Classifications

• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E30/00—Energy generation of nuclear origin
  • Y02E30/10—Nuclear fusion reactors

Definitions

• This invention relates to increasing double occupancy of hydrogen isotopes in the presence of helium in a host lattice through newly discovered reactions that couple energy directly to high frequency vibrational modes of a solid.
• Huizenga makes clear at the outset that he accepts the precepts of nuclear physics as given in the literature between 1920 and 1990, which includes the view that nuclear reactions can be understood in terms of vacuum collision physics. He simply rejects outright the possibility that reactions might occur in any other way. Hence he presents the majority opinion of the scientific community in arguing in essence that the new experimental claims of an excess heat effect in the absence of dd-fusion reaction products must be rejected.
• a vacancy-stabilized metal hydride phase suitable for use as a hydrogen storage element is achieved. More specifically, a vacancy stabilized, enhanced hydrogen storage material is used.
• a metal lattice host structure is selected and loaded with hydrogen or deuterium atoms. The host lattice is prepared such that hydrogen, deuterium and helium prefer to remain sequestered within the host lattice. The host lattice is then stimulated to produce vacancies.
• the loaded hydrogen or deuterium atoms Upon creation of the vacancies within the host lattice, the loaded hydrogen or deuterium atoms enter the vacancies to produce an improved host lattice.
• the host lattice is a metal selected from the group consisting of Ni, Pd, Ti, Nb, Ta, Nb, Mo, Fe and V.
• the host lattice is not limited to metals and may also include other materials such as ceramics or the like.
• the stimulation of the host lattice is done using electron beam radiation.
• a metal deuteride that contains helium constructed so as to maximize the internal molecular deuterium density, is stimulated to develop one or more highly excited phonon modes in order to cause deuterium to react to produce energy that can be used for various applications.
• the present invention make use of the newly understood reaction pathways to make energy using deuterium reactions that couple the reaction energy directly into the phonon modes of the metal deuteride.
• the energy generation is a result of the performance and then attainment of lattice-mediated nuclear reactions using deuterium and deuterium-helium combinations.
• 4 He is introduced into the host lattice. Methods of obtaining the desired 4 He concentration may include: 1) high temperature diffusion, or 2) helium-ion implantation.
• the means contemplated by the invention to load deuterium into a host lattice is by electrochemical reduction of heavy water (D 2 O) or deuterated alcohol (e.g. CD 3 OD, CH 3 OD, C 2 D 5 D, C 2 H s OD) at a Pd wire cathode
• D 2 O heavy water
• deuterated alcohol e.g. CD 3 OD, CH 3 OD, C 2 D 5 D, C 2 H s OD
• the system Upon attainment of the desired maximum loading condition, the system is sealed so as to block egress of D atoms from the host lattice surface.
• Examples contemplated by the invention for maintaining the high loading include: 1) forming a surface amalgam on the surface by adding 10 "5 M mercurous sulfate (Hg 2 SO ) to the electrolyte; or 2) transferring the electrode directly into liquid nitrogen.
• the host lattice should include vacancies at a certain concentration. It is contemplated by the invention that the concentration of vacancies will be at least on the order of 0.1%-0.2% of all the host metal atoms at high dosage.
• the vacancies can be varied and an example of one method to increase the vacancy population is to subject the host lattice to radiation damage thus imparting kinetic energy and motion to host lattice atoms. In principle, any radiation of sufficient intensity may be used for this purpose.
• the host lattice wire samples can be stimulated to demonstrate effects of heat generation via nuclear reaction (D + D) and production of helium ( 4 He) or the nuclear reaction (D + H) and the production of helium ( 3 He).
• Stimulation of the host lattice involves exciting appropriate modes of lattice phonon vibrations. It is contemplated by the invention that a number of means can be used for providing such stimulation in accordance with the present invention.
• Example of these means of stimulation include but are not limited to: 1) fluxing of lattice deuterium atoms across steep gradients of chemical potential; 2) fluxing of electrons at high current density; 3) intense acoustic stimulation; 4) lattice fracture; or 5) surface laser stimulation.
• the demonstration of the desired reaction is made evident by taking a measurement of a temperature rise in the host lattice, triggered by, but exceeding in magnitude that attributable to the chosen means of stimulation. Demonstration of the effect is more easily made by observing a local temperature rise in response to the stimulus.
• the host lattice is palladium, tungsten, titanium and tantalum, or the like. It is also contemplated by the invention that the heat generated can be used for various application that include, but are not limited to, industrial, commerical or residential heating; distributed power generation; desalinization; centralized power generation; thermoelectric conversion; and lighting.
• One advantage of the invention is that it solves the basic problem as to what physical mechanisms are involved in the energy process contemplated.
• the logic being that if one understands what basic physics is involved, then one has the chance of developing experiments and devices by design, rather than by Edisonian trial and error as has been the case for most of the research in the area.
• the present invention identifies and helps artisans in the art understand the associated physical mechanisms involved in the contemplated reactions in a host lattice interact with the lattice.
• Fig. 1 illustrates a molecular transformation in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 2 illustrates a molecular transformation in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 3 is a chart of a 1-D analog model in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 4 is a chart that is illustrative of the coupling strength of a molecular transformation in accordance with the embodiment of the present invention.
• Fig. 5 illustrates a molecular transformation related to weak coupling in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 6 is a chart that illustrates fractional occupation of the different angular momentum states in deuterium as a function of temperature.
