CN110964909A - Recovery method of waste photovoltaic module - Google Patents
Recovery method of waste photovoltaic module Download PDFInfo
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- CN110964909A CN110964909A CN201811140381.8A CN201811140381A CN110964909A CN 110964909 A CN110964909 A CN 110964909A CN 201811140381 A CN201811140381 A CN 201811140381A CN 110964909 A CN110964909 A CN 110964909A
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22B—PRODUCTION AND REFINING OF METALS; PRETREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS
- C22B7/00—Working up raw materials other than ores, e.g. scrap, to produce non-ferrous metals and compounds thereof; Methods of a general interest or applied to the winning of more than two metals
- C22B7/006—Wet processes
- C22B7/007—Wet processes by acid leaching
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22B—PRODUCTION AND REFINING OF METALS; PRETREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS
- C22B1/00—Preliminary treatment of ores or scrap
- C22B1/005—Preliminary treatment of scrap
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22B—PRODUCTION AND REFINING OF METALS; PRETREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS
- C22B11/00—Obtaining noble metals
- C22B11/04—Obtaining noble metals by wet processes
- C22B11/042—Recovery of noble metals from waste materials
- C22B11/046—Recovery of noble metals from waste materials from manufactured products, e.g. from printed circuit boards, from photographic films, paper or baths
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22B—PRODUCTION AND REFINING OF METALS; PRETREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS
- C22B21/00—Obtaining aluminium
- C22B21/0007—Preliminary treatment of ores or scrap or any other metal source
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22B—PRODUCTION AND REFINING OF METALS; PRETREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS
- C22B21/00—Obtaining aluminium
- C22B21/0015—Obtaining aluminium by wet processes
- C22B21/0023—Obtaining aluminium by wet processes from waste materials
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- C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
- C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
- C22B—PRODUCTION AND REFINING OF METALS; PRETREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS
- C22B7/00—Working up raw materials other than ores, e.g. scrap, to produce non-ferrous metals and compounds thereof; Methods of a general interest or applied to the winning of more than two metals
- C22B7/006—Wet processes
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
- Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
- Y02P10/00—Technologies related to metal processing
- Y02P10/20—Recycling
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Abstract
The invention discloses a method for recovering waste photovoltaic modules, which is implemented according to the following steps: crushing and screening the pretreated photovoltaic material to obtain photovoltaic material powder; adding dilute nitric acid into the photovoltaic material powder, and filtering to obtain a silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate mixed solution and filter residues; adding chloride into a mixed solution of silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate, and filtering to obtain a silver chloride precipitate and an aluminum nitrate solution; reducing the silver chloride precipitate by formaldehyde to obtain simple substance silver; and adding sodium hydroxide into the aluminum nitrate solution, and filtering to obtain the aluminum hydroxide. According to the invention, dilute nitric acid is added into photovoltaic material powder, a one-step reaction is carried out to obtain a mixed solution of silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate and filter residue, the mixed solution of silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate is precipitated through chlorine salt, then sodium sulfite leaching-formaldehyde reduction is adopted to reduce the precipitate to obtain simple substance silver, and finally sodium hydroxide and aluminum nitrate solution react to obtain aluminum hydroxide, so that the whole process is simple and easy to implement.
Description
Technical Field
The invention belongs to the technical field of waste photovoltaic material recovery, and particularly relates to a method for recovering a waste photovoltaic module.
Background
As a new clean energy, the solar photovoltaic industry develops rapidly in recent years, and the recovery and treatment of waste photovoltaic modules become an inevitable problem while solar photovoltaic power generation brings clean energy to human beings.
Solar cells produced in commercial scale at present are mainly monocrystalline silicon and polycrystalline silicon series, the monocrystalline silicon and the polycrystalline silicon are used as base materials, silver paste, silver-aluminum paste and aluminum paste are used as conductive materials, light energy and heat energy are converted into electric energy, certain leftover waste and unqualified products exist in the manufacturing and mounting processes of solar photovoltaic cells, the solar photovoltaic cells need to be scrapped after the solar photovoltaic cells reach the service life, and the cells contain a large amount of valuable elements such as silicon, silver, aluminum and the like, so that how to recycle the cells efficiently can reduce environmental pollution, change waste into valuable and save resources.
Disclosure of Invention
The invention aims to provide a method for recovering waste photovoltaic modules, which is used for recovering silver and aluminum in photovoltaic materials by adding dilute nitric acid and chloride salt and then carrying out reduction through formaldehyde and aluminum precipitation through sodium hydroxide neutralization.
