JP2020519892A - Reducing coulomb barriers for interacting reactants - Google Patents

Abstract

Methods, apparatus, devices and systems for generating and controlling fusion activity. Ion-neutral bonds induce hydrogen atoms or other neutral species (neutrals) to rotate in the confinement region, and the ions are driven by electric and magnetic fields. Controlled fusion reactions cover a range of reactions, including neutronless reactions such as the proton-boron-11 fusion reaction. [Selection diagram] Fig. 21a

Description

Cross-reference of related applications

This application claims the benefit of US Provisional Application No. 62/503680 filed May 9, 2017. This application is also a partial continuation application of US Patent Application No. 15/589902 in which the title of the invention filed on May 8, 2017 is REACTOR USING ELECTRICICAL AND MAGNETIC FIELDS (nuclear reactor using electric field and magnetic field). US patent application Ser. No. 15/589,902, filed June 27, 2014, titled METHODS, DEVICES AND SYSTEMS FOR FUSION REACTIONS, US patent application Ser. No. 14/ No. 14/318,246, a continuation-in-part application of this number 318246, claims the following benefits. (I) US provisional application number 61/840428 filed June 27, 2013; (ii) US provisional application number 61/925114 filed January 8, 2014; (iii) January 8, 2014. US Provisional Application No. 61/925131, (iv) US Provisional Application No. 61/925122, filed January 8, 2014, (v) US Provisional Application, filed January 8, 2014 No. 61/925148, (vi) U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/925142, filed January 8, 2014, (vii) U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/841834, filed July 1, 2013, (viii). U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/843015 filed July 4, 2013. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/318,246 is also a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/205339, filed Mar. 11, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. Yes, this US patent application number 14/205339 claims the benefit of US provisional application number 61/777,592, filed March 11, 2013, and also the invention filed May 8, 2017. US Patent Application No. 15/589902, a partial continuation application of which the name is REACTOR USING ELECTRICICAL AND MAGNETIC FIELDS (reactor using electric and magnetic fields), the name of the invention filed on May 8, 2017 is REACTOR USING ELECTRICICAL AND MAGNETIC FIELDS (reactor using electric and magnetic fields), US Patent Application No. 15/589913, a partial continuation application, the name of the invention filed on May 8, 2017 is REACTOR USING ELECTRICICAL AND MAGNETIC FIELDS (electric and magnetic fields). Partial continuation application of US patent application No. 15/589886, which is a nuclear reactor using an electric field, and the title of the invention filed on May 8, 2017 is REACTOR USING AZIMUTHALLY VARYING ELECTRICICAL FIELDS U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/589,905, the entire continuation of each of these priority applications is hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes.

The present disclosure relates to nuclear reactions and nuclear reactors for generating and maintaining these nuclear reactions.

Since the fifties of the twentieth century, the science and technology community has endeavored to achieve controllable and economically viable fusion. Fusion is an attractive energy for a variety of reasons, but billions of dollars and decades of research have failed to realize most of the ideas of using sustainable fusion as clean energy. Conventionally, a fusion reaction maintenance method that is excellent in economical efficiency, safety, reliability, and environmental conservation is a problem that is difficult to solve. This task has proven to be extremely difficult. In this field, it is generally considered that fusion needs 25 to 50 years of research before it is put into practical use for power generation. ("Next ITERATION?", September 3, 2011, The Economist).

In the past, research on large-scale fusion has focused primarily on two methods of creating conditions for fusion ignition, inertial confinement fusion (ICF) and magnetic confinement fusion. The ICF attempts to generate a fusion reaction by compressing and heating a fusion reaction product (for example, a mixture of deuterium and tritium) in the form of a small pellet having a size of about a needle tip. A high-energy beam of laser light, electrons, or ions is sent to the fuel target to explode the heated outer layer of the target fuel, creating a collision wave, which propagates inward through the fuel pellet and fuses. The reactants are compressed and heated, thereby causing a fusion reaction.

At the time of filing this application, the most successful ICF program is the National Ignition Facility (National Ignition Facility, NIF), completed in 2009 at a cost of approximately $3.5 billion. By releasing more energy than is used for fuel pellets, the NIF reaches a milestone, but by 2015, the NIF experiment will be able to achieve only about one-third of the energy required for ignition. It was For sustainable reactions, the longest reported ICF fusion reaction times were on the order of 150 picoseconds. Even if the ignition conditions are achieved by the efforts of the ICF, there are many obstacles to making the energy feasible. For example, there is a need for a solution that removes heat from the reaction chamber without interfering with the fuel target and drive beam, and a solution that mitigates the short life of the fusion plant, which is a radioactive byproduct of the fusion reactant. This is because deuterium and tritium which are the above react with each other to generate neutrons.

Another major research direction, magnetic confinement fusion, seeks to induce fusion by confining nuclear fusion fuel in the form of plasma using a magnetic field. Such a method extends the close contact time of the ions and improves their fusion potential. The magnetic fusion device, when balanced with the centripetal force, applies a magnetic force to the charged particles so that they move in a circular or spiral path within the plasma. Magnetic confinement prevents the thermal plasma from contacting the reactor wall. In magnetic confinement, the fusion is entirely within the plasma.

Much work on magnetic confinement is based on the Tokamak design, in which a thermal plasma is confined to a toroidal magnetic field. The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TTR) in Princeton, NJ is the world's first magnetic fusion device to perform a wide range of scientific experiments using 50/50 deuterium/tritium plasma. It was expected that the TFTR built in 1980 could realize fusion energy, but in the end, it could not achieve this goal and stopped in 1997. To date, the longest plasma duration of any tokamak is 6 minutes and 30 seconds owned by the French Tore Supra tokamak. At present, magnetic confinement fusion is being incorporated into the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), a tokamak reactor constructed in 2013. By June 2015, construction costs will exceed $14 billion and equipment will be built by 2019, with a full deuterium-tritium test starting in 2027. From today's estimates, the cost of this project could exceed $50 billion, adding to the cost. Recently, the Energy and Water Development Subcommittee of the Senate Spending Budget Committee announced that the United States will withdraw from the ITER project. Due to market realities and the inherent limitations of tokamak designs for fusion power generation, many analysts suspect that fusion reactors such as ITER will be commercially viable.

