CN109356557B - Preparation method of three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model and dynamic monitoring visualization device - Google Patents
Preparation method of three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model and dynamic monitoring visualization device Download PDFInfo
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- 238000004088 simulation Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 68
- 238000012800 visualization Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 18
- 238000012544 monitoring process Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 17
- 238000002360 preparation method Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 11
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- 238000011160 research Methods 0.000 claims abstract description 6
- 238000010146 3D printing Methods 0.000 claims abstract description 5
- 239000002184 metal Substances 0.000 claims description 18
- 239000000523 sample Substances 0.000 claims description 18
- 230000035699 permeability Effects 0.000 claims description 10
- 239000004570 mortar (masonry) Substances 0.000 claims description 6
- 239000012212 insulator Substances 0.000 claims description 5
- 238000002156 mixing Methods 0.000 claims description 5
- 239000004417 polycarbonate Substances 0.000 claims description 4
- 229920000515 polycarbonate Polymers 0.000 claims description 4
- 239000004568 cement Substances 0.000 claims description 3
- 239000004927 clay Substances 0.000 claims description 3
- 239000000463 material Substances 0.000 claims description 3
- 238000007639 printing Methods 0.000 claims description 3
- 238000005406 washing Methods 0.000 claims description 3
- 230000004888 barrier function Effects 0.000 claims description 2
- 238000006073 displacement reaction Methods 0.000 abstract description 16
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- 239000003921 oil Substances 0.000 description 135
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- 239000012267 brine Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000003795 chemical substances by application Substances 0.000 description 1
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- E21B43/00—Methods or apparatus for obtaining oil, gas, water, soluble or meltable materials or a slurry of minerals from wells
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- E21B43/20—Displacing by water
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- E21B—EARTH OR ROCK DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
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Abstract
The invention discloses a preparation method of a three-dimensional oil reservoir water-flooding simulation model and a real-time dynamic monitoring visualization device, and relates to the field of oilfield flooding development experiments; according to the invention, according to the oil reservoir digital research result and the actual demand, a 3D printing technology is utilized to print out a sand filling model frame, an oil reservoir bottom surface and an oil reservoir fault frame, sand with different grain sizes is filled, an impermeable plastic film replaces an interlayer and an interlayer, a plastic pipe simulates an oil production well and a water injection well, further, a constructed three-dimensional real oil reservoir micro model is used for displacement experiments, oil-water motion states in the water injection experiment process under different well network conditions are simulated, then, a resistivity measuring instrument is embedded into the three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model, oil-water dynamic visualization is realized through resistivity values at different positions and different times, the distribution rule of residual oil is determined, and a basis is provided for the implementation of development scheme establishment, residual oil submergence and yield increase measures.
Description
Technical Field
The invention relates to the field of oilfield flooding development experiments, in particular to a preparation method of a three-dimensional oil reservoir water-flooding simulation model and a dynamic monitoring visualization device.
Background
The water flooding development oil field has the phenomenon of sudden inflow of injected water in the water flooding development process due to the heterogeneity of an oil layer on a three-dimensional space. The oil reservoir displacement experiment is an important basic experiment for oil field development scheme compilation, development planning and later-stage residual oil research, and can provide a basis for oil field well pattern deployment, implementation of yield increasing measures, residual oil research and potential excavation.
At present, oil reservoir displacement experiments mainly have two forms: one is to use core displacement; the second is three-dimensional reservoir displacement simulation. In the core displacement experiment, water (or other displacement agents) is injected into one end of the core displacement experiment under pressure, the other end of the core displacement experiment is an outlet end, produced oil and water are measured, and the displacement effect and the oil displacement efficiency are analyzed. The method is actually one-dimensional displacement, ignores the heterogeneity of the oil reservoir in a three-dimensional space, cannot completely reflect the actual condition of the water drive of the oil reservoir, and cannot monitor the dynamic change of the water drive front edge in the core in real time. The three-dimensional oil reservoir displacement simulation experiment is to study the water drive effect from a three-dimensional space, but the existing three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive experiment cannot monitor the dynamic change of a water drive front edge in real time and the change of oil saturation in an oil reservoir quantitatively, so that the effect of the experiment is influenced, and the guiding effect of the experiment on oil field development is reduced.
Disclosure of Invention
Under the background of the prior art, the invention provides a preparation method of a three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model and a real-time dynamic monitoring visualization device, which can approximately realize a three-dimensional real oil reservoir micro model displacement experiment, observe the oil-water motion state and the residual oil distribution rule in the water injection experiment process under different well pattern conditions, and provide a basis for the implementation of development scheme establishment, residual oil submergence excavation and yield increase measures.