• Fig.7 is a chart that illustrates the results of a model in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 8 is a chart that shows an estimate of energy in the compact state.
• Fig. 9 is a chart of Gamow factor associated with a channel as a function of angular momentum of the two-deuteron compact state.
• Fig. 10 is a chart that is illustrative of the weak coupling in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 11 is a chart that is illustrative of moderate coupling in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 12 is a chart that is illustrative of strong coupling in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 13 is a chart that illustrates a splitting of energy at a resonant state in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 14-16 illustrates a reaction process in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. lla-lle illustrates a reaction process in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig.l7g-17h illustrate helium-seeding in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig.l7i illustrates deuterium andor hydrogen loading in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 17j illustrates sealing of the host lattice in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 18 illustrates the excess power produce from a reaction process.
• Fig. 19a-19e illustrates another reaction process in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.
• Fig. 20 is an electrochemical cell in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 21 is a dry cell in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 22 is a flash heating tube in accordance with the present invention.
• Fig. 23 is a thermoelectric battery in accordance with the present invention.
• Fusion reactions at low levels have also been claimed, a great many times. Other effects have been reported as well, including: fast particle emission not consistent with fusion reactions, gamma emission, slow tritium production, helium generation in quantitative correlation with excess energy, and the development of large quantities radioactive isotopes within the host metal lattice [K. Wolf, unpublished. Passell, T.O., Radiatio? ⁇ data reported by Wolf at Texas A&M as transmitted by T. Passell, 1995, EPRI. (unpublished, but available on the LENR-CANR website)].
• Fig. 1 is a diagram of off-resonant coupling between a two-level system and a transition into a continuum. Compact dd-states with energies near the molecular limit at one site would be capable of an off-resonant coupling to host Pd nuclei at another site that would lead to alpha ejection in the range from 18-21 MeV, as observed by Chambers. When we finally understood the significance of this result, we began to develop theoretical models that described site-other-site reactions.
• V(x) is the one-dimensional equivalent molecular potential shown below .
• We have taken _ (x) to be a delta function located near the origin.
• the strength of the null reactions is modeled in the constant K.
• Fig. 3 illustrative of al-D analog model.
• the molecular potential is modeled by a square well with zero potential between d and L, and a constant potential below d.
• the unperturbed ground state (analog for the molecular ground state) is illustrated as ⁇ (x). Dissociation of helium leads to two deuterons with a tiny separation. This is accounted for in the function f(x). This analog model problem is easily solved.
• the solutions consist of states that are very close to the bound states of the well that contain a small amount of admixture from a localized state near the origin.
• the associated intuition is that the deuterons spend part of their time in the molecular state, and part of the time localized. We associate the localized component as being due to contributions from deuterons at close range which are produced from helium dissociation, which tunnel apart.
• the coupling constant K is large, then a new compact state forms (see the Figure below), with an energy that depends on the coupling strength.
• Fig. 4 illustrates normalized eigenvalues ⁇ as a function of the normalized coupling strength k for the square well analog. When the coupling strength increases to a sufficiently large value, a new state appears, with an energy that depends of the strength of the coupling.
• Kasagi investigated reactions under conditions where an energetic deuteron beam with deuteron energy on the order of 100 keV was incident on a TiD target. The predominant signal was the p+t and n+ He products that would normally be expected from vacuum nuclear physics. In addition, Kasagi saw more energetic reaction products from deuterons hitting 3 He nuclei that accumulated in the target - in this case energetic protons and alpha particles. Also in the spectrum were energetic alphas and protons from reactions in which a 3 He from a d+d reaction hit another deuteron. All of these reactions are expected. What was not expected were additional signals in the proton and alpha spectrum that had a very broad energy spread.
• Fig. 5 illustrates of a "weak' ' coupling version of the compact state energy distribution.
• compact state formation occurs at energies slightly below the molecular D 2 state energy.
• conventional dd-fusion reactions would be expected as an allowed decay route for these low angular momentum compact states.
• An accumulation of compact states with energies near the molecular state could also lead to energy transfer to the host lattice nuclei, giving rise to fast ion emission of the type observed by Chambers and by Cecil.
• the reaction rate from this kind of model is limited by the relative weakness of the coupling through the Coulomb barrier, and permits the interpretation of an enhanced coherent tunneling mechanism.
• the associated enhancement in the tunneling probability can be very large - we find enhancements of more than 50 orders of magnitude increase over estimates from tunneling using the Golden Rule.
• Evidence for the existence of such an enhancement comes from a very large body of experiments in which anomalies in metal deuterides are seen. Direct evidence in support of the existence of a compact states comes from the Kasagi experiment.
• the existence of the localized states and very large enhancements of tunneling is supported by the new models that include phonon exchange in nuclear reactions as discussed at length below.
• a metal deuteride such as PdD has acoustical modes from near zero frequency up to a few THz, and optical phonon modes at higher frequencies (from 8-16 THz in PdD).
• Theory indicates that need to be able to exchange on the order of 20 phonons or more in order to develop the requisite angular momentum to stabilize localized two nucleus states in the case of the d+d reactions (and on the order of 10 phonons for the p+d reaction branch).
• a phonon mode in our view extends over a volume determined by the phonon coherence length associated with the mode frequency or local geometry (which can be as small as 10 " cm for an optical phonon mode, or as large as 1 cm 3 for a low acoustical mode) and can be excited to have some number, say N, phonons total.