An alternative form of magnetic confinement is being investigated in the Maryland Centrifuge Experiment (MCX) at the University of Maryland. The concepts of centrifugal confinement and velocity shear stabilization are tested. In this experiment, a capacitor is discharged from a cylindrical cathode via hydrogen gas into the surrounding vacuum chamber in the presence of a magnetic field. The orthogonal electric and magnetic fields (represented as J×B) generate forces in the hot ionized plasma (>10 ⁵ K) that rotate around the discharge electrode. Due to the large changes in temperature at the plasma boundary, there is always a cold neutral species that has a large effect on the plasma flow. The study focuses on the effects of neutrals and is believed to "block the required plasma rotation" required for fusion conditions. A "neutral species" or simply "neutral substance" is an atom or molecule having a neutral charge, ie having the same number of electrons and protons, and in the case of atoms, an atomic number. Ions, ionized atoms or other particles carry a charge, ie, have at least one more electron than a proton, or at least one more proton than an electron.

The use of rotating plasma devices without highly ionized plasma has been investigated for fusion studies, but neutrals have always been seen as a problem to reach fusion conditions. Researchers in this field said, "It is not entirely impossible, but it is very unlikely that only rotating plasma will lead to the realization of a self-sustaining fusion reactor, due to the limiting effects of neutral drag and instability. (Review article: ROTATING PLASMAS (rotating plasma), Lehnart, Nuclear Fusion 11 (1971)).

Reliable traditional methods all face confinement and engineering issues. The total energy balance Q of the fusion reactor is defined as follows.

Q=E _fusion /E _in

_Where E _fusion is the total energy released by the fusion reaction and E _in is the energy used to generate the reaction. The goal is for Q to exceed 1 or "1 unit" at the end of the generation of available energy sources. Officials at the European Torus Joint Research Facility (JET) claimed to have achieved Q=0.7, and the US National Ignition Facility recently achieved Q>1 (ignoring its laser's significant energy loss). Insists. The case of Q=1 is called the “breakeven” and indicates that the amount of energy released by the fusion reaction is equal to the amount of energy input. In practice, the reactor used to produce electricity requires a Q-factor much greater than 1 to be commercially viable because only a portion of the fusion energy can be converted into useful forms. To do. Conventional thinking is that only strongly ionized plasma without the presence of large amounts of neutrals may achieve Q>1. These conditions limit the particle density and energy confinement time that can be achieved in a fusion reactor. Thus, the Lawson criterion has been referred to in the art as the criterion for controlled fusion reactions, which is considered to be unachieved by anyone considering all energy inputs. The pursuit of Lawson's standard, or substantially similar paradigms, renders fusion devices and systems large, complex, unmanageable, expensive and yet economically infeasible. The general formula for the Lawson criterion, known as the triple product, is:

The Lawson criterion is not described in detail here, but in essence, the criterion is that the product of particle density (n), temperature (T) and confinement time (τ _E ) is the charge fusion product (E _ch ). It shows that it must be greater than a number that depends on energy, Boltzmann constant (k _B ), fusion cross section (σ), relative velocity (υ) and temperature to reach ignition conditions. In the case of the deuterium-tritium reaction, the minimum value of the triple product occurs at T=14 keV, and the value of the triple product is about 3×10 ²¹ keV s/m ³ (J. Wesson, “Tokamaks”, Oxford Engineering Science). Series No 48, (Oxford Engineering Science Series No. 48), Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2nd Edition, 1997). In fact, this industry standard paradigm suggests that temperatures above 150,000,000 degrees are required to achieve a positive energy balance using the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction. .. In the case of a proton-boron ¹¹ fusion, the Lawson criterion suggests that the required temperature should be much higher. More specifically, n[tau]-10< ¹⁶ >s/cm< ³ >, which is ~100-fold higher than that required for deuterium-tritium fusion [George H. et al. Miley and S.M. Internal Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion: Fundamentals and Applications by Krupaker Murali (extracted from Fundamentals and Applications)].

One aspect of the Lawson criterion is the assumption that thermal energy needs to be continually added to the plasma to replace the lost energy and maintain the plasma temperature, keeping it in its fully or highly ionized state. Is based on. In particular, the main sources of energy loss in conventional fusion systems are electron bremsstrahlung and cyclotron kinetic radiation as mobile electrons interact with ions in the hot plasma. The Lawson criterion for the fusion method was created with electron radiative losses as an important consideration because it uses a high temperature strongly ionized plasma with highly mobile electrons.

It is considered that conventional thinking requires high temperature and strong ionization plasma without the presence of a large amount of neutral substances, and it is further considered that it is impossible to physically contain the reaction at low cost. Thus, the most rigorously pursued methods are directed to complex and expensive schemes for containing reactions, such as with magnetic confinement systems (eg ITER tokamak) and inertial confinement systems (eg NIF laser). ..

In fact, at least one document recognizes that it is not possible to contain fusion reactions using physical structures. "The simplest and most obvious way to provide plasma confinement is by direct contact with the material walls, but because of two fundamental causes: plasma cooling by the walls and melting of most wall materials, That becomes impossible. I recalled that fusion plasmas now require temperatures of 10 ⁸ K, but metals generally melt at temperatures below 5000 K” (Principles of Fusion Energy, “Principles of Fusion Energy” A. A. Harms et al.). The need for very high temperatures presupposes that only charged, high-energy ions can fuse and that Coulombic repulsion forces limit fusion events. Current teachings in the field rely on this basic assumption for most of all research and projects.

Rarely, researchers have explored ways to reduce Coulomb barriers or repulsive forces (which repel interacting positive nuclei) to reduce the energy required to initiate and maintain fusion. Such methods have largely been ignored as infeasible with the above methods.

