CN114768790B - Carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst and preparation method and application thereof - Google Patents

Carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst and preparation method and application thereof Download PDF

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CN114768790B
CN114768790B CN202210510207.8A CN202210510207A CN114768790B CN 114768790 B CN114768790 B CN 114768790B CN 202210510207 A CN202210510207 A CN 202210510207A CN 114768790 B CN114768790 B CN 114768790B
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bismuth
carbon
bismuth oxide
composite photocatalyst
oxide composite
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CN114768790A (en
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邸丽景
李红琴
县涛
孙小锋
马雪莲
马珂
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Qinghai Normal University
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    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
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Abstract

The invention relates to the technical field of photocatalysts, and provides a preparation method of a carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst. According to the invention, the Grifola frondosa is selected as a carbon source, so that the Grifola frondosa is easy to carbonize and has a rough surface, bismuth ions in bismuth salt can be easily deposited on the surface of the Grifola frondosa and cannot fall off, and the bismuth oxide with a nano-sheet structure is facilitated to be obtained; in the hydrothermal process, carbon particles formed by carbonization are modified on the surface of the bismuth oxide nano-sheet. In the process of catalyzing organic matters, the carbon loaded on the catalyst can inhibit the recombination of photo-generated charges and strengthen the reactive sites of bismuth oxide, thereby enhancing the photo-catalytic efficiency; the nano-sheet structure of bismuth oxide increases the contact area between the organic matters and the catalyst, thereby further enhancing the catalytic effect.

Description

Carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst and preparation method and application thereof
Technical Field
The invention belongs to the technical field of photocatalysts, and particularly relates to a carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst, and a preparation method and application thereof.
Background
With the development of society, the problem of environmental pollution caused by organic matters is more and more serious, and the degradation treatment is carried out on the organic matters by utilizing a photocatalysis technology, so that the organic matters are an effective means for solving the problem of organic matter pollution. The photocatalysis technology refers to a semiconductor photocatalyst which can degrade organic matters and decompose water to produce hydrogen under the drive of solar energy, and is considered as an ideal 'green' technology for solving the environmental pollution and energy shortage.
Conventional photocatalysts such as TiO 2 And ZnO can only be irradiated by ultraviolet lightThe photocatalytic reaction is carried out. In order to better utilize solar energy, the development of visible light photocatalysts has become an important point of current research. Wherein the Bi-based photocatalyst (e.g., bi 2 O 3 BiOBr and BiFeO 3 Etc.), the photocatalyst has been widely paid attention to, and has good application potential in the aspects of photocatalytic degradation of organic matters and the like as a visible light photocatalyst.
In order to better develop the potential of the Bi-based photocatalyst, expand the light absorption range and inhibit the separation of photo-generated charges, and improve the photocatalytic efficiency, the Bi-based photocatalyst is generally required to be modified. The modification means commonly used in the prior art is to modify the Bi-based photocatalyst with a noble metal. Because noble metals are rare in nature. Therefore, there is a need to provide a Bi-based photocatalyst which avoids the use of noble metals and has high catalytic efficiency.
Disclosure of Invention
In view of the above, the present invention aims to provide a method for preparing a carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst. The Bi-based photocatalyst obtained by the preparation method provided by the invention has a higher photocatalytic effect under the condition of no need of noble metal.
In order to achieve the above object, the present invention provides the following technical solutions:
the invention provides a preparation method of a carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst, which comprises the following steps:
mixing the dispersing agent, bismuth salt, grifola frondosa, alkali and water, and performing hydrothermal reaction to obtain carbon/bismuth oxide.
Preferably, the dispersant comprises sodium sulphate and/or potassium sulphate.
Preferably, the bismuth salt includes at least one of bismuth nitrate, bismuth sulfate and bismuth chloride.
Preferably, the base includes at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and lithium hydroxide.
Preferably, the mass ratio of the grifola frondosa to the bismuth salt is (0.1-1.2): 1.
preferably, the dispersant, water and bismuth salt are used in an amount ratio of (1 to 5) mmol: (30-50) mL: (0.5-1.5) mmol.