The technical scheme adopted by the invention is that the method for recovering the waste photovoltaic module is implemented according to the following steps:
step 1, crushing and screening the pretreated photovoltaic material to obtain photovoltaic material powder;
step 2, adding dilute nitric acid into the photovoltaic material powder obtained in the step 1, and filtering to obtain a silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate mixed solution and filter residues;
step 3, adding chloride into the mixed solution of silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate obtained in the step 2, and filtering to obtain silver chloride precipitate and an aluminum nitrate solution;
step 4, reducing the silver chloride precipitate obtained in the step 3 by formaldehyde to obtain simple substance silver;
and 5, adding sodium hydroxide into the aluminum nitrate solution obtained in the step 3, and filtering to obtain aluminum hydroxide.
The invention is also characterized in that the pretreatment in the step 1 is specifically implemented according to the following method:
disassembling an aluminum frame and a junction box outside the photovoltaic material, burning to remove an EVA adhesive film, and removing an upper glass plate and a bottom TPT back plate; and then corroding the surface of the photovoltaic material by using mixed acid, and finally washing the surface of the photovoltaic material by using pure water.
The mixed acid is formed by mixing hydrochloric acid with the concentration of 0.5-3mol/l and perchloric acid with the concentration of 0.1-1mol/l according to the proportion of 1: 0.8-1.2.
The dilute nitric acid in the step 2 is as follows: 60-76% of industrial concentrated nitric acid is adopted to prepare dilute nitric acid with the concentration of about 3-5mol/L, and the liquid-solid ratio is 5-10: 1.
The chloride salt in the step 3 is one of sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride. The chloride salt is added in such an amount that no white precipitate is formed in the solution.
The specific method for reducing the silver chloride precipitate through sodium sulfite leaching-formaldehyde reduction in the step 4 comprises the following steps:
adding a sodium sulfite solution into silver chloride according to the mass ratio of the sodium sulfite solution to the silver chloride of 10-20:1, and reacting for 0.5-4h at 40-55 ℃ to obtain a sodium sulfite leachate; according to the following formula: adding formaldehyde into the sodium sulfite leaching solution according to the mass ratio of silver of 1:2-2.5, and reacting for 0.5-4h at 30-50 ℃ to obtain elemental silver.
The concentration of the sodium sulfite solution is 200-240 g/L.
The sodium hydroxide is added in the step 5 until the solution does not produce white precipitate any more.
The method has the beneficial effects that dilute nitric acid is added into the photovoltaic material powder, a one-step reaction is carried out to obtain a mixed solution of silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate and filter residue, the mixed solution of silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate is precipitated through chlorine salt, then sodium sulfite leaching-formaldehyde reduction is adopted to reduce the precipitate to obtain simple substance silver, and finally sodium hydroxide and the aluminum nitrate solution react to obtain aluminum hydroxide. The whole process is simple and easy to realize, and silver and aluminum are recycled from the photovoltaic material.
Detailed Description
In order to make the objects, technical solutions and advantages of the present invention more apparent, the present invention is further described in detail with reference to the following embodiments. It should be understood that the specific embodiments described herein are merely illustrative of the invention and are not intended to limit the invention.
The embodiment of the invention provides a method for recovering a waste photovoltaic module, which is implemented according to the following steps:
step 1, crushing and screening the pretreated photovoltaic material to obtain photovoltaic material powder;
the pretreatment is specifically carried out as follows: disassembling an aluminum frame and a junction box outside the photovoltaic material, burning to remove an EVA adhesive film, and removing an upper glass plate and a bottom TPT back plate; then, the surface of the photovoltaic material is corroded for 1-60min by mixed acid which is formed by mixing hydrochloric acid with the concentration of 0.5-3mol/l and perchloric acid with the concentration of 0.1-1mol/l according to the proportion of 1: 0.8-1.2, and finally, the surface of the photovoltaic material is washed by pure water;
therefore, the photovoltaic material is often provided with the aluminum metal frame, before the back plate and the EVA adhesive film are separated, the aluminum metal frame needs to be detached, then the packaging material can be detached and recovered by adopting tools such as a blade, and the like, wherein the aluminum metal frame and the packaging material can be used for aging test after being recovered, and the aging performance of the aluminum metal frame and the packaging material is researched to make a contribution to the search for prolonging the service life of the photovoltaic material;
the mixed acid formed by mixing hydrochloric acid with the concentration of 0.5-3mol/l and perchloric acid with the concentration of 0.1-1mol/l is adopted to corrode the surface of the photovoltaic material, so that silicon nitride and phosphorus pentoxide on the surface can be effectively removed, and the phenomenon that the silicon nitride and the phosphorus pentoxide contact with organic matters to cause combustion is avoided.