In the 1950s, Luis Alvarez studied the concept of muon catalyzed fusion using a hydrogen bubble chamber at the University of California, Berkeley. Alvarez's study (“Catalysis of Nuclear Reactions by μ Mesons”, Physical Review. 105, Alvarez, L. W., et al. Has also shown to occur at fairly low temperatures. Theoretically, it was proposed that fusion could occur below room temperature. In this process, a negatively charged muon replaces one of the electrons in the hydrogen molecule. Since the mass of muons is 207 times larger than that of electrons, hydrogen nuclei are attracted about 207 times more than in ordinary molecules. If the nuclei are close together, the more fusion events can occur at room temperature, the greater the probability of fusion.

Muon-catalyzed fusion has received some attention, but efforts to create muon-catalyzed fusion have not yet been successful. The current technology of generating a large number of muons requires a large amount of energy that exceeds the energy generated by the catalytic fusion reaction, which is an obstacle to the break-even point or Q>1. Furthermore, each muon is "sticked" to the alpha particles produced by the fusion of deuterons (deuterium nuclei) and tritons (tritium nuclei) with a probability of about 1%, and thus "sticked". The muons are removed from the catalytic cycle. This means that each muon can catalyze at most hundreds of deuterium-tritium fusion reactions. Therefore, these two factors (muons are too expensive and difficult to manufacture, and easily attach to α particles later) keep muon catalyzed fusion in the laboratory. To produce useful muon-catalyzed fusions, nuclear reactors require cheaper and more efficient muon sources and/or methods by which each muon can catalyze more fusion reactions. So far, nothing discovered has been theorized.

In March 1989, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons reported in a Journal of Electrochemical Chemistry that they found a method to reduce the Coulomb barrier by a method currently called "cold fusion". submitted. Fleischmann and Pons have observed a large amount of heat and nuclear reaction by-products generated in a small table-top experiment involving electrolysis of heavy water on the surface of a palladium electrode. One explanation for cold fusion is that hydrogen and its isotopes may be absorbed by certain solids (such as palladium) at high densities. The absorption of hydrogen creates a high partial pressure, which lowers the average separation of hydrogen isotopes and thus lowers the potential barrier. Another explanation is that electronic screening of positive hydrogen nuclei within the palladium lattice is sufficient to lower the barrier.

The discovery of Fleischmann-Pons initially attracted a great deal of attention, but it was so important that it was received by the scientific community, and a group of Georgia Institute of Technology soon discovered the problem of neutron detectors and Texas A&M University I found a bad wiring of the thermometer. Due to these experimental mistakes and the unsuccessful attempts to replicate the Fleischmann-Pons experiments by many well-known laboratories, the scientific community has attributed mostly positive experimental results to "fusion". A conclusion was drawn. The US Department of Energy (DOE) has organized a special panel to study cold fusion theory and research. First, in November 1989, and again in 2004, the US Department of Energy did not present convincing evidence that the results so far result from a phenomenon resulting from "cold fusion" to produce an effective energy source. The conclusion was made.

Another attempt to reduce the Coulomb barrier is to employ electronic screening on solid matrices. Electron screening was first observed in stellar plasma, and it was decided to change the fusion rate by five orders of magnitude if the screening coefficient changed by only a few percent (Willets, L. et al., “Effect of screening on thermonuclear”). fusion in stellar and laboratory plasmas (The Effects of Screening on Nuclear Thermal Fusion in Stellar and Laboratory Plasmas), The Astrophysical Journal 530.1 (2000): 504.). According to Wilets, “The rate of nuclear thermal fusion in a plasma is dominated by the penetration of the barrier. The barrier itself is dominated by the Coulomb repulsion of the fusion. It is very sensitive to the effects of screening by electrons and cations within. Screening lowers barriers, thus increasing fusion rate and the greater the nuclear charge, the more important the screening becomes."

An example of attempting to use this electronic screening effect to create ignition conditions is presented in US Patent Publication No. US2005/0129160A1 by Robert Intech. In this application, Intech describes an electron shield of positively charged repulsive forces between two deuterons located near the tip of a microscopic cone structure, when the applied potential causes the electrons to concentrate at the top of the cone structure. To do. As disclosed, these cones are arranged on a surface measuring 3 cm x 3 cm.

Indech et al. have realized potential electronic screening to lower the Coulomb barrier in fusion reactors, but it is doubtful what efforts have succeeded. At best, these efforts appear to suggest a method for ignition rather than a sustained and controlled fusion reaction. Despite efforts in various methods to reduce ICF, magnetic confinement fusion, and Coulomb barriers, there are currently no commercially viable fusion reactor designs.

The present disclosure relates to various aspects of reactor design and operation. In particular, it relates to the design and operation of nuclear reactors that use electronic screening to reduce the Coulomb barrier to the fusion of two nuclei. Electron screening is provided in electron rich regions that facilitate fusion reactions.

One aspect of the present disclosure relates to a nuclear reactor, comprising: (a) a confinement wall at least partially surrounding a confined region within which charged particles and neutrals can rotate; and (b) adjacent or confined to the confined region. A plurality of electrodes in close proximity, and (c) a voltage and/or current source configured to apply a potential between at least two of the plurality of electrodes, the applied potential generating an electric field in the confinement region, A control system in which the electric field alone or in combination with a magnetic field induces and/or maintains rotational movement of charged particles and neutrals in the confinement region; and (d) located within or adjacent to the confinement region. And a reaction product generated by repeated collisions of the neutral product and the reaction product during operation, and the interaction releases the energy and produces a product. Is characterized by an element whose nuclear mass is different from any of the neutral and reactant nuclei. In operation, the confinement region proximate to the reactants includes an electron rich region in which the amount of electrons in the electron rich region is at least about 10 ⁶ /cm ³ greater than the positively charged particles.

In certain embodiments, the electrodes are azimuthally distributed around the confinement region, and the control system applies a time-varying voltage to the electrodes to confine charged particles and neutrals. It is configured to induce a rotational movement in the area. In certain embodiments, the nuclear reactor is configured to induce rotational motion of charged particles and neutrals within the confinement region by interaction between an electric field within the confinement region and an applied magnetic field.

