CN104550710B - A kind of method for fast mfg inlaying cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods - Google Patents
A kind of method for fast mfg inlaying cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods Download PDFInfo
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- CN104550710B CN104550710B CN201410766218.8A CN201410766218A CN104550710B CN 104550710 B CN104550710 B CN 104550710B CN 201410766218 A CN201410766218 A CN 201410766218A CN 104550710 B CN104550710 B CN 104550710B
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- Cylinder Crankcases Of Internal Combustion Engines (AREA)
- Molds, Cores, And Manufacturing Methods Thereof (AREA)
Abstract
The invention discloses a kind of method for fast mfg inlaying cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods, including obtaining the to be cast 3D data inlaying cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder, 3D data analysis, determine that process program, 3D data divide mould to process, the decomposition manufacture of core, mould assembling is poured into a mould, and clears up the step such as foundry goods, inspection；After 3D data divide mould to process, the design of edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder core is divided into each sand mold, core group；In the decomposition of core manufactures, left sand mold, right sand mold, front sand mold, rear sand mold, bed load type, rising head, cup, sprue sand mold use PDM model direct Milling Process fabrication techniques, and jacket core, crankcase group use PCM Patternless casting manufacturing fabrication techniques, such method, there is quick, accurate, efficient, economic feature, thus produce high-quality electromotor edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder, it is especially suitable for quickly manufacture and the new product development etc. of single-piece, personalization, small lot, complex product.
Description
Technical field
The present invention relates to the manufacturing technology of automobile engine aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods, be specifically related to a kind of edge cylinder sleeve
The method for fast mfg of aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods.
Background technology
Aluminium alloy cylinder is one of core part of automobile engine, currently mainly uses low pressure, core assembly sand mold weight
Power and foundry casting technique manufacture.Low pressure casting absorbs in gravitational casting in rising pouring Stable Filling and compression casting
The advantage of foundry goods crystallization and freezing under stress, it has also become produce the important process of aluminium alloy castings.Low pressure casting sets
Standby hardware cost puts into big, and whole technique is the longest from being designed into production cycle, is generally suitable for the batch of single product
Metaplasia is produced.Core assembly sand mold gravitational casting aluminum cylinder aluminium alloy cylinder be the most at home and abroad start mass-produced
Maturation process, tumbles sand mold by frocks such as mechanical hands after being poured and realizes consecutive solidification.Traditional manufacturer
Formula is mold, and then by foundry casting, one set of die expense is about hundreds of thousands, and the cycle is probably at 2-3
Individual month, the mould outputed needed repeatedly to repair a die and can be only achieved requirement, and pattern draft to be considered, barb etc. because of
Element；If development, make one set of die may just make several blanks, test defective again amendment or
Redesign drawing, again make mould or amendment mould, lack the flexibility made.
On the other hand, aluminium alloy cylinder edge Cast iron liner, the combination degree of ferro-aluminum and the positioning precision of cylinder sleeve are used
It it is the difficult point realized；In the particularly exemplar stage, during cast, temperature and the thermograde of cylinder sleeve directly influence ferro-aluminum
Combination rate.Being typically to refill cylinder sleeve after external heat to be fitted on inside sand mold to be poured into a mould, Quick pouring is complete
After tumble again and realize consecutive solidification.Be assembled to inside sand mold due to just mobile after cylinder jacket heating, temperature can quickly,
Uneven decline, the set-up time is the shortest, and the operation to each operation requires the highest, and the positioning precision of cylinder sleeve can be subject to
Impact, after casting, the combination rate of ferro-aluminum can be unstable, easily produces defective products.Therefore, prior art need
In improving and development.
Summary of the invention
An object of the present invention, in place of being to overcome above-mentioned the deficiencies in the prior art, it is provided that a kind of edge cylinder sleeve aluminum
The method for fast mfg of alloy cylinder block casting, is suitable for single-piece, personalization, be pilot and quickly manufactures and newly produce
Product are developed, and can the most successfully produce qualified edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods, and the manufacturing cycle is short, produces into
This is low.