Preferably, the ratio of the amounts of the bismuth salt and the base is (0.5 to 3): (15-25).
Preferably, the temperature of the hydrothermal reaction is 100-150 ℃, and the time of the hydrothermal reaction is 3-12 h.
The invention provides the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared by the preparation method, which comprises bismuth oxide nano-sheets and carbon particles supported on the surfaces of the bismuth oxide nano-sheets.
The invention also provides application of the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst in catalytic degradation of organic matters.
The invention provides a preparation method of a carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst, which comprises the following steps: and mixing the dispersing agent, bismuth salt, grifola frondosa, alkali and water, and performing hydrothermal reaction to obtain the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst. According to the invention, the dispersing agent is added into the reaction system to promote the bismuth salt to be uniformly dispersed in the reaction system; the base provides the alkaline environment required for the hydroxide radical and hydrothermal reaction required for the conversion of bismuth salt to bismuth hydroxide; bismuth hydroxide generated by bismuth salt and alkali is decomposed into bismuth oxide in the hydrothermal reaction; the petals of the Grifola frondosa are thinner and easy to carbonize by selecting the Grifola frondosa as a carbon source, and meanwhile, the surface of the Grifola frondosa is rough, so that bismuth ions in the bismuth salt are easy to deposit on the surface of the Grifola frondosa and do not fall off, and the bismuth oxide with a nano-sheet structure can be obtained in the hydrothermal reaction of the bismuth salt; in the hydrothermal reaction, carbon particles formed by carbonizing the Grifola frondosa are modified on the surface of the bismuth oxide nanosheet, and finally the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst is obtained. In the process of catalyzing organic matters, the photocatalyst obtained by the preparation method provided by the invention has the advantages that carbon loaded on the catalyst can inhibit the recombination of photo-generated charges, and the reaction active site of bismuth oxide is enhanced, so that the photocatalytic efficiency is enhanced; the nano-sheet structure of bismuth oxide increases the contact area between the organic matters and the catalyst, thereby further enhancing the catalytic effect. Experimental results show that when the photocatalyst provided by the invention is used for catalyzing acid orange seven, the reaction is carried out for 60 minutes, and the catalytic efficiency can reach 91%.
Drawings
FIG. 1 is a flow chart showing the preparation of a carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst according to example 1 of the present invention;
FIG. 2 is an XRD pattern of the bismuth oxide prepared in comparative example 3 and the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared in example 1;
FIG. 3 is an SEM image of bismuth oxide prepared according to comparative example 3;
FIG. 4 is an SEM image of a carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared in example 1;
FIG. 5 is an EDS diagram of the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared in example 1;
FIG. 6 is a PL spectrum of the bismuth oxide prepared in comparative example 3 and the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared in example 1;
FIG. 7 is a graph showing the photocatalytic efficiency of the composite photocatalyst AO7 prepared in example 1;
FIG. 8 is a schematic view showing the catalytic mechanism of the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared in example 1, wherein CB represents the conduction band, VB represents the valence band, and h + Representing a cavity.
Detailed Description
The invention provides a preparation method of a carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst, which comprises the following steps:
and mixing the dispersing agent, bismuth salt, grifola frondosa, alkali and water, and performing hydrothermal reaction to obtain the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst.
According to the invention, after the dispersant, bismuth salt, grifola frondosa, alkali and water are mixed, hydrothermal reaction is carried out, so that the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst is obtained.
In the present invention, the dispersant preferably includes sodium sulfate and/or potassium sulfate. According to the invention, the dispersing agent is added into the reaction system, so that the solubility of bismuth salt in water can be increased, and the bismuth salt is promoted to be uniformly dispersed in the reaction system; sodium sulfate and/or potassium sulfate are used as dispersing agents, so that the influence of the dispersing agents on the catalytic capability of the photocatalyst can be reduced, and metal salts are used as dispersing agents, so that the catalytic capability of the photocatalyst can be improved to a certain extent.