During operation of the reactor, the electron rich region may have one or more of the following features. (I) The electric field strength is at least about 10 ⁶ V/m. (Ii) The average temperature of electrons is about 10,000K to 50,000K. (Iii) The electron density is about 10 ¹⁰ cm ^-3 to about 10 ²³ cm ^-3 . (Iv) The electron to cation ratio is about 10 ⁶ :1 to 10 ⁸ :1. (V) The average energy of neutrals is about 0.1 eV to 2 eV. (Vi) The concentration of neutrals is at least about 10 ¹⁶ /cm ³ (in some cases between about 10 ¹⁶ /cm ³ and about 10 ¹⁸ /cm ³ ). And/or (vii) extend into the confinement region to a distance of about 50 nm to about 50 μm.

In some embodiments, a nuclear reactor comprises an electron emitter positioned within or adjacent to a confinement region to generate electrons in the confinement region during operation. The electron emitter may be attached or fitted to the confinement wall. In some cases, one or more insulating layers may separate the confinement wall and the emitter to provide thermal insulation and/or electrical insulation. These layers may be made of, for example, zirconia, alumina, zinc nitride, and magnesia. In some cases, the electron emitter has a pointed geometry that projects into the interior of the confinement region to increase electron production.

In some cases, the nuclear reactor may include a filament in thermal communication with the electron emitter and the control system may be configured to heat the emitter by applying a current through the filament. .. The nuclear reactor may include a temperature sensor configured to monitor the temperature of the electron emitter, and the control system may be configured to adjust the current to the filament based on the monitored temperature.

In some embodiments, the nuclear reactor comprises a laser, which emits a light beam arriving through the confinement region onto the electron emitter or confinement wall, the light beam and the electron emitter or confinement wall Are configured to cause the electrons to be emitted inside the confinement region. The nuclear reactor may include a temperature sensor for monitoring the temperature of the electron emitter, and the control system may be configured to control laser emission based on the monitored temperature.

In some embodiments, the electron emitter is configured to enter and exit the confinement region during operation of the reactor. The control system may be configured to control the temperature of the electron emitter (eg, measured using a temperature sensor) and the generation of electrons by moving the position of the electron emitter.

The electron emitter may include boron or a boron-containing material. In some cases, the reactants include boron-11. In some cases, the nuclear mass of the product is greater than the nuclear mass of either the neutral or the reactant nuclei. The interaction may be a fusion reaction, and in some cases a neutronic fusion reaction. In some cases, the neutrals include neutral hydrogen, deuterium and/or tritium.

In certain embodiments, a nuclear reactor extracts thermal energy, kinetic energy and/or mechanical energy from a charged reaction product to convert the thermal energy, kinetic energy and/or mechanical energy into electrical energy and/or mechanical energy. Or convert it to mechanical energy to work outside the reactor.

Another aspect of the disclosure relates to a method of operating a nuclear reactor, comprising applying an electrical potential between at least two of a plurality of electrodes in the nuclear reactor, and (a) confinement at least partially surrounding a confinement region. And including a voltage and/or current source configured to apply a potential between the wall, (b) a plurality of electrodes adjacent or proximate to the confinement region, and (c) at least two of the plurality of electrodes. A control system in which an electric potential generates an electric field in the confinement region, and (d) a reactant disposed within the confinement region or adjacent to the confinement region. The electric field in the confinement region acts alone or in combination with the magnetic field to induce and/or maintain rotational motion of the charged particles and neutrals in the confinement region. In addition, the confinement region proximate to the reactants includes an electron rich region in which the amount of electrons in the electron rich region is at least about 10 ⁶ /cm ³ greater than the positively charged particles. In addition, repeated collisions between the neutrals and the reactants cause interactions with the reactants, said interactions releasing energy and generating a product, the nuclear mass of the product Is different from the mass of any of the neutral and reactant nuclei.

In certain embodiments, the plurality of electrodes are azimuthally distributed around the confinement region, and the control system applies a time-varying voltage to the plurality of electrodes to provide charged particles and neutrals. Configured to induce a rotational movement in the confinement region of the. In certain embodiments, the electric field in the confinement region acts in combination with the magnetic field to induce and/or maintain rotational motion of the charged particles and neutrals in the confinement region.

When applying a potential between the plurality of electrodes, the electron rich region may have one or more of the following features. (I) The electric field strength is at least about 10 ⁶ V/m. (Ii) The average temperature is about 10,000K to 50,000K. (Iii) The electron density is about 10 ¹⁰ cm ^-3 to about 10 ²³ cm ^-3 . (Iv) The electron to cation ratio is about 10 ⁶ :1 to 10 ⁸ :1. (V) The average energy of neutrals is about 0.1 eV to 2 eV. (Vi) The concentration of neutrals is at least about 10 ¹⁶ /cm ³ (in some cases about 10 ¹⁶ /cm ³ to about 10 ¹⁸ /cm ³ ). And/or (vii) extend into the confinement region to a distance of about 50 nm to about 50 μm.

The nuclear reactor may include an electron emitter located within the confinement region or adjacent to the confinement region to generate electrons in the confinement region during operation. The method may, in some cases, include controlling the generation of electrons in the confinement region.

For example, in some cases, the generation of electrons in the confinement region is controlled by applying a current to a filament that is in thermal communication with the electron emitter. In some cases, the generation of electrons in the confinement region is controlled by moving the electron emitter in and out of the confinement region. In some cases, controlling the emission of light from the laser to the electron emitter or confinement wall controls the generation of electrons in the confinement region.

In some cases, the nuclear mass of the product is greater than the nuclear mass of any of the neutral and reactant nuclei. The interaction may be a fusion reaction, for example a neutronless fusion reaction. In certain embodiments, the fusion reaction occurs in the electron rich region at a rate of 10 ¹⁷ to about 10 ²² fusion reactions per cubic centimeter per second. In certain embodiments, the neutral comprises hydrogen, deuterium, and/or tritium.

In certain embodiments, the method comprises converting thermal energy, kinetic energy and/or mechanical energy from a charged reaction product into electrical energy and/or mechanical energy to perform work outside the nuclear reactor. Further includes.