Step 2, adding dilute nitric acid into the photovoltaic material powder obtained in the step 1, and filtering to obtain a silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate mixed solution and filter residues;
wherein the dilute nitric acid is: preparing dilute nitric acid with the concentration of about 3-5mol/L by adopting 60-76% of industrial concentrated nitric acid, wherein the liquid-solid ratio is 5-10: 1;
step 3, adding chloride into the mixed solution of silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate obtained in the step 2, and filtering to obtain silver chloride precipitate and an aluminum nitrate solution;
the chloride is one of sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride, and the addition amount of the chloride is that the solution does not generate white precipitate any more;
step 4, reducing the silver chloride precipitate obtained in the step 3 by formaldehyde to obtain simple substance silver;
the specific method comprises the following steps: adding a sodium sulfite solution into silver chloride according to the mass ratio of the sodium sulfite solution to the silver chloride of 10-20:1, and reacting for 0.5-4h at 40-55 ℃ to obtain a sodium sulfite leachate; according to the following formula: adding formaldehyde into the sodium sulfite leaching solution according to the mass ratio of silver of 1:2-2.5, and reacting for 0.5-4h at 30-50 ℃ to obtain elemental silver.
Step 5, adding sodium hydroxide into the aluminum nitrate solution obtained in the step 3, and filtering to obtain aluminum hydroxide;
the sodium hydroxide is added in such an amount that no white precipitate is formed in the solution.
The method comprises the steps of adding dilute nitric acid into photovoltaic material powder, reacting in one step to obtain a mixed solution of silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate and filter residue, precipitating the mixed solution of silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate through chlorine salt, reducing the precipitate through sodium sulfite leaching-formaldehyde reduction to obtain simple substance silver, and finally reacting sodium hydroxide with the aluminum nitrate solution to obtain aluminum hydroxide. The whole process is simple and easy to realize, and silver and aluminum are recycled from the photovoltaic material.
Example 1
The embodiment 1 of the invention provides a method for recycling a waste photovoltaic module, which is implemented according to the following steps: firstly, disassembling an aluminum frame and a junction box outside a photovoltaic material, burning to remove an EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) adhesive film, removing an upper glass plate and a bottom TPT (thermoplastic vulcanizate) back plate, corroding the surface of the photovoltaic material for 1min by using mixed acid formed by mixing hydrochloric acid with the concentration of 0.5mol/l and perchloric acid with the concentration of 0.1mol/l according to the proportion of 1: 0.8, then washing the surface of the photovoltaic material by using pure water, and crushing and screening to obtain photovoltaic material powder;
secondly, adding dilute nitric acid with the concentration of 3mol/L into the photovoltaic material powder according to the liquid-solid ratio of 5:1 to obtain silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate solution; adding sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride into silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate solution, and filtering to obtain silver chloride precipitate and aluminum nitrate solution;
adding a sodium sulfite solution into silver chloride according to the mass ratio of the sodium sulfite solution to the silver chloride of 10:1, and reacting for 1h at 42 ℃ to obtain a sodium sulfite leachate; according to the following formula: adding formaldehyde into the sodium sulfite leaching solution according to the mass ratio of silver to be 1:2, and reacting for 1h at 36 ℃ to obtain simple substance silver.
Adding sodium hydroxide into the aluminum nitrate solution until no white precipitate is formed, and filtering to obtain the aluminum hydroxide.
Example 2
The embodiment 2 of the invention provides a method for recycling a waste photovoltaic module, which is implemented according to the following steps: firstly, disassembling an aluminum frame and a junction box outside a photovoltaic material, burning to remove an EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) adhesive film, removing an upper glass plate and a bottom TPT (thermoplastic vulcanizate) back plate, corroding the surface of the photovoltaic material for 60min by using mixed acid formed by mixing hydrochloric acid with the concentration of 3mol/l and perchloric acid with the concentration of 1mol/l according to the proportion of 1: 1.2, washing the surface of the photovoltaic material by using pure water, and crushing and screening to obtain photovoltaic material powder;
secondly, adding dilute nitric acid with the concentration of 5mol/L into the photovoltaic material powder according to the liquid-solid ratio of 6:1 to obtain silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate solution; adding sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride into silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate solution, and filtering to obtain silver chloride precipitate and aluminum nitrate solution;
adding a sodium sulfite solution into silver chloride according to the mass ratio of the sodium sulfite solution to the silver chloride of 12:1, and reacting for 1.5h at 45 ℃ to obtain a sodium sulfite leaching solution; according to the following formula: adding formaldehyde into the sodium sulfite leaching solution according to the mass ratio of silver of 1:2.1, and reacting for 2 hours at 40 ℃ to obtain elemental silver.