The two of the purpose of the present invention, it is provided that a kind of method for fast mfg inlaying cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods, can make
The positioning precision of cylinder sleeve is high, can be accurately controlled the thermograde of cylinder sleeve, it is possible to realize Stable Filling, and ferro-aluminum is tied
Conjunction rate reaches technology requirement.
The purpose of the present invention one is achieved by the following technical solution:
A kind of method for fast mfg inlaying cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods, including following sequence step: the first step,
Obtain the 3D data of edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder to be cast；Second step, 3D data analysis, determine technique side
Case；3rd step, 3D data divide mould to process；4th step, the decomposition manufacture of core；5th step, mould assembling is poured into a mould；
6th step, cleaning obtains foundry goods, it is characterised in that: in the 3D data of the 3rd step divide mould to process, inlay cylinder sleeve
The design of aluminium alloy cylinder core is divided into: a pair sprue sand mold, left sand mold, rear sand mold, bed load type, right sand
Type, cylinder sleeve positioning tool, cylinder sleeve, jacket core, crankcase group, rising head, front sand mold, cup；?
During the decomposition of the core of four steps manufactures, left sand mold, right sand mold, front sand mold, rear sand mold, bed load type, rising head,
Cup, sprue sand mold all use PDM model direct Milling Process fabrication techniques, and jacket core, bent axle
Case core group then uses PCM Patternless casting manufacturing fabrication techniques.Described all cores also can all use PCM
Patternless casting manufacturing fabrication techniques.
Model direct Milling Process technology and equipment are by the design of CAD Computerized three-dimensional, NC milling technology
The complex art of a kind of Digitized manufacturing organically combined with conventional casting techniques and design and develop out and equipment.It
Utilize the Milling Process principle of Numeric Control Technology, use the cutter of special material to remove unnecessary material, it is achieved mould
The quick direct forming of type and without mould, so claiming model direct Milling Process technology (Pattern Direct
Milling, is called for short PDM).It has the features such as digitized, precise treatment, flexibility, greenization, the suitableeest
Close single-piece, personalization, the Directly rapid fabrication of small lot model.
Patternless casting manufacturing technology (Patternless Casting Manufacturing is called for short PCM) is
Designed by CAD Computerized three-dimensional, 3D printing technique organically combines with conventional casting techniques and designs and develops out
A kind of complex art of Digitized manufacturing.It utilizes discrete/accumulation principle that 3D prints, it is not necessary to mould, real
Now automatically sand supplying, quantitative mulling, automatic sanding, automatic printing ink (binding agent) and glue connection solidified forming,
Then decline one layer and repeat sanding and printing, successively pile up and form the core needed, be particularly suitable for single-piece,
Personalized, the flexible of multi-varieties and small-batch complex core quickly manufactures and new product development.
Analyzed by Foundry CAE, rational technological design, use PDM model direct Milling Process technology and
PCM Patternless casting manufacturing technology can quickly be successfully fabricated out qualified edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods, whole
Individual process fabrication cycle is short, and production cost is low.The method be suitable for including the single-pieces such as aluminium alloy cylinder, personalization,
Small lot, quickly manufacture and the new product development of complex product.
The purpose of the present invention two is achieved by the following technical solution:
Described cylinder sleeve positioning tool is additionally provided with auxiliary mould, and auxiliary mould is by locating dowel mounting seat and cylinder sleeve
Locating dowel corresponding to the quantity induction coil corresponding with locating dowel quantity collectively constitutes, each locating dowel respectively with
Locating dowel mounting seat screw rod connects, and each locating dowel is in addition to the perforate of bottom, and remaining is the entirety of a sealing,
Its top is provided with a boss, for assembling conjunction location, each locating dowel inner hollow with crankcase, is used for
Installing induction coil, induction coil connects HF induction heating apparatus.Further, each locating dowel and location
The circumferencial direction that post mounting seat coordinates is respectively arranged with fit clearance, to regulate the size between each locating dowel,
Ensure the position degree of cylinder sleeve；It is also equipped with fit clearance between locating dowel inwall and induction coil, adjusts sensing
Coil can regulate the uniformity to cylinder jacket heating temperature with the clearance distance of locating dowel and the number of turns of coil and add
The speed of heat.