These and other features of the present disclosure will be described in more detail with reference to the associated drawings.

1a-c show several views of the reactor of the first embodiment.

2a-b schematically show the movement of charged and neutral particles rotating inside the confinement wall.

3a-d schematically show the interaction of neutrals and charged particles with the confinement wall.

4a-e show the stages of the neutron-free proton-boron-11 fusion reaction.

5a-d show a reverse electric polarity nuclear reactor.

6a-f show a hybrid reactor.

7a-b show a wave particle reactor.

8a-b show various electrode configurations of the reactor of the first embodiment.

9a-c show various cross sections of the reactor of the first embodiment.

10a-d show a first embodiment reactor in which an axial magnetic field is applied by a superconducting magnet.

11a-b show a reactor of the first embodiment in which permanent magnets are configured to apply an axial magnetic field in the reactor of the first embodiment.

12a-b show a first embodiment reactor in which the magnetic field applied to the confinement region is applied using permanent magnets.

13a to 13c show the configuration of the reactor of the first embodiment.

14a to 14c show the configuration of the reactor of the first embodiment.

15a-c show how an annular magnet is configured along a common axis to produce a substantially oriented magnetic field along that axis.

16a-c show a first embodiment reactor in which the magnetic field applied to the confinement region is applied using a ring magnet.

17a-c show a first embodiment reactor in which the magnetic field applied to the confinement region is applied using a radially offset magnet.

18a-d show a first embodiment reactor in which a magnetic field applied to the confinement region is applied using an electromagnet.

19a-b show various embodiments of a reverse electric polarity nuclear reactor.

20a-b show various electron emitters that may be placed on the confinement wall.

21a-b show an electron emission module that may be placed on the containment wall of a nuclear reactor.

FIG. 22 shows a nuclear reactor having a laser that increases or controls electron emission from an electron emitter.

23a-c show an arrangement for determining composition of gas reactants in a nuclear reactor using nuclear magnetic resonance sensing.

FIG. 24 shows how a control system is configured to operate a nuclear reactor using closed loop feedback.

FIG. 25 shows an example of a multi-step process flow that may be used to operate a nuclear reactor.

Preface Various embodiments disclosed herein provide for a reactor and conditions under which it induces a reaction between two or more nuclei in a manner that produces more energy than is input to the reactor. Method of operating a nuclear reactor. Although the present disclosure refers to reactions such as fusion reactions or simply fusion reactions, aspects of the reaction may differ quantitatively or qualitatively from aspects of the reaction that are traditionally characterized by fusion. Thus, when the term "fusion" is used in the remainder of the disclosure, this term does not necessarily mean to have all the features normally included in fusion. In some embodiments disclosed herein, a nuclear reactor is capable of producing a continuous fusion reaction, making it suitable as a viable energy source. As described herein, a continuous fusion reaction refers to a fusion reaction in which the reactor can operate continuously for more than about 1 second time unit.

In various embodiments, the nuclear reactor in which the fusion reaction occurs is designed or configured to restrain or confine the rotating species containing one or more nuclei involved in the fusion reaction. Various structures may be provided to contain the rotating species. Usually, but not necessarily, these structures define a rigid physical enclosure. As described in more detail elsewhere herein, the closed structure may have many shapes, such as a generally cylindrical shape. Examples of suitable structures that can be used for the physical enclosure are illustrated in Figures 1, 7, and 6.

Despite its other functions, the walls of a nuclear reactor typically serve to confine rotating species in the interior regions adjacent to the walls. The walls are confined in the sense that they confine the rotating species and keep them in the reactor. As described herein, this wall of the nuclear reactor is referred to as a wall, containment wall or shroud. In various embodiments, the walls also serve other functions, such as, among others, electrodes, magnets, sources of fusion reactants (eg, boron compounds), and/or electron emitters. The walls differ from conventional fusion reactor designs because they physically constrain the reactants species rather than the magnetic fields and pressure waves (used in conventional fusion methods). Other functions provide further distinction from conventional fusion reactor designs, such as electrodes for providing voltage differences, magnets, sources of reactant materials, electron emitters, and so on.

In certain embodiments, as described above, a nuclear reactor comprises a wall and a space within the wall (which may be annular in shape), wherein the space comprises a substantial portion or proportion of neutrals. Reacting species, including, rotate and repeatedly collide with the surface of the reactor wall, sometimes merging with species present on the wall. Considering the energy input to the reactor, the reaction obtained is a break-even point and Q>1. The ratio of energy output to energy input needs to be significantly greater than 1 to ensure that the fusion reaction is sustainable for the period required for a particular energy generation application. It explains the inherent inefficiency in maintaining the conditions under which fusion occurs (eg, a certain plasma density in the confinement region) using the energy generated by the fusion reaction. In particular embodiments, this ratio should be at least about 1.2. In certain embodiments, this ratio should be at least about 1.5. In particular embodiments, this ratio should be at least about 2. In certain embodiments, the reactor is continuously operated under sustainable conditions for at least about 15 minutes, or at least about 1 hour. In one example, hydrogen atoms rotate within the reactor and collide with and fuse with boron or lithium atoms in the reactor wall. In some embodiments, a nuclear reactor includes one or more electron emitters that produce an electron flux that produces a strong field that reduces Coulombic repulsive forces between nuclei that interact during operation.

The reactant can be any species capable of supporting the fusion reaction in the space inside the containment wall of the reactor. In various embodiments, at least one of the reactants is a rotating species within the interior region of the nuclear reactor. In some cases, both reactants are both rotating species. In some cases, one of the reactants is a rotating species and the other is a fixed species, such as when the reactant is embedded in a portion of the reactor wall that confines the rotating species. In some cases, there are some combinations of rotating and stationary reactants such that fusion occurs between rotating species or between rotating and stationary species. When the reactive species are predominantly rotating species, the physical structure of the reactor may be configured such that the rotating species need not substantially impinge on the inner surface of the reactor wall to support the fusion reaction. In some designs, rotating species are constrained by forces, such as those that prevent them from substantially impinging on the reactor wall. In such a design, the two rotating species merge along an area inside the containment wall (eg, the containment area) or along the surface of the wall. In some designs, the rotating species may fuse with a stationary species (eg, target material) located within the confinement region.