In the present invention, the bismuth salt preferably includes at least one of bismuth nitrate, bismuth sulfate and bismuth chloride, and more preferably bismuth nitrate. The invention selects common nitric acidBismuth provides the bismuth atoms required for the photocatalyst. In an embodiment of the present invention, the bismuth nitrate is preferably Bi (NO 3 ) 3 ·5H 2 O. Bismuth nitrate present in the prior art is often present in the form of five crystal waters.
In the present invention, the base preferably includes at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and lithium hydroxide which is water-soluble, more preferably sodium hydroxide. The method selects common sodium hydroxide to provide hydroxide radical required by bismuth salt to be converted into bismuth hydroxide, so as to obtain bismuth hydroxide, and simultaneously provides alkali environment required by hydrothermal reaction. In the present invention, the base is preferably added in the form of an aqueous solution. In the present invention, the concentration of the aqueous alkali solution is preferably (10 to 30) g/L, more preferably (16 to 20) g/L. The amount of the aqueous alkali solution is not particularly limited, and the ratio of the bismuth salt to the alkali is (0.5-3): (15-25).
The source of the Grifola frondosa is not specially specified, and the petals of the fresh Grifola frondosa in nature are selected. In the present invention, the petals of the grifola frondosa are preferably sequentially subjected to ethanol washing, drying, water washing, drying and crushing treatment before use. The method of the present invention is not particularly limited, and the impurities on the surface of the grifola frondosa can be washed with ethanol and water by a washing method well known to those skilled in the art. In the present invention, the drying mode is preferably natural drying. The invention adopts a natural airing mode to carry out drying, which is beneficial to ensuring the original form of the grifola frondosa. The crushing operation is not particularly limited, and the grifola frondosa petals are crushed into small pieces by adopting a crushing mode well known to a person skilled in the art. In this embodiment, the cutting is preferably performed by tearing the cutting piece directly by hand.
In the present invention, the ratio of the dispersant, water and bismuth salt is preferably (1 to 5) mmol: (30-50) mL: (0.5 to 1.5) mmol, more preferably (2 to 4) mmol: (35-45) mL: (0.8-1.2) mmol. The invention controls the dosage of the dispersing agent, the water and the bismuth salt in the range, is favorable for fully dispersing bismuth ions in the water, and simultaneously has better catalytic capability of the obtained catalyst.
In the present invention, the ratio of the amounts of the bismuth salt and the alkali substance is preferably (0.5 to 3): (15-25), more preferably 1:18. The invention controls the dosage of the bismuth salt and the alkali in the above range, which is favorable for fully converting bismuth ions into bismuth hydroxide precipitate and simultaneously provides alkaline environment required by hydrothermal reaction.
In the invention, the mass ratio of the grifola frondosa to the bismuth salt is preferably (0.1-1.2): 1, more preferably (0.5 to 1.1): 1, most preferably 1:1. The invention controls the dosage of the grifola frondosa in the range, is favorable for uniformly dispersing carbon particles carbonized by the grifola frondosa on the lamellar structure of bismuth oxide, and improves the catalytic capability of the photocatalyst.
In the invention, the dispersing agent, bismuth salt and water are preferably mixed first, and then the mulberry flower and alkali are sequentially added. In the invention, the bismuth salt is usually low in solubility in water, and the solubility of the bismuth salt can be increased by virtue of the dispersing agent, so that bismuth ions are promoted to be uniformly dispersed in the aqueous solution to obtain a uniform solution of the bismuth salt, the Grifola frondosa is added after the uniform solution of the bismuth salt is prepared, the bismuth ions are uniformly dispersed on the Grifola frondosa, finally, alkali is added, and the bismuth ions and hydroxide in the alkali are combined to form bismuth hydroxide precipitate, and the precipitate particles are uniformly dispersed on the Grifola frondosa.