• the requirement is that there must be at least on the order of 10 cycles of oscillation in the wavefunction over the size scale of a compact state (on the order of 10 fm), under conditions where there are roughly N cycles of oscillation over the full relative distance of local oscillation of local motion of the reacting nuclei.
• the volume may have 10 9 atoms, there may be about one phonon per 10 atoms, and the associated relative motion will be on the order of 0.1 Angstroms, leading to on the order of 10 4 cycles in 1 fm.
• the difficulty is to arrange for the total relative displacement (which can be within 1-2 orders of magnitude of the total displacement) associated with the highly excited acoustical mode to be greater than a few fermis. From experiment we have only a partial picture of the situation.
• Phonon excitation as discussed above is required, although due to the improved stability of the compact states, less angular momentum transfer is required, and hence less phononic excitation.
• This aspect of the model is supported in many experiments reporting observations of excess heat in light water systems, in which the current density (which is inferred to be proportional to the excitation of the phonons) required is much reduced from similar heavy water experiments.
• THz phonons For example if we wish to excite THz phonons, we may do so by stimulating the surface of a metal deuteride with a THz radiation source, or by beating infrared or optical lasers together in the presence of a nonlinear surface interaction.
• Direct surface stimulation can be arranged for by fluxing hydrogen, deuterium, or other elements through chemical potential discontinuities.
• Semiconductor devices are capable of generating very high frequency vibrations under electrical stimulation.
• Acoustical stimulation can be induced through the use of microwave and RF sources which interact with surface conductivity of metal deuterides. Fluxing atoms across chemical potentials stimulates higher frequency vibrations that downshift in metal deuterides, as they are highly nonlinear.
• helium can be done by an occasional heating cycle in order to bring it to relevant surfaces to desorb, since the solubility of helium in metals is low. Helium may accumulate in voids, and in the long term lead to degradation of the structural intensity.
• j) In the case that we adopt a scheme in which electromagnetic radiation is used for surface stimulation, the absorption of the radiation is expected to be poor. Consequently, we would like to make use of schemes that allow for multiple reflections of the radiation in order to absorb it more efficiently. In the case of long wavelength radiation, we would like to employ a resonant cavity.
• k) In some cases, the local excess power production has been sufficiently great to melt the metal deuteride. This is viewed as detrimental in systems intended for long-term use in energy production.
• Stimulation by electromagnetic radiation or by other means under conditions outlined in this patent application is expected to result in such high levels of power generation.
• an attractive approach is to use a relatively high local intensity (for example 100s of W/cm absorbed energy or greater) that is beneficial in creating large amplitude phonon excitation relative to this system, but to keep the stimulation on for relatively small fraction of the time (i.e. such that the duty cycle is low).
• a relatively high local intensity for example 100s of W/cm absorbed energy or greater
• the maximum vacancy concentration is on the order of 0.1-0.2% in a metal, limited by spontaneous annealing internally at room temperature. Loading with hydrogen or deuterium stabilizes these vacancies, and vacancy concentrations up to 25% have been reported in the literature for NiH and PdH. Ion beam irradiation creates multiple vacancies, and is presently thought to be less effective than electron beam irradiation, although published data in regard to excess energy production is generally not available in either case. The deposition of metal on substrates with mismatched lattice constants will generate defective lattices, and this should be effective in helping to maximize the molecular deuterium concentration in the metal.
• lowering the temperature of a metal deuteride in the range of room temperature to 200 C has the effect of lowering the molecular deuterium concentration in the metal, and should lower the reaction rate. Support for this comes from many electrochemical experiments in which the heat production rate is maximized as the temperature is increased.
• the gas pressure can be reduced to lower the concentration of deuterium in the metal deuteride.
• the wire temperature can be reduced, producing less atomic deuterium, hence loading the metal deuteride less, o)
• the size scale of an energy-producing device of the type under discussion can range over many orders of magnitude.
• Low-momentum phonons in PdD occur at very low frequencies (KHz-GHz) in the case of acoustical phonons, and also at the phonon band edges at 5.5 THz (acoustical phonons) and at 8 THz (optical phonons). In all other cases, the efficient coupling of electromagnetic radiation to the phonon modes of interest will be difficult without some mechanism to make up the momentum difference.
• KHz-GHz very low frequencies
• E is the energy eigenvalue for the total system
• H is the ⁇ amiltonian that includes a relevant description of the quantum system under discussion
• ⁇ is the associated wavefunction.
• the Resonating Group Method as applied to the vacuum version of the problem presumes an approximate wavefunction ⁇ , (where the subscript t here is for "trial" wavefunction as is common when using a variational method) of the general form
• the summation over 7 includes all of the different reaction channels, both input and exit channels.
• the nuclei present are described by fixed nuclear wavefunctions ⁇ , that are associated with channel j.
• the separation between the nuclear center of mass positions within a given channel j is described by the channel separation factor F j .
• Coupled-channel equations of this form are either used explicitly or implicitly in association with the dd-fusion problem by most authors from the 1930s through the 1990s.
• Relevant examples in the literature include J. R. Pruett, F. M. Beiduk and ⁇ . J. Konopinski, Phys. Rev., Vol. 77, p. 628 (1950) and ⁇ . J. Boersma, Nucl Phys.,.Yol. A135, p. 609 (1969).