In certain embodiments, the reactant is a neutron-free reaction species. In other embodiments, the reactant is a neutron reactive species. One or both of the reactants may be neutral or uncharged species. The species present in a nuclear reactor are sometimes called "particles." However, such species are only particles on a molecular or atomic scale.

The small (eg, tabletop) neutronless reactors disclosed require relatively little or no biological shielding from neutron radiation. The fusion reaction in a nuclear reactor described herein is referred to as being characterized by "low temperature fusion," where fusion occurs in the temperature range of, for example, about 1000 K to 3000 K, and is therefore referred to as a "thermonuclear fusion reactor" (e.g., tokamak). It is easier to handle than a fusion reactor). Because the fusion is virtually neutron-free and "mild", the materials and costs associated with "cold fusion" reactors can be significantly reduced. For example, in some cases prototype reactors are being built for less than $50,000. The weight and footprint of the disclosed small nuclear reactor is also reduced because it does not require radiation shields and industrial grade hardware commonly used in high temperature plasma reactors.

The rotational movement of the species within the reactor is provided by many mechanisms. One mechanism imparts rotation by the application of interacting electric and magnetic fields. Interactions manifest themselves as Lorentz forces acting on charged particles in the reactor. An example of a reactor design that can generate Lorentz forces acting on charged particles is shown in Figures 1a-c and 6. 1a-c show a Lorentz driven reactor in which the reactor has an inner electrode 120 and the shroud (confinement wall) is the outer electrode 110. When an applied magnetic field 146 having a vertical component is present, the electric field 144 between the electrodes causes a Lorentz force on the charged particles or charged species moving between the electrodes. This force causes them to rotate azimuthally, as shown in FIG. 1c. In another type of reactor design, the charged species are imparted a rotational motion by continuously applying an electrical potential or change in electrical potential to a plurality of electrodes azimuthally arranged around the walls of the reactor. An example of a suitable reactor design is shown in Figure 7.

In many embodiments, the rotating charged species interact with neutral species and the reactor is operated to impart angular momentum to the neutral species, thereby allowing the neutral and charged species to interact within the reactor. Achieve rotary motion in. In many embodiments, the majority of rotating species are neutral species and the charged species are ionized particles such as protons (p ⁺ ). As described herein, this process is sometimes referred to as ion-neutral binding. FIG. 2a schematically illustrates the ion-neutral binding process in which a small number of charged particles 204 give motion to surrounding neutral particles 206.

In various embodiments, the reactor is designed to emit electrons in localized regions inside the reactor where fusion events are expected to occur. Again, as shown in Figure 2a, these electrons may form electron rich regions 232 near the confinement wall 210. The presence of excess electrons reduces the Coulomb barrier, thereby increasing the likelihood of fusion. Emitting electrons in this manner, as described elsewhere herein, can create electron-rich regions that reduce the intrinsic Coulombic repulsion between two positively charged nuclei that are candidates for fusion. In certain embodiments, electron emission occurs in the wall that confine the rotating species within the reactor or in the region adjacent to the wall. In one example, electron emission is provided by a passive structure such as a boron-containing coupon or strip mounted or embedded in the containment wall of a nuclear reactor. Such passive structures emit electrons when the local temperature rises during reactor operation. In another embodiment, electron emission is performed using a passive structure that is controlled independently of the heating that occurs during normal operation of the reactor. An example of an active structure for electron emission is shown in Figures 21a and 21b and also includes a separately controlled resistive element for heating the individual electron emitters.

Another aspect of the disclosure relates to a structure or system for capturing and converting energy produced by fusion reactions within a nuclear reactor. One of the energy capture systems directly captures the electrical energy produced by the transfer of alpha particles produced by the fusion reaction. This is done by creating an applied electric field in the path of the emitted alpha particles, which slows down the alpha particles and produces a current in the circuit connected to the electrodes used to generate the electric field. To do. Another energy capture system provides energy capture using a heat engine that includes a turbine, heat exchanger, or other conventional structure for converting thermal energy produced by fusion reactions into mechanical energy. These and other energy capture mechanisms are described later in this disclosure.
Interaction between neutrals and walls

Neutral species that interact with the walls of the reactor provide a different type of interaction than that employed in traditional fusion studies. Repeated interactions occur in a relatively large volume which is an annular space adjacent the inner wall or surface of the containment wall. Rotating neutrals often interact elastically with a wall at a shallow angle, eg, glancing or grazing angle, so that it will be held as soon as it leaves the wall. Much of the energy that was available can re-enter the interior space. FIG. 2b illustrates an exemplary trajectory path that the neutral 206 may have as it travels along the surface of the containment wall 210. Rotating neutrals, when entering or impinging on the wall, may typically encounter fusion objects that react or do not react with it. If it does not react, it re-enters the interior space where it continues to rotate. With such a scheme, the neutrals interact repeatedly with the surface of the wall, with very little or no energy loss for each such elastic collision.

Some particle-wall interactions that do not result in fusion are shown schematically in Figures 3a-d. Although these figures show interactions with boron ¹¹ and/or titanium, these interactions can also occur if other reactants are used in the containment wall. As illustrated in FIG. 3a, in only a small part of the neutral-wall interaction, the neutral particles elastically collided with the wall nuclei (in this case, the atoms of boron ¹¹ ) and were rebound. The neutrals retain most of the energy as they enter the interaction. For all neutral-wall interactions, elastic collisions usually have the highest occurrence. As shown in Figure 3b, in the much smaller part of the collision, the neutral nuclei are sufficiently close to the wall nuclei that the collision becomes inelastic as a result of the tunneling effect when the two nuclei are very close together. .. FIG. 3c shows yet another interaction that may occur, where neutrals penetrate the wall. This type of collision can occur frequently when the confinement surface contains materials such as titanium and palladium that can absorb hydrogen molecules.

