when it is reverse biased. It extends all the way further, on either side of the junction, the layer is less doped and the reverse bias voltage is higher.
• the NP junction is formed between an N-type doped localized region and the P-type doped active layer.
• the active layer is brought to a reference potential. All types of conductivity could be reversed without changing the nature of the invention and it will be considered that the definition given for a conductivity type applies identically to the inverse type without departing from the scope of the invention.
• FIG. 5 shows in section in the silicon of the sensor, the photodiodes of three adjacent pixels.
• the pixels are two colored pixels red (R) and green (G), and a white pixel (T). Only the photodiodes are represented to simplify the diagram, the transistors of the pixels not being represented.
• the active layer 10 of monocrystalline silicon in which the photodiodes are formed is a P-type active layer. It may be the upper layer of a monocrystalline silicon substrate or the upper epitaxial layer of an SOI ("Silicon On Insulator") substrate. that is, silicon on insulator).
• the substrate 12 is simply represented by hatching in FIG. 5; its thickness is much greater than the thickness of the active layer 10, which may have a thickness of 3 microns to 30 microns.
• the photodiodes are formed from N-type individual regions 14 diffused in the active layer 10, which regions form an NP junction with the underlying silicon.
• each region N 14 may be covered with a P + type surface area 1 6 which is brought to a reference potential which is the potential applied to the active layer 10.
• the pixels are active pixels and include load reading transistors accumulated in regions 14 during operation.
• the pixels are separated from one another by insulating regions consisting of silicon of the same type as the active layer 10 but more doped, the insulation being optionally reinforced by the presence of surface trenches of silicon oxide (STI insulation, of English "Shallow Trench Isolation"). These areas are not represented; they prevent or limit the displacement of electric charges generated by the light of a pixel to a neighboring pixel.
• STI insulation of English "Shallow Trench Isolation
• an insulating layer for example made of silicon oxide SiO 2
• SiO 2 can cover the entire surface of the photodiodes.
• the photodiode of the green pixel is covered with a green filter GF and the photodiode of the red pixel is covered with a red filter GR. It can be seen that there is no filter above the photodiode of the white pixel T.
• a photodiode in this description is the set of the region N 14 (possibly with its region 1 6) and the semiconductor regions located under the region 14.
• the difference in constituting the photodiodes of the colored pixels and the white pixels is a difference which causes a difference in the possibilities of extension in depth of the space charge zone created in the active layer by the inverse polarization of the photodiode.
• the possibilities of extending the space charge area are more limited in the colored pixels, thanks to the particular constitution of the photodiode of these pixels, than in the white pixels. This extension depends on the doping of the semiconductor below the junction and depends on the reverse bias voltage of the photodiode. But we establish an extension limit in the colored pixels, lower than in the white pixels, thanks to a deeper layer of P + type more doped than the active layer.
• the depth H of the active layer is approximately 3 to 10 micrometers and that the space charge zone occupies the entire depth or practically the entire depth of the active layer at the same time. below white pixels.
• an active layer depth H different from the depth Z of the space charge zone in particular when the depth of the active layer is greater than 10 or 20 microns or more.
• a localized region 20 of the same conductivity type as the active but more doped layer limiting at a depth Z 'below the NP junction, the extension of the charging zone space produced in operation by the inverse polarization of the photodiode of the pixel.
• the space charge area extends very little in a heavily doped region.
• the extension of the space charge area is proportional to the square root of the inverse of the doping atom concentration.
• the photodiodes of the white pixels do not have this region P +.
• Visible or near-infrared wavelength radiation creates electrical charges throughout the Z-depth of the space charge area, here practically throughout the depth of the active layer.
• the electrons drained by the electric field present in the space charge zone can be collected by the N region 14 of the white pixel. All the luminance received contributes, whatever the wavelength, to the signal produced by the white pixel. This gives a luminance indication the best possible.
• the risk of receiving electrons from infrared rays coming from neighboring colored pixels exists, generating a risk of loss of resolution of the luminance, but this risk is even lower than the ratio between the number of colored pixels and the number white pixels is lower. We will see later configurations in which, to obtain a good luminance resolution, there are many more white pixels than colored pixels.
• the depth Z ' can be between 1 to 5 micrometers, preferably between 1 and 3 micrometers, the difference in height ZZ' being preferably greater than 2 micrometers and can even be 10 to 20 micrometers in the case where the active layer is simply constituted by the upper part of a monocrystalline silicon substrate.
• the depth H ' may be equal to Z'.
• the depth H is at least equal to Z but can be much greater in some cases.
• 10 times 10 16 atoms / cm 3 , corresponding to a resistivity of a few ohms-cm) is preferably at least 10 times and preferably at least 100 times greater than the doping of the active layer of type P (typically from 1 to 10 times 10 14 atoms / cm 3 , corresponding to a resistivity of a few tens of ohms-cm) so that the space charge zone stops practically at the depth H 'at the top of the P + region 20 penetrating very little in the P + region.