• the primary weakness of the Resonating Group Method with regard to the vacuum formulation of the problem is that the nuclear wavefunctions are not allowed to be optimized. For example, one expects that these wavefunctions will be polarized when they are in close proximity, which cannot be described within this formulation. Further modifications of the nuclear wavefunctions are possible when they are interacting strongly under conditions where the overlap is large. These effects can be described within formulations that are stronger than the Resonating Group Method, such as the R- matrix method [A. M. Lane and D. Robson, Phys. Rev., Vol 151, p. 774 (1966). D. Robson and A. M. Lane, Phys. Rev., Vol. 161, p. 982 (1967). A. M. Lane andD. Robson, Phys.
• the channel separation factors E y be generalized to include other nuclei in the lattice.
• the E 7 would include a description of the relative motion of the two deuterons in a function of the form E R 2 -R ⁇ ) where R and R are the center of mass coordinates associated with the two deuterons.
• this function might be taken to be of the form e' K ' (R2_Rl) .
• the new lattice channel separation factors ⁇ ⁇ now includes the separation factor of the nuclei that were in the vacuum formulation, as well as all of the nuclei and electrons in the vicinity of the reacting nuclei that might be relevant.
• the contribution of the electrons is included through the effective potential between the nuclear coordinates within the Born-Oppenheimer approximation. But in general, we intend for the generalization here to represent the physics associated with whatever is relevant in the surrounding solid, under the presumption that whatever analysis follows would restrict attention to that which is most important.
• the trial wavefunction ⁇ is now made up of the fixed nuclear wavefunctions ⁇ that are involved in the different reaction channels of the specific nuclear reaction under discussion, in the same sense as was used in the Resonating Group Method.
• the new lattice channel separation factors ⁇ now include the nuclear separation of the reacting nuclei on the same footing with a description of all of the relevant center of mass coordinates of neighboring nuclei (and electrons if so required in a particular model).
• the new formulation that we have described here is interesting for many reasons. Of great interest is that it includes the old vacuum formulation for nuclear reactions as a subset of a more general theory of nuclear reactions.
• the new approach is consistent with the large body of accepted experimental and theoretical results obtained previously and accepted by the nuclear physics community.
• the primary new effect that is a consequence of this generalization is the prediction of phonon exchange associated with nuclear reactions. For example, a fast deuteron incident on a metal deuteride target that reacts with a deuteron in the lattice has a finite probability of phonon exchange as a consequence of the nuclear reaction. This is not taken into account in a vacuum description of the reaction, and we may rightly fault the vacuum description for this deficiency.
• Phonon exchange of reactions at different sites with a common highly excited phonon mode can lead to quantum coupling between such reactions, and this opens the possibility of new kinds of second-order and higher-order reaction processes. These new processes appear to be reflected in experimental studies of anomalies in metal deuterides, and are of particular interest to us.
• experiments operate at elevated temperature with relatively low loading, with positive results.
• the elevated temperature combined with lattices containing large concentrations of defects would maximize double site occupation.
• host metal lattice vacancies are thermodynamically favored in highly loaded PdD and NiD (Fukai used this feature to create metal hydrides with one out of four host metal lattice atoms missing), such that they will diffuse inward from surfaces at slow rates.
• this mechanism might have been responsible for a long time constant associated with the excess heat effect in the early SRI experiments.
• the dielectric response comes about naturally in infinite-order Brillouin-Wigner theory. We were interested in whether this response resulted in a modification of the
• the dielectric response from the electrons localized at other atoms yields only a weak screening locally between the deuterons. Based on this, we conclude that the dielectric response at short range should be the vacuum dielectric response. We disagree with the results of Ichimaru in this regard.
• Fig. 6 illustrates a fractional occupation of the different angular momentum (I) states in molecular deuterium as a function of temperature.
• I angular momentum
• Spatial symmetry of the nuclear wavefunctions can be changed in association with a change in the symmetry of the phonon wavefunction in the amplitude space (q configuration space).
• Spin can be changed due to the presence of LS interaction terms in the strong force interaction under conditions where the spatial operators include phononic contributions.
• two deuterons can fuse to make 4 He in vacuum with the emission of a gamma in an electric quadrupole electromagnetic transition.
• the exchange of an even number of phonons greater than zero can make satisfy the selection rules with no need for a gamma.
• the situation is qualitatively similar as in the case of phonon emission associated with electronic transitions of atomic impurities in a lattice.
• An atomic transition that in vacuum can proceed through radioactive decay with a dipole allowed transition can instead decay through a dipole allowed phonon emission process.
• the general theory under discussion is a completely standard quantum mechanical treatment of a coupled quantum system (in this case a coupled phonon and nuclear system), and hence the coupling between the phononic and nuclear degrees of freedom comes about directly from a calculation of the interaction matrix element.
• the degree to which we are able to make quantitative predictions and qualitative statements about the physics under discussion is in proportional to our ability to estimate such interaction matrix elements.
• the 4-particle wavefunction is sometimes called a Feenberg wavefunction.
• r is the residual radial separation coordinate
• Auq describes the relative motion due to the highly excited phonon mode.
• the basic picture that underlies this discussion is one in which two deuterons occupy a single site, either due to high loading, high temperature, or due to the presence of vacancies within the metal deuteride. Occasionally, the deuterons tunnel close together. While close together, the deuterons are still part of the lattice, and constitute a component of the phonon modes of the lattice. When they are close together, the very strong nuclear and Coulomb interactions dominate over the interactions with relatively distant atoms that may be a few Angstroms away.