FIG. 3d shows an inelastic collision of charged particles (eg protons) with the confinement wall. This is in contrast to the case where neutrals such as atomic hydrogen frequently and elastically collide with the confinement wall (see Figure 3a). When charged particles approach or leave the confinement wall, the particles can experience a loss of bremsstrahlung energy. This energy loss is caused by electrostatic interaction between charged particles and electrons in the electron rich region. As a result of electrostatic forces, some of the kinetic energy is lost and high energy electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays is emitted. In conventional fusion reactors focused on trying to fuse ionized particles, bremsstrahlung can lead to large energy losses. By using a weakly ionized plasma with a high neutral to ion ratio, these losses are largely avoided.

At certain parts of the tunneling interaction between moving neutral nuclei and wall nuclei, fusion may occur. FIG. 4a shows the stages of a neutronless fusion reaction that occurs when hydrogen atoms or protons fuse with boron ¹¹ atoms. First, at 482, a proton moving at a high speed collides with an atom of boron ¹¹ to fuse two nuclei to form an excited carbon nucleus shown at 483. However, the excited carbon nucleus has a short life, but as shown by 484, the kinetic energy of the α particle when it is decomposed into the beryllium nucleus and the α particle and emitted is 3.76 MeV. Finally, at 485, the newly formed beryllium nucleus is decomposed almost immediately into two further α particles, each of which has a kinetic energy of 2.46 MeV. 4b-e show the steps of the same proton-boron ¹¹ fusion reaction shown in FIG. 4a with respect to the surface of the containment wall 412. Figure 4a shows a fast moving proton towards the surface of the boron ¹¹ atom on the confinement wall. When the neutral hydrogen atom approaches the confinement wall, it passes through the electron-rich region 432 and partially screens the repulsive force between the two positively charged nuclei. FIG. 4c shows the stage where the neutral hydrogen has fused with the boron atom to form a carbon nucleus. In Figure 4d, the carbon nuclei have been decomposed into beryllium nuclei and one alpha particle. Finally, in Figure 4e, the beryllium nuclei are decomposed, releasing two additional alpha particles. Since potential reactants are neutrals rather than ions, most interactions with atoms at the surface of the confinement wall are elastic collisions. In contrast, positively charged particles that enter the wall are deflected by electrostatic repulsion, away from other nuclei on the wall. Due to these electrostatic interactions, the charged particles lose energy, ie the collisions are inelastic. Neutral particles with positively charged nuclei screened to some extent by orbital electrons do not experience the same repulsive forces. Therefore, the neutral substance is likely to directly collide with another atom on the wall. Thus, the use of neutrals rather than ions increases the likelihood of a fusion reaction, and if no fusion reaction occurs, the neutrals are more likely to elastically rebound with higher energy than the corresponding ions.

Overall, rotating neutral particles are subject to many repeated interactions with the wall, and neutral particles that are non-productive in the production of fusion reactions elastically repel with relatively little energy loss. As mentioned above, neutrals tend to re-emerge from the wall and have sufficient energy to enter their next interaction with the wall, so that it is You can enter into interaction with the wall. Each interaction with the wall can cause a fusion reaction between the neutral nucleus and the nucleus at the wall, respectively.

If the reactants are different species (eg ¹¹ B and p ⁺ ), the fusion rate per unit volume is given by

Where n ₁ and n ₂ are the densities of the respective reactants, σ is the fusion cross section at a particular energy, and ν is the relative velocity between the two interacting species. For systems in which at least one species rotates in the confinement region and repeatedly impinges on the confinement wall containing another species, for rotating species, the value of the species density is on the order of 10 ²⁰ cm ⁻³ , For stationary species (eg, boron), the value of the species density is on the order of 10 ²³ cm ⁻³ and the value of the fusion cross section is on the order of 10 ⁻³² cm ² and the relative velocity of the interacting species. Can be on the order of 10 ³ m/s. By comparison, in the case of the tokamak furnace, the various density values are in the order of 10 ¹⁴ cm ⁻³ , the fusion cross-section values are in the order of 10 ²⁸ cm ⁻³ , and the relative velocities of the interacting species are 10 It is of the order of ⁶ m/s (based on “Internal Confinement Fusion.pdf” by M. Ragheb on January 14, 2015). Clearly, the system with neutral species as described herein has significant advantages due to its high density. The rate of fusion energy per unit volume of such a system is at least about eight orders of magnitude greater than that of tokamak and inertial confinement systems. Thus, the system disclosed herein can achieve a given rate of energy production at about one hundred millionth of the volume of a tokamak or internal containment system.
Coulomb barrier reduction

As explained, reliable conventional fusion methods have energetic fusion reactants and a supportive environment that reaches very high temperatures, on the order of at least 150,000,000 K (13,000 eV). .. This is done to provide the fusion reactants with sufficient kinetic energy to overcome these natural electrostatic repulsions. In such an environment, each reactant is a nucleus with a unique positive charge and must first be overcome to ensure some fusion reaction potential.

In certain embodiments of the present disclosure, much lower temperatures are used in the fusion reaction, such as on the order of 2000 K (0.17 eV). These embodiments use neutral species as one or more reactants and/or alter the reaction environment to reduce strong Coulomb repulsion between the reactant nuclei. Reduction of Coulomb forces can be achieved in various ways, such as (i) providing an electron-rich field in the reaction region and/or (ii) aligning the quantum mechanical spins of the reactant nuclei. it can. Devices and methods for reducing Coulomb repulsion can take many forms, depending on the structure of the reactor. The following description assumes that the reactor includes an annular space with an outer containment wall or shroud. Other reactor structures may also support fusion and result in a reduced Coulomb repulsion environment, but this can be accomplished in a different manner than that described below.

The following is provided as one possible interpretation of the environment near the inner surface of the confinement electrode, and this interpretation should not be understood as a limitation on the practice of the disclosed embodiments. In this interpretation, the reactants, especially neutrals, rotate at high speed and impinge on the inner surface of the electrode. At the same time, the electrons are emitted from or near the confinement wall. Since rapidly rotating neutrals have high angular velocities, the associated centrifugal forces exert extremely high pressures on the inner surface of the containment wall. The electrons emitted from the inner surface of the wall oppose this force.