Adding sodium hydroxide into the aluminum nitrate solution until no white precipitate is formed, and filtering to obtain the aluminum hydroxide.
Example 3
The embodiment 3 of the invention provides a method for recycling waste photovoltaic modules, which is implemented according to the following steps: firstly, disassembling an aluminum frame and a junction box outside a photovoltaic material, burning to remove an EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) adhesive film, removing an upper glass plate and a bottom TPT (thermoplastic vulcanizate) back plate, corroding the surface of the photovoltaic material for 30min by using mixed acid formed by mixing hydrochloric acid with the concentration of 2mol/l and perchloric acid with the concentration of 0.5mol/l according to the proportion of 1: 1, then washing the surface of the photovoltaic material by using pure water, and crushing and screening to obtain photovoltaic material powder;
secondly, adding dilute nitric acid with the concentration of 4mol/L into the photovoltaic material powder according to the liquid-solid ratio of 7:1 to obtain silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate solution; adding sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride into silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate solution, and filtering to obtain silver chloride precipitate and aluminum nitrate solution;
adding a sodium sulfite solution into silver chloride according to the mass ratio of the sodium sulfite solution to the silver chloride of 14:1, and reacting for 2 hours at 48 ℃ to obtain a sodium sulfite leachate; according to the following formula: adding formaldehyde into the sodium sulfite leaching solution according to the mass ratio of silver to be 1:2.2, and reacting for 2.5 hours at 42 ℃ to obtain elemental silver.
Adding sodium hydroxide into the aluminum nitrate solution until no white precipitate is formed, and filtering to obtain the aluminum hydroxide.
Example 4
The embodiment 4 of the invention provides a method for recycling a waste photovoltaic module, which is implemented according to the following steps: firstly, disassembling an aluminum frame and a junction box outside a photovoltaic material, burning to remove an EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) adhesive film, removing an upper glass plate and a bottom TPT (thermoplastic vulcanizate) back plate, corroding the surface of the photovoltaic material for 20min by using mixed acid formed by mixing hydrochloric acid with the concentration of 1.3mol/l and perchloric acid with the concentration of 0.2mol/l according to the proportion of 1: 0.9, then washing the surface of the photovoltaic material by using pure water, and crushing and screening to obtain photovoltaic material powder;
secondly, adding dilute nitric acid with the concentration of 3.5mol/L into the photovoltaic material powder according to the liquid-solid ratio of 6:1 to obtain silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate solution; adding sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride into silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate solution, and filtering to obtain silver chloride precipitate and aluminum nitrate solution;
adding a sodium sulfite solution into silver chloride according to the mass ratio of the sodium sulfite solution to the silver chloride of 15:1, and reacting for 2.5 hours at 50 ℃ to obtain a sodium sulfite leaching solution; according to the following formula: adding formaldehyde into the sodium sulfite leaching solution according to the mass ratio of silver of 1:2.3, and reacting for 3 hours at 45 ℃ to obtain elemental silver.
Adding sodium hydroxide into the aluminum nitrate solution until no white precipitate is formed, and filtering to obtain the aluminum hydroxide.
Example 5
The embodiment 5 of the invention provides a method for recycling a waste photovoltaic module, which is implemented according to the following steps: firstly, disassembling an aluminum frame and a junction box outside a photovoltaic material, burning to remove an EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) adhesive film, removing an upper glass plate and a bottom TPT (thermoplastic vulcanizate) back plate, corroding the surface of the photovoltaic material for 40min by using mixed acid formed by mixing hydrochloric acid with the concentration of 2.5mol/l and perchloric acid with the concentration of 0.8mol/l according to the proportion of 1: 1.1, then washing the surface of the photovoltaic material by using pure water, and crushing and screening to obtain photovoltaic material powder;
secondly, adding dilute nitric acid with the concentration of 4.6mol/L into the photovoltaic material powder according to the liquid-solid ratio of 6:1 to obtain silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate solution; adding sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride into silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate solution, and filtering to obtain silver chloride precipitate and aluminum nitrate solution;
adding a sodium sulfite solution into silver chloride according to the mass ratio of the sodium sulfite solution to the silver chloride of 16:1, and reacting for 3 hours at 52 ℃ to obtain a sodium sulfite leaching solution; according to the following formula: adding formaldehyde into the sodium sulfite leaching solution according to the mass ratio of silver of 1:2.4, and reacting for 3.5 hours at 48 ℃ to obtain elemental silver.