Before the 5th step mould assembling cast, cylinder sleeve positioning tool is arranged in bed load type, by each cylinder sleeve respectively
It is inserted in locating dowel, inserts induction coil from the bottom of bed load type, the joint of induction coil is connected high frequency respectively
Induction heating equipment, connects electrified regulation after the cooling line of HF induction heating apparatus, divides with infrared radiation thermometer
Not measuring the temperature on cylinder sleeve, when the temperature on cylinder sleeve reaches 300-500 DEG C, (this temperature is regarding different product situation
Stopping heating time calmly) and record the time used by heating, the time drawn is exactly for rear operation cast aluminum liquid
Duration used by front heating cylinder sleeve；When the 5th step mould assembling cast, insert sense bottom the casting mold of case respectively from getting togather
Answer coil and connect HF induction heating apparatus, opening cooling water, starting HF induction heating apparatus and heat
Work and carry out timing, stop heating at once when reaching the time used by above-mentioned heating cylinder sleeve and cut off high-frequency induction
The power supply of firing equipment, pours into originally the most melted aluminum liquid from cup, until casting complete and pour into a mould with
The coupon of stove, finally obtains foundry goods after blank cooling cleaning.
Ensureing the positional precision between cylinder sleeve by auxiliary mould, the induction coil of auxiliary mould connects high frequency sense
Cylinder sleeve can be made after answering firing equipment quickly to heat, and thermograde span of control is accurate, is effective to ensure that aluminum liquid
Well fill type, water and outpour the edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder that ferro-aluminum combination rate is high.
The present invention, compared with conventional art, has clear advantage: solve the technological difficulties of edge cylinder sleeve so that it is
Reaching the laminating rate that technology requires, the position degree of cylinder sleeve precisely and is easily adjusted.Utilize the direct milling of PDM model
Cut process technology and PCM Patternless casting manufacturing technology, there is quick, accurate, efficient, economic feature,
Thus produce high-quality edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder, it is especially suitable for single-piece, personalization, be pilot
Quickly manufacture and new product development etc..
Accompanying drawing explanation
Fig. 1 is the forward schematic perspective view of edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods.
Fig. 2 is the B-B generalized section of Fig. 1.
Fig. 2-1 is the C partial enlarged drawing of Fig. 2.
Fig. 3 is the core designs partition schematic diagram of the present invention.
Fig. 4 is the schematic diagram after Fig. 3 core mould assembling.
Fig. 5 is cylinder sleeve location and the structural representation of auxiliary mould.
Fig. 6 is the A-A generalized section of Fig. 5.
Fig. 7 is the D close-up schematic view of Fig. 6.
Fig. 8 is the E close-up schematic view of Fig. 5.
Fig. 9 is the running gate system schematic diagram of Fig. 3, Fig. 4.
Detailed description of the invention
For making the purpose of the present invention, technical scheme and advantage clearer, clear and definite, develop simultaneously reality referring to the drawings
The present invention is described in more detail to execute example.
Seeing Fig. 1 Fig. 2, the edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder casting finished products of the present invention is as it can be seen, in cylinder holes
Cylinder sleeve is casting integrated inlaying.Cylinder sleeve is altogether four, and cylinder sleeve is standard component, and client directly provides.Foundry goods material
Material is ZAlSi7MgA-T6, and foundry goods overall size is 366mm*350mm*278mm, and uniform wall thickness is 4mm,
Casting weight is 19.2kg.As Fig. 2-1 shows, it is aluminium alloy L between cylinder sleeve G1 and cylinder sleeve G2,
Little wall thickness is 2mm, it is desirable to the laminating rate of cylinder sleeve is more than 95%；Four cylinder holes spacing meet ± 0.4mm dimensional accuracy
Requirement；Three cylinder holes relative to one, four cylinder holes position degrees are less than Φ 0.8mm.