• the deuterons will still exhibit a response in the presence of strong phononic excitation, although a weak one, which must be computed using a linearization scheme that takes into account the very strong interactions the deuterons undergo while close together.
• the resulting relative motion that is accounted from the Auq term is expected to be on the order of fermis.
• An is the number of phonons exchanged
• Fig. 8 illustrates the energy of a compact state due to the kinetic, centripetal and Coulomb contributions.
• the energy is in MeV.
• the axis is a measure of the pair separation l/ j ⁇ in fermi.
• the basic problem in the formation of such a stable localized state is that the exchange energy required is very substantial.
• the exchange potential was simply not large enough to stabilize the compact state. It was thought that an extended version of the problem that involved more sites would stabilize the two-deuteron compact state.
• the exchange energy can be negative for the two site problem - for the three-site problem it is larger since there are now two sites to exchange with rather than just one. And so forth.
• n+ 3 He compact state is that the mechanism for phonon exchange outlined above is expected to be more effective in the event that one of the constituents in neutral, as a neutron does not participate in the lattice phonon mode structure. Our current speculation is that such states may be the dominant compact state for this reason. This conjecture remains to be proven, but seems to be reasonable at present.
• Fig. 9 illustrates a Gamow factor associated with the n+ 3 He channel as a function of angular momentum of the two-deuteron compact state.
• the lighter reduced mass translates into a faster reaction rate, all else being equal, as the tunneling probability for the proton and deuteron is increased by orders of magnitude. This will become important shortly.
• reaction energy is about 5.5 MeV, instead of 23.85 MeV for the d+d reaction.
• reaction energy is about 5.5 MeV, instead of 23.85 MeV for the d+d reaction.
• the ⁇ operators are pseudospin operators that are developed as a superposition over Pauli matrices at the different sites
• the localization energy for a single site is (h ⁇ , and the V m ⁇ terms are integrals of the interaction potentials and localized orbitals summed over the different angular momentum channels.
• the ⁇ m , operator changes the number of phonons in the highly excited phonon mode.
• E ⁇ 2 H 2 ⁇ 2 +V 21 ⁇ 1 +V 23 ⁇ 3
• K 2 H 2 + V 23 [E - H 3 ]-% _2
• Fig. 10 illustrates a Probability distribution in the vicinity of the source in the case of weak coupling.
• Fig. 12 illustrates a Probability distribution in the vicinity of the source in the case of strong coupling. Only a restricted range in n-no has been included in the plot. The spread of the distribution in phonon number increases as the strength of the coupling, and decreases under conditions in which the loss is large. It is possible to develop some intuition from these results as to how this problem works.
• the part of the Hamiltonian that describes fusion and dissociation transitions in this context serves as a kind of kinetic energy operator for the problem. The solutions appear to be outwardly oscillatory away from the source.
• E ⁇ (JC) +V(x) ⁇ (x)-Kf (x)jf (y) ⁇ (y)dy
• V ( ) is the one-dimensional equivalent molecular potential
• the simplest model of this class is one in which we assume an initial population of deuterons in molecular states, an initial population of helium atoms, and no initial occupation of compact states.
• the simplest possible model of this kind will assume only a single molecular state, a single compact state, and a single helium final state in association with each site, and uniform interaction with the highly excited phonon mode.
• the Hamiltonian for this kind of model in the absence of loss terms can be written as
• This model implements a coupling scheme that would result from preferential phonon exchange in the case of compact states involving a free neutron, and is consistent with our best understanding at the momentum of the phonon exchange mechanism under discussion.
• the Hamiltonian for the three-level model is unlikely to lead to much of interest, since there is a very high degree of symmetry present in the coupling between the different states associated with the three-dimensional configuration space when the number of sites, nuclei and phonons is large. This is the same conclusion that we reached in the case of the Dicke model discussed previously.
• the Dicke factor No tcke is on the order of the square root of the produce of the number of compact states present and the number of in-phase molecular state deuterons present within the coherence domain of the highly excited phonon mode.
• the dynamics associated with this coupling is determined by the associated dephasing of the quantum states of the system. If the rate of dephasing of these states is faster than the frequency determined by the coupling matrix element divided by h , then the rate will be determined by the Golden Rule, which basically means that no observable transitions will occur. If the dephasing is on the order of or slower than this rate, then the transitions will proceed at the rate associated with the spread of probability amplitude in the associated configuration space, which is on the order of
• the above process is implemented to create a vacancy-enhanced metal lattice structure. More specifically, there is an introduction of hydrogen.
• Metal hydrides have long been sought as vehicles to contain hydrogen for storage and shipment. The advantages of storing hydrogen in a metal lattice rather than using high pressures and or low temperatures to compress (in the limit, to liquefy) hydrogen gas are: improved volumetric storage efficiency, increased safety, potentially lower costs, the convenience of working with small or intermediate sized devices. Metal hydrides also are sources of intrinsically pure hydrogen and in many applications gas stored in this way can be used without further purification. High purity hydrogen is increasingly being used in a range of chemical processes from semiconductor fabrication to the preparation of fine metal powders.