In order to achieve the purpose, the invention provides the following scheme:
a preparation method of a three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model comprises the following steps:
establishing an oil reservoir three-dimensional virtual model, specifically establishing the oil reservoir three-dimensional virtual model according to an oil reservoir digital research result and actual requirements;
constructing a preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model, specifically, printing a sand filling model frame, an oil reservoir bottom surface and an oil reservoir fault frame by using a 3D printing technology according to the oil reservoir three-dimensional virtual model, and assembling the sand filling model frame, the oil reservoir bottom surface and the oil reservoir fault frame together to form the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model;
building a three-dimensional oil reservoir model, specifically filling sand of different grain sizes into the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model according to the heterogeneity of the oil reservoir, arranging an interlayer and an interlayer represented by a plastic film in the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model according to the distribution of the interlayer and the interlayer in the oil reservoir, and then covering an impermeable film on the top surface of the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model to form the three-dimensional oil reservoir model, wherein the adhesion is firm;
preparing a primary three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model, specifically embedding plastic pipes with different lengths into the three-dimensional oil reservoir model according to the well pattern structure of an oil field to simulate an oil production well and an water injection well, and preparing the primary three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model;
and preparing a three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model, specifically embedding a plurality of resistivity measuring instruments in the primary three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model uniformly to prepare the three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model.
Optionally, in the process of constructing the three-dimensional reservoir model, the heterogeneity of the permeability of the three-dimensional reservoir model is simulated by mixing clay or mortar into different grain-size sands, and the permeability of the three-dimensional reservoir model is reduced by mixing mortar into different grain-size sands.
Optionally, in the process of constructing the three-dimensional reservoir model, holes are punched in the plastic film to simulate the permeability interlayer and the permeability interlayer of the three-dimensional reservoir model.
Optionally, in the process of constructing the three-dimensional reservoir model, an impermeable plastic film is covered on the top surface of the preliminary reservoir three-dimensional model, and the three-dimensional reservoir model is covered by cement floating to ensure that the three-dimensional reservoir model is sealed and watertight.
A real-time dynamic monitoring visualization device applying a three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model comprises the three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model, a data acquisition card and a computer; a set of three-dimensional spatial interpolation and graphic display software is arranged in the computer;
the three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model comprises a sand filling model frame, sand filling, a fault, an interlayer, a water injection well, an oil production well and a resistivity measuring instrument; a plurality of the water injection wells, a plurality of the oil production wells and a plurality of the resistivity measuring instruments are buried in different positions of the three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model;
the resistivity measuring instrument is connected with the computer through the data acquisition card;
the data acquisition card is used for recording the resistivity values of different positions at different moments in real time;
the computer is used for acquiring real-time collected resistivity values at different positions at different moments through three-dimensional space interpolation and a space gridding interpolation algorithm in graphic display software to obtain the resistivity values of the three-dimensional space, slicing the three-dimensional space in any direction, displaying the resistivity values in different directions, and finally linking the slices in the same direction at different times to form animation display;
the computer is also used for converting the resistivity value into the oil saturation according to a pre-established relational expression, and further displaying the water washing conditions of different parts of the oil reservoir after water flooding and the remaining oil saturation; and the relational expression is a relational expression of the resistivity value and the oil saturation established according to the rock-electricity experimental result.
Optionally, the oil production well is buried in a central position of the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model, the water injection well is buried around the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model or the oil production well is buried around the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model, and the water injection well is buried in a central position of the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model.
Optionally, the water injection well is connected with a constant flow pump for pressurized water injection, and the oil production well is connected with a swabbing piston or an injector for swabbing for oil production.
Optionally, the resistivity measuring instrument includes a positive electrode metal probe, a negative electrode metal probe, an insulator for connecting the positive electrode metal probe and the negative electrode metal probe, and a wire; the positive metal probe and the negative metal probe are connected with the data acquisition card through the electric wire.
Optionally, the oil production well and the water injection well are plastic pipes, and the number of the oil production well and the number of the water injection well are determined according to actual requirements.
Optionally, the sand-filled model frame, the fault and the interlayer are made of polycarbonate materials.