Embodiment one, sees Fig. 3, Fig. 4, Fig. 9, quickly manufacturing without mould of edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods
Method, including following sequence step: the first step, obtains the 3D data of edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder to be cast；
Second step, 3D data analysis, determine process program；3rd step, 3D data divide mould to process；4th step, type
The decomposition manufacture of core；5th step, mould assembling is poured into a mould；6th step, clears up foundry goods, inspection.It is particular in that,
In the 3D data of the 3rd step divide mould to process, the design of edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder casting mold is divided into: directly water for a pair
Road sand mold 1,2, left sand mold 3, rear sand mold 5, bed load type 6, right sand mold 7, cylinder sleeve positioning tool 8, cylinder sleeve
9, jacket core 10, crankcase group 11, rising head 12, front sand mold 13, cup 14；Type in the 4th step
During the decomposition of core manufactures, left sand mold 3, right sand mold 7, front sand mold 13, rear sand mold 5, bed load type 6, rising head
12, cup 14, sprue sand mold 1,2 all use PDM model direct Milling Process fabrication techniques, and
Jacket core 10, crankcase group 11 then use PCM Patternless casting manufacturing fabrication techniques.Certainly, all models
Core can manufacture only with PCM Patternless casting manufacturing technology, but can slightly in the advantage of cycle and cost
Some loss, but still more with the obvious advantage than traditional handicraft.
Requiring and difficult point for technology, using core assembly sand mold upright casting technique, it is steady that rising pouring realizes aluminum liquid, it is achieved low
Turbulent flow fills type, controls solidification sequence, it is achieved preferably orient consecutive solidification.Chill is placed in bearing shell and abundant place
Add rising head and guarantee foundry goods force part dense structure so that it is elongation percentage, intensity, hardness etc. meet technology requirement；
Top arranges rising head, it is achieved consecutive solidification, and as Fig. 9 shows, aluminum liquid injects through stream tilting sprue from cup
F1 arrives cross gate F3 and realizes steadily cast, reduces secondary and generates aluminum slag；Ceramic element F2 can stop aluminum
Slag enters foundry goods body by running gate system, thus improves the inherent quality of foundry goods.Simulated by computer CAE,
Accurately calculate rising head F4 modulus, rising head F4 eck mould number volume, reach to produce under maximum product yield state to close
Lattice foundry goods.
Embodiment two, owing between cylinder sleeve, aluminum thickness is 2mm, easily produces cold shut and misrun；Cylinder sleeve positioning rule
Very little required precision is high, and ferro-aluminum laminating rate requires more than 95%.For solving this technological difficulties, in embodiment one
On the basis of, design a set of auxiliary mould to the positional precision ensureing between it, filled by processing shape
Joining three coordinate detections and ensure the size between it and positional precision, auxiliary mould is as shown in Fig. 5 Fig. 8, auxiliary
Assistant engineer's dress is made up of locating dowel mounting seat 16, four groups of induction coils 4 of 15, four groups of locating dowels, each locating dowel 16
It is connected with screw rod with locating dowel mounting seat 15 respectively, the circumference that locating dowel 16 coordinates with locating dowel mounting seat 15
Direction is respectively arranged with fit clearance 17, as shown in Figure 7.Also it is respectively provided with between cooperation between each locating dowel 16
Gap 18, as shown in Figure 8, to regulate the size between each locating dowel 16.According to the diameter dimension of sleeve port,
Processing the diameter dimension coordinated with locating dowel, locating dowel 16 is equipped with gap with cylinder sleeve, to ensure
Locating dowel can be extracted when clearing up foundry goods after cast, thus realize reusing.Locating dowel 16 inner hollow,
Being used for installing induction coil 4, each locating dowel 16 is in addition to the perforate of bottom, and remaining is the entirety of a sealing, its
Top is provided with a boss, for coordinating location with crankcase group 11.Locating dowel 16 inwall and induction coil
4 are provided with fit clearance, to facilitate the installation of induction coil 4 to insert.Insert the line of induction in locating dowel 16
Circle 4 is respectively arranged with high-temperature insulation adhesive plaster, to ensure that coil is the most short-circuit.Induction coil 4 is made with copper tube,
HF induction heating apparatus uses special equipment.Adjust induction coil 4 and the clearance distance of locating dowel 16 and line
The number of turns of circle can regulate the uniformity of cylinder jacket heating temperature and the speed of heating.