• the important properties of the "Fukai” phase are: 1) High hydrogen storage capacity (in excess of atomic ratio 1 : 1 with the host lattice) because of the existence of a high vacancy content. 2) Thermodynamic stabilization of the high vacancy and high hydrogen content as these act together to form a new, thermodynamically more stable phase. 3) Enhanced mobility of hydrogen in the defect-rich lattice phase.
• Figs. 14-16 illustrate in more detail this embodiment of the present invention. More specifically, Fig. 14 illustrates a vacancy stabilized, enhanced hydrogen storage material.
• A represents a metal atom arranged in a regular lattice structure and B represents a vacancy (missing metal atom and/or atoms) induced in the regular lattice structure.
• C is the hydrogen atom that hydrogen atom occupying the interstitial space D between metal atoms in the regular lattice structure.
• Fig. 15 illustrates hydrogen loading of the bulk metal A.
• the metal A includes a regular array of metal atoms. Hydrogen atoms C are induced to enter the bulk metal A from an external hydrogen source F. Once the metal has been loaded, the metal is irradiated.
• Fig. 16 illustrates the irradiation of the metal after it has been loaded.
• the bulk metal A is irradiated with an irradiation beam I.
• the irradiation beam I is made up of particles (e.g. electrons) of sufficient energy to create vacancies B in the bulk metal. Time or temperature can also be used to achieve the desired result of creating a vacancy enhanced host lattice structure. Hydrogen atoms C loaded into bulk the metal A enter the vacancies B and stabilize them.
• Vacancy stabilized enhanced hydrogen storage materials can be used with advantage over existing metal, carbon and compressed hydrogen storage methods in all applications where hydrogen presently is used or produced:
• thermodynamics of the structure we can create phases that can be activated to absorb and release H 2 by small changes in physical condition around the desired operating point.
• adding helium to a vacancy enhanced hydrogen and/or deuterium storage material produces another novel material with additional utility.
• a helium-seeded, vacancy enhanced, hydrogen and/or deuterium loaded lattice is critical to the embodiment of the energy release method described in the patent.
• Helium can be introduced into the lattice before, after or during the hydrogen loading and vacancy creation steps, but practical considerations suggest that it is easiest and most effective to load helium into the lattice before hydrogen loading and vacancy creation.
• Helium can be loaded into the lattice via several methods, including: 1. Making the host lattice material in the presence of a helium atmosphere
• Fig. 17a-17e illustrates energy being created in a metal deuteride in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.
• Fig 17a deuterium (D 2 ) 25 and helium ( 4 He) 27 are loaded into the interstitial sites 26, 28 in the atomic lattice of the host metal structure 31.
• Vacancies 33 in the atomic lattice provide sufficient room for molecular deuterium to form.
• the host metal structure includes the use of metals such as, but not limited to, Pd, Ni, Pt, Rh, Ru, Ti, Nb, V, Ta, W, Hf, Zr, Mo, U, Sc, Mn, Co, Zn, Y, Zr, Cd, Ag, Sn and other alloy and composite materials.
• the Pd is of high purity (but not the highest) in the range of 99.5%-99.9% with a diameter of 50-125 ⁇ m and a length of 3-30 cm.
• Helium-4 4 He is introduced into the Pd lattice to atomic ratio one part in 10 5 .
• the levels of 4 He normally found in Pd are approximately 10 10 atoms per cm 3 ( ⁇ 1 atom in 10 13 or 8 orders of magnitude less than the preferred value). Examples of obtaining the desired concentration of 4 He into the Pd contemplated by the invention are as follows:
• High temperature diffusion - Fig. 17g illustrates a pressure vessel E capable of maintaining a helium atmosphere F at and elevated temperature. Diffusion of helium in fee metals is an activated process with activation energy -0.5 - 1.0 eV. For Pd sufficient diffusion can be achieved in the range 500-950°C depending on wire microstructure and dimension.
• F illustrates the helium atmosphere (helium-4 for D + D, Helium-3 for H + D reactions).
• A represents the bulk metal.
• Helium atoms G diffuse into the bulk metal.
• Helium preloading can be attained by exposing the wire to helium gas at elevated temperature in a pressure vessel.
• Fig 17h illustrates the helium pre-seeding, helium ion implantation.
• the bulk metal A is being ionized by the beam I.
• the helium atoms G are implanted into the bulk metal.
• the average loading of deuterium in Pd is > 0.85.
• Fig. 17i illustrates the loading of bulk metal A.
• deuterium, hydrogen or a mixed source J is introduced and then the deuterium and/or hydrogen C atoms are induced to enter the bulk metal A.
• Deuterium and/or hydrogen loading can be achieved to high levels via known electrochemical techniques. The preferred means to obtain such loading is by electrochemical reduction of heavy water (D 2 O) or deuterated alcohol (e.g. CD 3 OD,
• Electrochemical loading of the deuterium into the Pd can be accomplished as follows:
• Alcohol electrolytes offer two advantages: a) they are more easily purified (e.g. by distillation) and contain lower concentrations of cations deleterious to loading; and b) because of their lower freezing point, electrolysis temperatures can be reduced which thermodynamically favors attainment of the high loading state. At lower temperatures and substantially lower electrolyte conductivities, the kinetic of the loading process and accessible range of cathodic current densities, are much less in alcohol electrolytes than in aqueous. As for "1", however, current densities must be adjusted while monitoring the loading in order to achieve the maximum loading state.