In the present invention, the temperature of the hydrothermal reaction is preferably 100 to 150 ℃, more preferably 120 ℃; the time of the hydrothermal reaction is preferably 3 to 12 hours, more preferably 6 hours. The invention limits the temperature and time of the hydrothermal reaction in the above range, is favorable for fully carbonizing the grifola frondosa, and has better catalytic capability of the obtained catalyst.
After the hydrothermal reaction is finished, the product of the hydrothermal reaction is preferably washed and dried in sequence to obtain the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst.
In the present invention, the mode of the water washing is not particularly limited, and impurities on the product of the hydrothermal reaction may be removed by the water washing mode well known to those skilled in the art.
The drying method is not particularly limited in the present invention, and the water on the product of the hydrothermal reaction may be removed by drying methods well known to those skilled in the art.
According to the invention, the Grifola frondosa is selected as a carbon source, so that the Grifola frondosa is easy to carbonize and has a rough surface, bismuth ions in bismuth salt can be easily deposited on the surface of the Grifola frondosa and cannot fall off, and the bismuth oxide with a nano-sheet structure is facilitated to be obtained; in the hydrothermal process, carbon particles formed by carbonization are modified on the surface of the bismuth oxide nano-sheet. In the process of catalyzing organic matters, the carbon loaded on the catalyst can inhibit the recombination of photo-generated charges and strengthen the reactive sites of bismuth oxide, thereby enhancing the photo-catalytic efficiency; the nano-sheet structure of bismuth oxide increases the contact area between the organic matters and the catalyst, thereby further enhancing the catalytic effect.
The invention provides the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared by the preparation method, which comprises bismuth oxide nano-sheets and carbon particles supported on the surfaces of the bismuth oxide nano-sheets. In the present invention, the sheet diameter of the bismuth oxide nanoplatelets is preferably 2 to 20nm, more preferably 5 to 10nm. In the invention, the nano-sheet structure of bismuth oxide increases the contact area between the organic matter and the catalyst, thereby enhancing the catalytic effect.
The invention also provides application of the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst in catalytic degradation of organic matters. The invention has no special regulation on the application, and the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst is added into the wastewater containing the organic matters. In the present invention, the concentration of the organic matter in the wastewater is preferably (1 to 10) mg/L, more preferably 5mg/L. In the present invention, the ratio of the mass of the photocatalyst to the volume of the organic-containing wastewater is preferably (0.05 to 0.2) g/200mL, more preferably 0.1g/200mL. The invention limits the concentration of the organic matters and the dosage of the catalyst in the range, and has better degradability to the catalyst. In the present invention, the wavelength of the applied light is preferably 300nm to 800nm. In embodiments of the present invention, a 300W xenon light source is preferably used to provide the desired illumination conditions. In the embodiment of the invention, the distance between the xenon light source and the catalytic degradation organic matter system is preferably 20cm. Experimental results show that the photocatalyst provided by the invention is used for carrying out photocatalyst on acid orange seven (AO 7), and the degradation rate can reach 91% after 60 min.
The foregoing is merely a preferred embodiment of the present invention and it should be noted that modifications and adaptations to those skilled in the art may be made without departing from the principles of the present invention, which are intended to be comprehended within the scope of the present invention.
Example 1
Carbon/bismuth oxide (C/Bi) 2 O 3 ) The preparation method of the composite photocatalyst comprises the following steps:
(1) Adding the grifola frondosa petals into 100mL of absolute ethyl alcohol, ultrasonically washing for 3 times, filtering and airing, washing with deionized water for 3 times, airing, and shredding into small pieces by hand to obtain the cleaned and aired small pieces of grifola frondosa petals.
(2) Materials and dosage: dispersing agent (Na) 2 SO 4 ) Bismuth salts (Bi (NO) 3 ) 3 ·5H 2 O), water and alkali (NaOH);
wherein the dispersant (Na) 2 SO 4 ) Water and bismuth salts (Bi (NO) 3 ) 3 ·5H 2 The dosage ratio of O) is 3mmol:40mL:1mmol, bismuth salt and grifola frondosa in a mass ratio of 0.97:1 (approaching 1:1), the ratio of the amounts of bismuth salt and base substance 1:18.