Before the 5th step mould assembling cast, namely before core mould assembly, first cylinder sleeve positioning tool 8 is arranged on
In bed load type 6, four cylinder sleeves 9 are inserted in locating dowel 16 respectively, insert sensing from the bottom of bed load type 6
Coil 4, connects HF induction heating apparatus respectively the joint of induction coil 4, connects high-frequency induction heating and sets
Electrified regulation after standby cooling line, measures the temperature on cylinder sleeve 9 respectively with infrared radiation thermometer, when cylinder sleeve 9
On temperature stop when reaching 300-500 DEG C (depending on different product situation) heating and record used by heating time
Between, the time drawn is exactly heating duration used by cylinder sleeve 9 before pouring into a mould.
During core mould assembly, combine crankcase group 11 so that it is become one overall, cylinder sleeve positioning tool 8
It is satisfied with in bed load type 6, with three coordinate detections during installation, it is ensured that the size between locating dowel meets technology requirement；
Jacket core 10 is put and is loaded in bed load type 6；Cylinder sleeve 9 is inserted in the locating dowel 16 of cylinder sleeve positioning tool 8；
Crankcase group 11 is installed on the location above cylinder sleeve location and sensing heating frock 8 locating dowel 16；Point
Do not close left sand mold 3, right sand mold 7, front sand mold 5, rear sand mold 13, placing ceramic filter element, and close sprue
Sand mold 1,2, rising head 12, cup 14, note controlling corresponding size and wall thickness, with compression in mould assembly process
The pressure-vaccums such as the foreign material in die cavity are walked by air, obtain casting mold as shown in Figure 4.
When the 5th step mould assembling cast, insert induction coil 4 bottom the casting mold of case respectively from getting togather and connect high frequency
Induction heating equipment, opens cooling water, starts HF induction heating apparatus and carries out heating work and carry out timing,
Stop heating at once when reaching the time used by above-mentioned heating cylinder sleeve and cut off the power supply of HF induction heating apparatus,
Originally the most melted ZAlSi7MgA aluminum liquid is poured into from cup, until casting complete pour into a mould the examination with stove
Rod, finally after blank cools down, cleaning obtains foundry goods.The induction coil of auxiliary mould connects high-frequency induction heating and sets
Cylinder sleeve can be made after Bei quickly to heat, and thermograde span of control is accurate, and be effective to ensure that aluminum liquid well fills type,
Water and outpour the edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder that ferro-aluminum combination rate is high.Complete through manufacturing to the dissection of blank of initial workpiece
Process analysis, casting section thickness, surplus equidimension precision reach drawing requirement；Foundry goods bulge test does not finds leakage；
Ferro-aluminum laminating rate is more than 95%, and cylinder sleeve position degree meets drawing requirement.Blank is delivered to client and processes afterloading unit survey
Examination, client feedback cylinder body meets all test requests.
It should be appreciated that the application of this patent is not limited to above-mentioned citing, those of ordinary skill in the art are come
Saying, can be improved according to the above description or convert, all these modifications and variations all should belong to this patent institute
Attached scope of the claims.