According to the specific embodiment provided by the invention, the invention discloses the following technical effects:
the invention provides a preparation method of a three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model and a real-time dynamic monitoring visualization device, and mainly relates to a preparation method of the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model, an implementation method of an injection-production system, a water-drive condition real-time monitoring technology and method, and a water-drive leading edge dynamic visualization technology and method. The invention manufactures a three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model which is approximate to reality according to the actual condition of the oil field, simulates different injection and production well pattern forms, monitors the change dynamic of the water-drive front edge in real time, monitors the distribution characteristics of the residual oil, and provides a basis for the establishment of a development scheme, the potential excavation of the residual oil and the implementation of production increasing measures.
Drawings
In order to more clearly illustrate the embodiments of the present invention or the technical solutions in the prior art, the drawings needed to be used in the embodiments will be briefly described below, and it is obvious that the drawings in the following description are only some embodiments of the present invention, and it is obvious for those skilled in the art to obtain other drawings without inventive exercise.
FIG. 1 is a schematic flow chart of a method for preparing a three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model according to an embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a device for real-time monitoring and dynamic visualization of water drive simulation by using a three-dimensional reservoir water drive simulation model according to an embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an internal structure of a three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model shown in a split manner on the top surface according to an embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of an internal structure of a three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model shown in a split manner on the side in the embodiment of the invention;
FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of the resistivity tool of the present invention; 41 and 42 are positive and negative metal probes respectively; 43 is an insulator; and 44 is an electric wire.
Detailed Description
The technical solutions in the embodiments of the present invention will be clearly and completely described below with reference to the drawings in the embodiments of the present invention, and it is obvious that the described embodiments are only a part of the embodiments of the present invention, and not all of the embodiments. All other embodiments, which can be derived by a person skilled in the art from the embodiments given herein without making any creative effort, shall fall within the protection scope of the present invention.
The invention aims to provide a preparation method of a three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model and a real-time dynamic monitoring visualization device, wherein the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model which is similar to the reality is manufactured according to the actual condition of an oil field, different injection and production well pattern forms are simulated, the change dynamic of a water-drive front edge is monitored in real time, and the distribution characteristic of residual oil is monitored.
In order to make the aforementioned objects, features and advantages of the present invention comprehensible, embodiments accompanied with figures are described in further detail below.
Example 1
Fig. 1 is a schematic flow diagram of a method for preparing a three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model according to an embodiment of the present invention, and as shown in fig. 1, the method for preparing a three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model according to the embodiment of the present invention specifically includes the following steps.
Step 101: and establishing an oil reservoir three-dimensional virtual model, specifically establishing the oil reservoir three-dimensional virtual model according to an oil reservoir digital research result and actual requirements.
Step 102: and constructing a preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model, specifically, printing a sand filling model frame, an oil reservoir bottom surface and an oil reservoir fault frame by using a 3D printing technology according to the oil reservoir three-dimensional virtual model, and assembling the sand filling model frame, the oil reservoir bottom surface and the oil reservoir fault frame together to form the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model.
Aiming at different space distribution conditions of actual stratums, a Polycarbonate (PC) material is adopted according to a bottom curved surface model and a fault model in a three-dimensional geological model of an oil reservoir, and a sand filling model framework, an oil reservoir bottom surface structure form and a grid of the fault are printed by utilizing a 3D printing technology.
Step 103: and constructing a three-dimensional oil reservoir model, specifically, filling sand of different grain sizes into the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model according to the heterogeneity of the oil reservoir, arranging the interlayer and the interlayer in the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model by using a plastic film according to the distribution of the interlayer and the interlayer in the oil reservoir, and then covering an impermeable film on the top surface of the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model to form the three-dimensional oil reservoir model.
According to the permeability of different intervals, sand with different meshes is selected for filling and compacting, and the heterogeneity of permeability is simulated by mixing clay or mortar; in addition, mortar can be mixed into the sand to reduce the permeability.
Impermeable interlayers in reservoirs are replaced with impermeable plastic films, and small holes, if any, can be punched in the plastic film to represent the permeable interlayers and barriers.
And covering an impermeable plastic film on the top surface of the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model, and troweling and covering with cement to ensure that the three-dimensional oil reservoir model is sealed and watertight.
The following method is the implementation method of the injection-production system
Step 104: preparing a primary three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model, and particularly embedding plastic pipes with different lengths into the three-dimensional oil reservoir model according to the well pattern structure of an oil field to simulate an oil production well and an water injection well so as to prepare the primary three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model.
The production well and the injection well are simulated by embedding plastic pipes with different lengths, small holes are arranged on the oil layer section which is correspondingly developed, the injection well can be connected with a constant flow pump for pressurizing water injection, the production well can be connected with a swabbing piston or an injector for swabbing oil extraction, and the oil can naturally flow out by depending on the pressure of reservoir water injection.