3mmol of Na 2 SO 4 To 40mL of deionized water, then 1mmol of Bi (NO 3 ) 3 ·5H 2 O and stirring for 45min, then putting 0.5g of clean Grifola frondosa petals into the solution, stirring for a period of time, then dripping 40mL of NaOH solution with the concentration of 18g/L into the solution to obtain a milky white solution, putting the milky white solution into a reaction kettle, performing hydrothermal reaction (reacting for 6h at 120 ℃), washing with water, and drying to obtain the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst.
The flow chart of the preparation process is shown in fig. 1: bi (NO) 3 ) 3 ·5H 2 Adding Na into O, grifola frondosa and NaOH 2 SO 4 In the solution, reacting for 6h at 120 ℃ to obtain carbon/bismuth oxide (C/Bi) 2 O 3 ) The composite photocatalyst, wherein the C particles are supported on bismuth oxide.
X is the same asRD chart is shown in FIG. 2, and it can be seen from FIG. 2 that Bi appears in the obtained catalyst 2 O 3 And some changes occurred, possibly due to modification of the carbon particles to Bi 2 O 3 The diffraction peak intensity of the bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst is changed, but the diffraction peak position is not obviously shifted, which shows that the bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst can be prepared by the method.
The SEM image is shown in FIG. 4, and Bi can be seen from FIG. 4 2 O 3 Mainly exists in the form of nano-sheets, and carbon nano-particles are modified on Bi 2 O 3 Nano-sheet surface, and Bi 2 O 3 The surfaces of the nano sheets are clean and smooth, and no other impurities are generated.
The EDS diagram is shown in fig. 5, and the composite is shown in fig. 5 to contain three elements Bi, O and C, so that the experiment method provided by the invention is further proved to successfully prepare the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst.
The PL spectrum is shown in FIG. 6, and the fluorescence peak intensity of the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst is obviously higher than that of pure Bi from FIG. 6 2 O 3 Low. This is mainly due to modification of the carbon nanoparticles to make Bi 2 O 3 The separation efficiency of the photo-generated charges is effectively improved.
Comparative example 1
The preparation process is the same as in example 1, except that the hydrothermal temperature in step (2) is 120℃for 1h. Experimental results: the petals of the grifola frondosa cannot be completely carbonized, and the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst cannot be obtained.
Comparative example 2
The preparation method is the same as in example 1, except that the hydrothermal temperature in step (2) is 80 ℃ and the reaction is carried out for 6 hours. Experimental results: the petals of the grifola frondosa cannot be completely carbonized, and the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst cannot be obtained.
Comparative example 3
The preparation method is the same as in example 1, except that the petals of the grifola frondosa are not added in the step (2). The product prepared was bismuth oxide (Bi 2 O 3 ) The morphology is micron bars.
Its XRD pattern is shown in figure 2, which shows the structure of Bi 2 O 3 XRD patterns of the standards were consistent;
the SEM image is shown in FIG. 3, and Bi can be seen from FIG. 3 2 O 3 The appearance of the product is in a micron rod-shaped structure, and the surface is smooth;
the PL spectrum is shown in FIG. 6, and the pure Bi can be seen from FIG. 6 2 O 3 The fluorescence peak intensity of the catalyst is obviously higher than that of the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst. This is mainly due to modification of the carbon nanoparticles to make Bi 2 O 3 The separation efficiency of the photo-generated charges is effectively improved.
Comparative example 4
The preparation method is the same as in example 1, except that the mass of the petals of the Grifola frondosa added in the step (2) is 1g, and the mass ratio of the bismuth salt to the Grifola frondosa is 0.485:1. Experimental results: no carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst was prepared.