Adding sodium hydroxide into the aluminum nitrate solution until no white precipitate is formed, and filtering to obtain the aluminum hydroxide.
The above description is only a preferred embodiment of the present invention, and is not intended to limit the scope of the present invention.
Claims (8)
1. The method for recycling the waste photovoltaic module is characterized by comprising the following steps:
step 1, crushing and screening the pretreated photovoltaic material to obtain photovoltaic material powder;
step 2, adding dilute nitric acid into the photovoltaic material powder obtained in the step 1, and filtering to obtain a silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate mixed solution and filter residues;
step 3, adding chloride into the mixed solution of silver nitrate and aluminum nitrate obtained in the step 2, and filtering to obtain silver chloride precipitate and an aluminum nitrate solution;
step 4, reducing the silver chloride precipitate obtained in the step 3 by formaldehyde to obtain simple substance silver;
and 5, adding sodium hydroxide into the aluminum nitrate solution obtained in the step 3, and filtering to obtain aluminum hydroxide.
2. The method for recycling waste photovoltaic modules according to claim 1, wherein the pretreatment in the step 1 is specifically performed according to the following method:
disassembling an aluminum frame and a junction box outside the photovoltaic material, burning to remove an EVA adhesive film, and removing an upper glass plate and a bottom TPT back plate; and then corroding the surface of the photovoltaic material by using mixed acid, and finally washing the surface of the photovoltaic material by using pure water.
3. The method for recycling the waste photovoltaic modules as claimed in claim 2, wherein the mixed acid is hydrochloric acid with a concentration of 0.5-3mol/l and perchloric acid with a concentration of 0.1-1mol/l, and the ratio of the mixed acid to the perchloric acid is 1: 0.8-1.2, and the corrosion time of the mixed acid for corroding the surface of the photovoltaic material is 1-60 min.
4. The method for recycling the waste photovoltaic module according to claim 1, wherein the dilute nitric acid in the step 2 is: 60-76% of industrial concentrated nitric acid is adopted to prepare dilute nitric acid with the concentration of about 3-5mol/L, and the liquid-solid ratio is 5-10: 1.
5. The method for recycling the waste photovoltaic module as claimed in claim 1, wherein the chloride salt in the step 3 is one of sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride. The chloride salt is added in such an amount that no white precipitate is formed in the solution.
6. The method for recycling the waste photovoltaic module as claimed in claim 1, wherein the specific method for reducing the silver chloride precipitate through sodium sulfite leaching-formaldehyde reduction in the step 4 is as follows:
adding a sodium sulfite solution into silver chloride according to the mass ratio of the sodium sulfite solution to the silver chloride of 10-20:1, and reacting for 0.5-4h at 40-55 ℃ to obtain a sodium sulfite leachate; according to the following formula: adding formaldehyde into the sodium sulfite leaching solution according to the mass ratio of silver of 1:2-2.5, and reacting for 0.5-4h at 30-50 ℃ to obtain elemental silver.
7. The method as claimed in claim 6, wherein the concentration of the sodium sulfite solution is 200-240 g/L.
8. The method for recycling the waste photovoltaic modules as claimed in claim 1, wherein the sodium hydroxide is added in the step 5 until the solution does not produce white precipitate any more.
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Cited By (1)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
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| EP4159882A1 (en) * | 2021-10-01 | 2023-04-05 | Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives | Method for recovering silver from particles, for example, of photovoltaic cells |
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|---|---|---|---|---|
| EP4159882A1 (en) * | 2021-10-01 | 2023-04-05 | Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives | Method for recovering silver from particles, for example, of photovoltaic cells |
| FR3127760A1 (en) * | 2021-10-01 | 2023-04-07 | Commissariat A L'energie Atomique Et Aux Energies Alternatives | METHOD FOR RECOVERING THE SILVER CONTAINED IN THE PARTICLES ORIGINATING, FOR EXAMPLE, FROM PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS |
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