Step 105: and preparing a three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model, specifically embedding a plurality of resistivity measuring instruments in the primary three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model uniformly to prepare the three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model.
According to the invention, an approximate actual three-dimensional reservoir water drive simulation model is manufactured according to the actual condition of the oil field, and the water drive front edge and the residual oil saturation are monitored through the measurement of the resistivity.
Example 2
As shown in fig. 2, 3 and 4, an embodiment of the present invention provides a real-time dynamic monitoring visualization device using a three-dimensional reservoir water drive simulation model.
The device comprises a three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model, a data acquisition card 5 and a computer 6. A set of three-dimensional spatial interpolation and graphic display software is built in the computer 6.
The three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model comprises a sand filling model frame 1, an oil production well 2, a water injection well 3, a resistivity measuring instrument 4, sand filling 7, a fault 8 and an interlayer 9.
The water injection wells 3, the oil production wells 2 and the resistivity measuring instruments 4 are buried in different positions of the three-dimensional reservoir water drive simulation model.
Each resistivity measuring instrument 4 is connected with the computer 6 through the data acquisition card 5.
The sand model frame 1, the fault 8 and the interlayer 9 are all made of Polycarbonate (PC).
The oil production well 2 and the water injection well 3 are both plastic pipes; the oil production well 2 is arranged at the central position of the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model, the water injection well 3 is arranged around the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model or the oil production well 2 is arranged around the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model, and the water injection well 3 is arranged at the central position of the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model.
In the embodiment of the invention, the oil production wells 2 are arranged around the three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model, the water injection wells 3 are arranged at the central position of the three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model, the number of the water injection wells 3 is 1, and the number of the oil production wells 2 is 4.
The water injection well 3 can be connected with a constant flow pump for pressurizing water injection, and the oil production well 2 can be connected with a swabbing piston or an injector for swabbing oil production and can naturally flow out by depending on the water injection pressure of an oil reservoir.
As shown in fig. 5, each resistivity meter 4 includes a positive electrode metal probe 41, a negative electrode metal probe 42, an insulator 43 for connecting the positive and negative electrode metal probes, and an electric wire 44. The positive electrode metal probe 41 and the negative electrode metal probe 42 are both connected with the data acquisition card 5 through wires 44. The length of the insulator 43 is 2 cm.
The water drive condition real-time monitoring technology and the method are characterized in that a plurality of groups of resistivity measuring instruments 4 in the three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model are connected with a computer 6 through electric wires 44 and a data acquisition card 5. The data acquisition card 5 is used for recording the resistivity values of different positions at different moments in real time. Each set of resistivity tools 4 records a set of resistivity data at one location. Because the resistivity of the crude oil is greatly different from that of the displacement water (brine can be used to better distinguish the resistivity of the crude oil from that of the displacement water), the advancing speed, the distance and the water flooding degree of the water flooding front are monitored through the change of the resistivity values at different positions.
The water drive front edge dynamic visualization technology and method are that the computer 6 is used for acquiring resistivity values of different positions at different moments in real time, obtaining the resistivity values of a three-dimensional space through three-dimensional space interpolation and a space gridding interpolation algorithm in graphic display software, slicing the three-dimensional space in any direction, displaying the resistivity values in different directions, and finally linking the slices in the same direction at different times to form animation display, so that the advancing position and speed of the water drive front edge can be monitored in real time.
The computer can also establish the relation between the resistivity and the oil saturation according to the rock-electricity experimental result, and convert the resistivity value into the oil saturation, so that the water washing conditions and the residual oil saturation of different parts of the oil reservoir after water flooding can be visually observed.
Compared with the prior art, the method can monitor the dynamic change of the water flooding front in real time, quantitatively monitor the change of the oil saturation in the oil reservoir and improve the guidance of the experiment on the development of the oil field.
The embodiments in the present description are described in a progressive manner, each embodiment focuses on differences from other embodiments, and the same and similar parts among the embodiments are referred to each other.
The principles and embodiments of the present invention have been described herein using specific examples, which are provided only to help understand the method and the core concept of the present invention; meanwhile, for a person skilled in the art, according to the idea of the present invention, the specific embodiments and the application range may be changed. In view of the above, the present disclosure should not be construed as limiting the invention.