0.1g of the catalyst prepared in example 1 was added to 200mL of an AO7 (acid orange seven, namely, sodium 2-naphthol azo-p-benzenesulfonate) solution at a concentration of 5mg/L, the photocatalytic reaction was carried out under the irradiation of a xenon light, samples were taken every 10 minutes, the samples were centrifuged, the supernatant was obtained, and the absorbance of the solution was measured by an ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer to obtain a degradation rate. The test results are shown in FIG. 7.
0.1g of the catalyst prepared in comparative example 3 was added to 200mL of an AO7 (acid orange seven, namely, sodium 2-naphthol azo-p-benzenesulfonate) solution having a concentration of 5mg/L, the photocatalytic reaction was carried out under the irradiation of a xenon lamp, samples were taken every 10 minutes, the samples were centrifuged, the supernatant was obtained, and the absorbance of the solution was measured by an ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer to obtain a degradation rate. The test results are shown in FIG. 7.
As can be seen from FIG. 7, the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared in example 1 was compared with Bi prepared in comparative example 3 2 O 3 The photocatalysis efficiency and the adsorption performance of the catalyst are effectively improved. This shows that the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared in example 1 has good practical value. Adsorption experiments show that Bi is contained within 30min 2 O 3 And the adsorption rates of the carbon/bismuth oxide photocatalyst were 2.6% and 24.9%, respectively. Photocatalytic experiments show that bismuth oxide and carbon/oxidation are irradiated for 30minThe degradation rate of the bismuth photocatalyst reaches 30% and 67.2%. The degradation rate of bismuth oxide and carbon/bismuth oxide photocatalyst reaches 49% and 91% after 60min illumination. (negative values appear on the horizontal axis in FIG. 7 because the prior absorption is considered to be defined as negative since the field generally begins with illumination at 0)
The schematic of the catalytic mechanism of the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared in example 1 is shown in fig. 8. As can be seen from FIG. 8, bi in the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst 2 O 3 Electrons in the valence band absorb energy to jump into the conduction band under excitation of sunlight, and photo-generated electrons and holes are formed in the conduction band and the valence band respectively, and migrate to be modified in Bi 2 O 3 On the carbon particles on the photocatalyst surface, the photo-generated electrons and holes are effectively separated, and at the same time, the photo-generated electrons and Bi migrate to the carbon particles 2 O 3 The photo-generated holes in the valence band of the photocatalyst can generate oxidation-reduction reaction with the organic matters attached to the surface of the catalyst, so that the purpose of degrading the organic matters is achieved.
The foregoing is merely a preferred embodiment of the present invention and it should be noted that modifications and adaptations to those skilled in the art may be made without departing from the principles of the present invention, which are intended to be comprehended within the scope of the present invention.

Claims (8)

1. A preparation method of a carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst comprises the following steps:
firstly, mixing a dispersing agent, bismuth salt and water, then sequentially adding the mulberry flower and alkali, and carrying out hydrothermal reaction to obtain a carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst;
the mass ratio of the grifola frondosa to the bismuth salt is (0.1-1.2): 1, a step of;
the temperature of the hydrothermal reaction is 100-150 ℃, and the time of the hydrothermal reaction is 3-12 h.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein the dispersant comprises sodium sulfate and/or potassium sulfate.
3. The method of claim 1, wherein the bismuth salt comprises at least one of bismuth nitrate, bismuth sulfate, and bismuth chloride.
4. The method of claim 1, wherein the base comprises at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and lithium hydroxide.
5. The preparation method according to claim 1, wherein the amount ratio of the dispersant, water and bismuth salt is (1-5) mmol: (30-50) mL: (0.5-1.5) mmol.
6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the ratio of the amounts of the bismuth salt and the alkali substance is (0.5 to 3): (15-25).
7. The carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst prepared by the preparation method of any one of claims 1 to 6, comprising bismuth oxide nanoplatelets and carbon particles supported on the surfaces of the bismuth oxide nanoplatelets.
8. The use of the carbon/bismuth oxide composite photocatalyst of claim 7 for catalytic degradation of organic matter.
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