Claims (3)
1. inlay a method for fast mfg for cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods, including following sequence step: the first step, obtain the 3D data of edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder to be cast；Second step, 3D data analysis, determine process program；3rd step, 3D data divide mould to process；4th step, the decomposition manufacture of core；5th step, mould assembling is poured into a mould；6th step, cleaning obtains foundry goods；It is characterized in that: in the 3D data of the 3rd step divide mould to process, the design of edge cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder core is divided into: a pair sprue sand mold (1,2), left sand mold (3), rear sand mold (5), bed load type (6), right sand mold (7), cylinder sleeve positioning tool (8), cylinder sleeve (9), jacket core (10), crankcase group (11), rising head (12), front sand mold (13), cup (14)；In the decomposition of the core of the 4th step manufactures, left sand mold (3), right sand mold (7), front sand mold (13), rear sand mold (5), bed load type (6), rising head (12), cup (14), sprue sand mold (1,2) all use PDM model direct Milling Process fabrication techniques, and jacket core (10), crankcase group (11) then use PCM Patternless casting manufacturing fabrication techniques；Described cylinder sleeve positioning tool is additionally provided with auxiliary mould, auxiliary mould is collectively constituted by the induction coil that the locating dowel that locating dowel mounting seat is corresponding with cylinder sleeve quantity is corresponding with locating dowel quantity, each locating dowel is connected with locating dowel mounting seat screw rod respectively, each locating dowel is in addition to the perforate of bottom, remaining is the entirety of a sealing, its top is provided with a boss, for assembling conjunction location with crankcase, each locating dowel inner hollow, for installing induction coil, induction coil connects HF induction heating apparatus；Before the 5th step mould assembling cast, cylinder sleeve positioning tool (8) is arranged in bed load type (6), each cylinder sleeve (9) is inserted in locating dowel (16) respectively, induction coil (4) is inserted from the bottom of bed load type (6), the joint of induction coil (4) is connected HF induction heating apparatus respectively, connect electrified regulation after the cooling line of HF induction heating apparatus, the temperature on cylinder sleeve (9) is measured respectively with infrared radiation thermometer, stop heating when the temperature on cylinder sleeve (9) reaches 300-500 DEG C and record the time used by heating, the time drawn is exactly heating duration used by cylinder sleeve before rear operation cast aluminum liquid；When the 5th step mould assembling cast, insert induction coil (4) bottom the casting mold of case respectively from getting togather and connect HF induction heating apparatus, open cooling water, start HF induction heating apparatus carry out heating work and carry out timing, stop heating at once when reaching the time used by above-mentioned heating cylinder sleeve and cut off the power supply of HF induction heating apparatus, the most melted aluminum liquid is poured into from cup, until casting complete pour into a mould the coupon with stove, finally after blank cools down, cleaning obtains foundry goods.
Method for fast mfg the most according to claim 1, it is characterised in that described all cores all use PCM Patternless casting manufacturing fabrication techniques.
Method for fast mfg the most according to claim 1, it is characterized in that, the circumferencial direction that each locating dowel coordinates with locating dowel mounting seat is respectively arranged with fit clearance, being also equipped with fit clearance between locating dowel inwall and induction coil, the number of turns adjusting induction coil and the clearance distance of locating dowel and coil can regulate the speed of the uniformity to cylinder jacket heating temperature and heating.
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| CN201410766218.8A CN104550710B (en) | 2014-12-12 | 2014-12-12 | A kind of method for fast mfg inlaying cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods |
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| CN201410766218.8A CN104550710B (en) | 2014-12-12 | 2014-12-12 | A kind of method for fast mfg inlaying cylinder sleeve aluminium alloy cylinder foundry goods |
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| CN111451444A (en) * | 2020-05-21 | 2020-07-28 | 宜宾普什联动科技有限公司 | Casting method of high-horsepower engine box body casting |
| CN112387928A (en) * | 2020-10-29 | 2021-02-23 | 湖北理工学院 | Sand mold casting process method and casting equipment |
| CN112439873B (en) * | 2020-11-30 | 2021-10-29 | 安徽江淮汽车集团股份有限公司 | Combined sand mold structure |
| CN114918977B (en) * | 2022-06-20 | 2023-10-13 | 一汽丰田发动机(长春)有限公司 | Operation method for confirming manipulator coordinate adjustment standard part and part taking position |
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| US5365997A (en) * | 1992-11-06 | 1994-11-22 | Ford Motor Company | Method for preparing an engine block casting having cylinder bore liners |
| JP3280198B2 (en) * | 1995-07-07 | 2002-04-30 | 新東工業株式会社 | Molding device for molding a core for a cylinder block of a multi-cylinder internal combustion engine |
| CN101380662B (en) * | 2008-09-27 | 2012-04-25 | 佛山市峰华卓立制造技术有限公司 | Car engine cylinder body casting mold and manufacture method thereof |
| CN103495705B (en) * | 2013-10-16 | 2015-11-11 | 四川省祥业机械铸造有限公司 | A kind of Engine cylinder body sand core mould structure and formative technology thereof |
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