Claims (9)
1. A preparation method of a three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model is characterized by comprising the following steps:
establishing an oil reservoir three-dimensional virtual model, specifically establishing the oil reservoir three-dimensional virtual model according to an oil reservoir digital research result and actual requirements;
constructing a preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model, specifically, printing a sand filling model frame, an oil reservoir bottom surface and an oil reservoir fault frame by using a 3D printing technology according to the oil reservoir three-dimensional virtual model, and assembling the sand filling model frame, the oil reservoir bottom surface and the oil reservoir fault frame together to form the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model;
building a three-dimensional oil reservoir model, specifically filling sand of different grain sizes into the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model according to the heterogeneity of the oil reservoir, arranging an interlayer and an interlayer represented by a plastic film in the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model according to the distribution of the interlayer and the interlayer in the oil reservoir, and then covering an impermeable film on the top surface of the preliminary oil reservoir three-dimensional model to form the three-dimensional oil reservoir model, wherein the adhesion is firm;
preparing a primary three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model, specifically embedding plastic pipes with different lengths into the three-dimensional oil reservoir model according to the well pattern structure of an oil field to simulate an oil production well and an water injection well, and preparing the primary three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model; the oil production well is arranged in the center of the primary three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model, the water injection well is arranged around the primary three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model or the oil production well is arranged around the primary three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model, and the water injection well is arranged in the center of the primary three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model;
and preparing a three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model, specifically embedding a plurality of resistivity measuring instruments in the primary three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model uniformly to prepare the three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model.
2. The method for preparing the three-dimensional reservoir water-flooding simulation model according to claim 1, wherein in constructing the three-dimensional reservoir model, the heterogeneity of the permeability of the three-dimensional reservoir model is simulated by mixing clay or mortar into sands of different grain sizes, and the permeability of the three-dimensional reservoir model is reduced by mixing mortar into sands of different grain sizes.
3. The method for preparing the three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model as claimed in claim 1, wherein holes are punched in the plastic film to simulate permeability barriers and interlayers of the three-dimensional reservoir model in the process of constructing the three-dimensional reservoir model.
4. The method for preparing the three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model according to claim 1, wherein in the step of constructing the three-dimensional reservoir model, an impermeable plastic film is covered on the top surface of the preliminary reservoir three-dimensional model, and is troweled and covered by cement to ensure that the three-dimensional reservoir model is sealed and watertight.
5. A real-time dynamic monitoring visualization device of a three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model prepared by the preparation method of claim 1 is characterized by comprising the three-dimensional oil reservoir water-drive simulation model, a data acquisition card and a computer; a set of three-dimensional spatial interpolation and graphic display software is arranged in the computer;
the three-dimensional oil reservoir water drive simulation model comprises a sand filling model frame, sand filling, a fault, an interlayer, a water injection well, an oil production well and a resistivity measuring instrument; a plurality of the water injection wells, a plurality of the oil production wells and a plurality of the resistivity measuring instruments are buried in different positions of the three-dimensional reservoir water-drive simulation model;
the resistivity measuring instrument is connected with the computer through the data acquisition card;
the data acquisition card is used for recording the resistivity values of different positions at different moments in real time;
the computer is used for acquiring real-time collected resistivity values at different positions at different moments through three-dimensional space interpolation and a space gridding interpolation algorithm in graphic display software to obtain the resistivity values of the three-dimensional space, slicing the three-dimensional space in any direction, displaying the resistivity values in different directions, and finally linking the slices in the same direction at different times to form animation display;
the computer is also used for converting the resistivity value into the oil saturation according to a pre-established relational expression, and further displaying the water washing conditions of different parts of the oil reservoir after water flooding and the remaining oil saturation; the relational expression is a relational expression of resistivity value and oil saturation established according to rock-electricity experimental results.
6. The device for real-time dynamic monitoring and visualization as claimed in claim 5, wherein the water injection well is connected with a constant flow pump for pressurized water injection, and the oil production well is connected with a swabbing piston or an injector for swabbing oil production.
7. The device for real-time dynamic monitoring visualization according to claim 5, wherein the resistivity measuring instrument comprises a positive metal probe, a negative metal probe, an insulator for connecting the positive metal probe and the negative metal probe, and a wire; the positive metal probe and the negative metal probe are connected with the data acquisition card through the electric wire.
8. The real-time dynamic monitoring visualization device according to claim 5, wherein the oil production wells and the water injection wells are plastic pipes, and the number of the oil production wells and the number of the water injection wells are determined according to actual requirements.
9. The device for real-time dynamic monitoring visualization according to claim 5, wherein the sand-packed model frame, the fault and the interlayer are all made of polycarbonate materials.
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