• Loading is thus constrained by two opposite rate processes: 1) radial diffusion of D atoms into the Pd lattice from a state of high electrochemical potential at the electrochemically active surface; 2) and contamination of that surface by discharge of species dissolved or suspended in the electrolyte.
• the condition of maximum loading is transient.
• monitoring the D Pd loading is by using four terminal resistance measurement.
• Contamination is eliminated before undertaking the electrochemical loading by surface cleaning and pretreatment.
• An example of decontaminating the Pd surface is passing current at high current density axially along the wire.
• the current density should be calculated or adjusted to be sufficient to raise the temperature of the Pd wire to dull red heat (600-800°C). Only a few seconds of this treatment and no repetition are necessary to completely remove deleterious species from the Pd electro- active surface and effect a favorable recrystallization of the bulk.
• Fig. 17j illustrates the sealing of host lattice structure L.
• the loaded metal deuteride and/or metal hydride L is coated with a thin layer (e.g. mercury) A designed to prevent the recombination of deuterium atoms at the surface of the metal deuteride; this prevents the egress of the deuterium.
• a thin layer e.g. mercury
• the coating of different material M e.g. silver
• Example of other materials used for sealing includes Pb, Cd, Sn, Bi, Sb and at least one of anions of sulfite, sulfate, nitrate, chloride and perchlorate.
• mercury ions are rapidly reduced to atoms on the cathode surface, effectively poisoning D-D atom recombination and thus preventing D atoms leaving the Pd host as D molecules. This step is most effectively accomplished by monitoring the PdD axial resistance to ensure that the resistivity does not rise (signaling loss of D) following cessation of the impressed cathodic current.
• the number of vacancies available in the metal host can be enhanced.
• enhancing the vacancies in a PdD host metal can be accomplished by subjecting the metal to radiation damage thus imparting kinetic energy and motion to lattice Pd atoms.
• any radiation of sufficient intensity may be used for this purpose, for example, an electron beam irradiation.
• an electron beam irradiation In order to preserve the deuterium atomic loading during shipment and while samples undergo electron beam irradiation loaded wires should be maintained at liquid nitrogen temperatures (77K) or below.
• an optical phonon field 35 is applied to the host lattice structure 31.
• the optical phonon field 35 operates to couple reactants at the different sites 26, 28 and initiating a resonant reaction to occur in the host lattice structure 31.
• the phonon field is applied to the host lattice 31 by use of a stimulation source.
• the host lattice structure 31 can be stimulated to demonstrate effects of heat generation via nuclear reaction (D + D) and production of helium ( 4 He). Stimulation involves exciting appropriate modes of lattice phonon vibrations. A number of methods are available to provide such stimulation to the host lattice stracture.
• stimulation to the host lattice structure can be achieved by fluxing of lattice deuterium atoms across steep gradients of chemical potential (the electrochemical mode); fluxing of electrons at high current density (the "Coehn” effect); intense acoustic stimulation ("sono-fusion”); lattice fracture (“fracto-fusion”); or surface laser stimulation (“laser-fusion”).
• the stimulation of the host lattice structure can also be effectively stimulated by the following: 1) Surface stimulation with a red laser diode in the range of wavelength with surface power intensity > 3W cm "2 ; 2) Beating Laser; 3) Surface stimulation with lasers in the Terahertz frequency range; 4) Axial current stimulation using both direct and alternating currents (dc and ac) and current pulses, at current densities greater than 10 5 A cm "2 .
• molecular deuterium 25 fuses into another helium 37 thereby releasing energy 39 into the lattice structure 31.
• the helium 27 dissociate to form a deuteron pair 41 of lower energy within the site 28.
• Fig. 17e illustrates that after many oscillations of the process discussed above in Figs. 17a-17d, the system returns to rest. At rest, the original deuterium molecule 25 has been converted into a helium atom 47. Similarly, the original helium atom 27 has been converted into a helium atom 49. There is a 23.8 MeV of energy has been absorbed by the host lattice structure 10.
• the demonstration of the effect is a measurement of a temperature rise in the prepared metal host. For example a measurement of the temperature rise in a Pd metal host structure. Such measurements can be made in a number of ways, either calorimetrically (measuring the system total heat flux) or simply by monitoring the local temperature rise. Although demonstration of the effect is more easily made by observing a local temperature rise in response to the stimulus, other examples of demonstrating the effect of the energy process contemplated by the invention are as follows:
• wire samples should be removed, sectioned, and subjected to analysis for 3 He and 4 He in the metal phase.
• a high sensitivity and high resolution mass spectrometer can be used for this purpose. Any indication that 4 He levels have increased or that the 3 He/ He ratio has changed from it's natural value can be used to demonstrate that a nuclear process has occurred in the lattice.
• Figs.l9a-19e illustrate another reaction processes in accordance with the present invention.
• the reaction process in Figs. 19a-19e are essentially identical to the reaction processes in Figs 17a-17e except for the introduction of hydrogen. Only the differences between these two processes will be discussed in detail.
• Fig. 19a Hydrogen and Deuterium (HD) 55 and helium ( 3 He) 57 are loaded into the interstitial sites in the atomic lattice of the host metal 61. Vacancies in the atomic lattice provide sufficient room for H+D molecules to form.
• Fig 19b an optical phonon field 63 is applied, coupling reactants at different sites and initiating the resonant reaction.