• the P + type doped region can be produced by deep implantation of impurities of the same type as the impurities which dopate the active layer, preferably boron. This implantation takes place before the implantation of the regions 14 and 16 of the photodiodes.
• FIG. 6 represents another exemplary embodiment resulting in the same desired result, namely a response of the photodiodes to an infrared wavelength (the answer being the quantity of electric charges generated by a quantity of photons at a wavelength given and actually recovered by the photodiode to provide a useful signal for this wavelength) which is lower for the colored pixels than for the white pixels, and this in the same way for all the colored pixels.
• colored pixels are provided not a P + region which limits the depth of the space charge zone but a localized region of the N + type located at a depth H "and brought to a potential positive to drain the electrons that are generated by light to a depth in which it is essentially the infrared rays and not the visible radiation that generate electron-hole pairs.
• This region N + 30 is brought to a fixed potential that can be the general power supply Vdd or a lower potential but higher than the reference potential of the active layer, the electrons are evacuated towards this fixed potential.
• the photons resulting from the visible light are absorbed into the silicon at a depth lower than the depth H "of the N + region and create electrons which are drained as in the photodiodes of the white pixels towards the N region of the photodiode to provide a Useful signal
• Infrared photons absorbed near the N + region 30 or in the N + region or below the N + region are removed and do not provide a useful signal.
• the deep N + regions it is possible to start from a substrate comprising a P type epitaxial active layer having a thickness HH "which is smaller than the desired final thickness, that is to say smaller than the sum of the Depth H and the depth of the zones 14 and 1 6.
• a mask is produced which protects the surfaces corresponding to the locations of the photodiodes of the white pixels and the desired N + zones are implanted on the surface of this partial layer under the pixels which will be covered. Then the epitaxial growth of the entire height of the desired active layer is continued before forming the N and P + regions of the photodiodes.
• N + 30 regions are connected to each other, and only one contact is made. on one or more outer edges of the die. This is entirely possible in the case of FIG. 4, by making the N + region of a colored pixel extend to touch the region of an adjacent color pixel.
• the pixels are organized by elementary patterns of sixteen pixels comprising a red pixel, a blue pixel, two green pixels, and twelve white pixels.
• the colored pixels are all separated from each other by a white pixel and their corners do not touch.
• FIG. 7 shows a grid of N + regions as shown in Figure 7 below the mosaic represented; this grid has continuous areas of N + areas below the colored pixels G, R, B, open surfaces below the white pixels T, and links around the white pixels, sufficiently narrow links that do not substantially disturb the pixels white.
• Figure 8 shows various other arrangements of colored and white pixels corresponding to different proportions of colored pixels (50%, 25% and 6% respectively). The more color pixels are better colorimetry. The more white pixels there are, the better the luminance image resolution.
• Mosaic 8A includes a periodic repetition of 16-pixel squares with 8 white pixels, 4 green pixels, 2 red pixels, and 2 blue pixels.
• the mosaic 8B comprises a periodic pattern of squares of sixteen pixels with twelve white pixels and four colored pixels (two green, one red, one blue, aligned along a diagonal of the square).
• the mosaic 8C includes periodical squares of 25 pixels including four colored pixels (two green, one red and one blue) and 21 white pixels, offering a very good luminance resolution.
• the mosaic of color filters there is provided in the mosaic of color filters a distribution of black pixels each covered with a filter allowing the near infrared and not passing the visible light.
• These black pixels are made with photodiodes identical to the photodiodes of the colored pixels, that is to say, attenuating the influence of the near-infrared rays in the same way as for the colored pixels.
• the signal from each colored pixel is collected and the signal from the nearest black pixel (or an interpolation of signals from the blackest pixels close), and this signal is subtracted from the signal from the colored pixel. But we do not subtract between the signal from the white pixels and the signals from the black pixels.
• This signal processing thus makes it possible to improve the colorimetry of the color pixels without deteriorating the sensitivity of the white pixels. It can be implemented in practice in the sensor or by an external signal processing circuit receiving the signals collected for each of the pixels of the matrix.
• FIG. 9 represents two exemplary embodiments of this variant.
• the first example (9A) is drawn from that of FIG. 8C, in which the white central pixel has been replaced by a black IR pixel. From the point of view of the present invention, the black pixel is considered as a colored pixel, coated with an infrared filter which can be achieved by the combination (superposition or mixture of pigments) of a red filter and a blue filter .
• the second example (9B) comprises a greater proportion of black pixels, the elementary pattern repeated in the mosaic comprising eight white pixels, four colored pixels, and four black pixels, each black pixel being equidistant from four colored pixels.
• N and P are called conductivity types usually corresponding to donor or electron acceptor impurity atoms, but since the conductivity types can all be reversed without changing anything.
• the principles of the invention it is considered for the purposes of this description and claims that the N and P names are purely conventional and may designate doping contrary to the usual use.
• the recovered electrical charges are then no longer holes and the directions of the potential differences must be reversed. This notation avoids adding to the language with expressions such as "first type of conductivity”, “second type of conductivity”, “positive electrical charges”, “negative electrical charges”, etc.

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