• the molecular deuterium fuses into helium 67, releasing energy 65 into the lattice.
• helium dissociates into a closely born hydrogen-deuterium pair (HD pair) 69. Some energy is lost to the metal lattice and appears as heat.
• the cycle repeats itself.
• the HD pair reverts to helium 73, injecting energy 65 into the lattice, which causes a helium atom to dissociate into an HD pair 71 of lower energy at another site. Again, some energy is lost to the metal lattice and appears as heat.
• Fig. 19e After many oscillations, the system returns to rest.
• the original hydrogen-deuterium molecule 55 has been converted into a helium-3 atom 75. The 5.5 MeV energy difference between these particles has been absorbed by the host metal lattice.
• Figs. 20-23 illustrates practical application of the processes noted in Figs. 17& 19 in accordance with the present invention that incorporates the use of metal deuteride in an electrochemical cell-based heating element.
• the electrochemical cell-based heating element 78 is shown.
• the element 78 includes several cells 83 that can operate individually or in conjunction.
• the cells 83 take the form of "fingers.”
• Each cell 83 of the electrochemical cell-based heating element 78 has electrodes 80 that extend the length of each cell 83 and are immersed in an electrolyte 82.
• the cells 83 can be designed to run above or below the boiling point of water.
• the electrolyte 82 in conjunction with the anode 79 and cathode 81 stimulate the molecular transformation of the metal deuteride used in the construction of each cell 83. It is contemplated by the invention that the metal deuteride 85 is used in the cathode 81 portion of the electrodes 80 for each cell 83. Thus, upon heating, the molecular transformations described in Figs.l7a-17e & 19a-19e occur in the metal deuteride 85 of each cell body 83 of the heating element 78, which heats the cell body 83. The heat energy that is created from the molecular transformation is extracted from the cells 83 by immersing the cells 83 into a heat transfer fluid 84.
• the electrochemical embodiment could be used in various industrial, commercial and residential heating that require anywhere from 50 ° C -150 ° C applications.
• applications could include, but are not limited to, water heating, desalinization (e.g., distillation), industrial processes; and refrigeration (e.g., heat pumps).
• Fig. 21, illustrates an embodiment of the invention that incorporates the metal deuteride in a dry cell.
• the dry cell 93 can be operated individually of in conjunction will other dry cells.
• Fig. 21, shows an expanded version of the dry cell 93, but in a fully assembled configuration the dry cell 93 takes the form of a "plug" i.e., when the top 96 is fastened to the heat transfer case 95.
• the starter coil 97 is an electric heating element used to bring the dry cell to correct operating temperature. Power to the starter coil 97 is removed when the correct operating temperature for the dry cell 93 is reached.
• the dry cell 93 is solid state, and uses electromagnetic radiation (e.g., visible or infrared, terahertz source or the like) to generate optical phonons in the quantum metal hydride.
• electromagnetic radiation e.g., visible or infrared, terahertz source or the like
• the laser diode 98 in conjunction with the lens 101 provide the stimulation to the quantum metal hydride 99 of the dry cell 93.
• the stimulation of the metal hydride causes molecular transformations in the quantum metal hydride 99, as described in Figs. 17a-17e & 19a-19e.
• the heat energy that results from the molecular transformations is absorbed by the heat transfer case 95.
• the heat is extracted from the heat transfer case by immersing the plug in a heat transfer medium such as liquid or gas. .
• the dry cell could be used in various distributed power generation applications that require anywhere from 150 ° C -250 ° C.
• applications could include, but are not limited to, a steam engine (e.g., Watt engine) or a Stirling engine.
• Fig.22 illustrates an embodiment of the invention that incorporates the metal deuteride in a flash heating tube.
• the flash heating tube 92 is used to produce high quality steam. More specifically, a wire coil 88 consisting of a loaded metal deuteride, is stimulated by applied current that is passed through the coil 88.
• the current can be AC or DC, as long as the current is sufficient to cause the required molecular transformations to occur in the metal deuteride 87 described in Figs. 17a-17e & 19a-19e.
• the heat energy that is created as a result of the molecular transformations is absorbed by the heat transfer tube 90. Water 89 is passed through one end of the heat transfer tube 90.
• the flash heating tube embodiment could be used in various centralized power generation applications that require temperatures of 250° C -500 ° C.
• applications could include, but are not limited to, conventional electric utility applications (e.g., alternative to fossil fuel, gas or nuclear power sources).
• thermoelectric battery 102 is a solid- state device that generates electricity directly from the heat produced.
• the thermoelectric battery 102 unit includes two layers: 1) a loaded metal deuteride layer and a thermal-to- electric layer.
• the metal deuteride layer 104 is loaded into an internal metal vessel.
• the thermoelectric layer 105 encompasses the vessel.
• the stimulation source is a semiconductor laser stimulus 103 with optical dispersion such as, but not limited to, a laser diode or direct terahertz source.
• the stimulation source 103 energizes the inside layer (i.e.
• thermoelectric battery embodiment could be used in energy applications requiring temperatures of 500° C-1000 0 C. Examples of the applications include, but are not limited to, direct conversion of hear to electricity through traditional or novel semiconductor technology; batteries that enable long lasting and massive distribution of energy (e.g., self powered devices); and applications ranging from portable electronics devices to transportation

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• 2003
  • 2003-05-19 IL IL16528103A patent/IL165281A0/xx unknown
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