The emitted electrons diffuse away from the emitted position, for example, the wall, toward the internal space. However, the electrons are confined to a region near the inner surface of the outer electrode by the centrifugal force of the neutral substance. The region of low balance force adjacent to the inner surface of the obtained electrode has a strong field that reduces Coulomb repulsion between the reactant nuclei.

The force balance is calculated by mathematical formula as (i) the gradient of the product of the temperature and the density of electrons and neutrals (the direction away from the wall where electrons are emitted), and (ii) the centrifugal force applied toward the inner surface. Represent Centrifugal force is proportional to the density of neutrals, their radial position, and the product of the squares of these angular velocities.

In this equation, r is the radial direction away from the inner surface of the confinement electrode, K is the Boltzmann constant, T _e and T ₀ are the temperature of the electron and the neutral substance in Kelvin, and n _e and n ₀ are the electron. The density of neutrals, n ₀ is the density of neutral species, m ₀ is the mass of one rotating neutral species (eg hydrogen atom), and ω ² is the square of the angular velocity of the rotating neutral species.

In the thin region next to the surface from which the electrons are emitted (eg, the inner surface of the confinement wall), the free electrons generate a strong electric field (see schematic diagram of the electron rich region 232 adjacent to the confinement wall 210 in FIGS. 2a-b). ). A high concentration of neutrals limits the mean free path of the electrons and is unable to follow a ballistic trajectory, thus providing sufficient kinetic energy to ionize the neutrals significantly. Also, neutrals have a much higher density than ions, so relatively few cations are available for recombination. For example, the ratio of ions to neutral ions can range from less than about 1:10, less than about 1:100, less than about 1:1000, or less than about 1:10000. Therefore, the neutral is usually located between the electron and the cation. Due to this series of conditions, a high concentration of excess electrons is generated near the inner surface of the confinement wall, so that a strong electric field is generated.

The combination of very excess electrons (for ions) in the very thin regions (eg next to the inner surface of the electrode) and the presence of high concentrations of neutrals creates a very strong electric field. In this region, the strong electric field reduces the Coulomb repulsion of interacting positively charged nuclei. Therefore, the probability that two positively charged nuclei are close to each other is greatly increased.

Also, as mentioned above, rotating particles impinging on the inner surface of the confinement wall offer repeated opportunities for interacting fusion reactants. The neutrals repeatedly pass through the electron-rich layer, strike the inner surface of the confinement wall or shroud, and re-enter the interior space of the reactor. The impingement on this wall represents the radial component of the centrifugal force produced by the rotating particles in a constrained environment (eg, the inner surface of the confinement wall). Repeated collisions, contacts, or strikes increase the likelihood that a fusion reaction will occur in a particular region for a particular period of time. This iteration replaces the need for long confinement times and eliminates the concern of using the Lawson criterion to characterize conventional methods of achieving fusion reactions. Simply put, the overall probability of a fusion reaction increases significantly.

As an example, the electron rich region is characterized by any combination of the following parameter values.

Free electron density: about 10 ²³ /cm ³

Neutral density: about 10 ²⁰ /cm ³

Density of cations: about 10 ¹⁵ -10 ¹⁶ /cm ³ (about 10 ^{-5 to} 0.01% of neutral substances)

Density difference between electrons and cations: about 10 ⁶ to 10 ⁸ /cm ³

Free electron-rich region (region where most electron density gradient exists) thickness (radial direction): Approximately 1 micrometer

Electric field intensity in electron rich region: about 10 ⁶ to 10 ⁸ V/m

Electron temperature: 1800-2000K (0.15-0.17eV)

Centripetal acceleration: about 10 ⁹ g's (g is gravitational acceleration = 9.8 ms ^-2 )

Free electrons in such a system can be regarded as jointly catalyzing the fusion reaction of two nuclei. Similarly, one or more muons bound to protons and deuterons may be described as catalyzing the fusion of hydrogen and deuterium atoms. Free electrons near the fusion nuclei catalyze the fusion reactions described herein, as muons catalyze the fusion by bringing the two fusion nuclei closer together. The electrons effectively reduce the energy barrier that prevents the two reactants from coming close enough to react. This is very similar to the action of any catalyst in a chemical or physical context. Both muons and electrons speed up the reaction, but do not actually participate in the reaction. They simply reduce the energy barrier needed to bring the reactants close enough to react.

However, there are few other similarities between muons and electrocatalysts. Muon catalyzed fusion is not commercially viable for a variety of reasons. In particular, muons have much larger masses than electrons, so they are much more expensive to produce. Moreover, only a relatively small number of them may be generated at any given moment, which means that the break-even requirement of fusion cannot be achieved. For the proton-boron ¹¹ reaction, break-even fusion may require about 10 ¹⁷ successful fusion interactions per cubic centimeter per second. In large pools, only a few nuclei can benefit from muon catalyzed fusion, approaching the level at which fusion is achieved.

In contrast, electrons can be easily generated in high density. For example, according to the techniques disclosed herein, electrons can be produced at a density of about 10 ²⁰ or more per cubic centimeter. At such high densities, the electrons work together to produce a high electric field, which reduces the interacting Coulomb barrier between approaching nuclei over a relatively large volume range. Such relatively large volumes reach the break-even point of the required interactions, ie, at least about 10 ¹⁷ successful fusion interactions per cubic centimeter per second.
the term

A "reactor" is a device in which one or more reactants react to produce one or more products, often accompanied by a release of energy. The one or more reactants are provided to the reactor by continuous feed, intermittent feed, and/or batch feed. They may be provided in gas, liquid or solid form. In some cases, the reactant is provided as a component of the reaction, eg, it may be included in a reactor structure such as a wall. Boron ¹¹ , lithium 6, carbon 12, etc. may be provided to the containment walls of the reactor. In some cases, the reactants are provided from an external source (eg, gas supply tank). In certain embodiments, the nuclear reactor is configured to promote a Q>1 fusion reaction. The nuclear reactor may be equipped with components for removing products and/or energy produced during the reaction. The product removal member may be a port, passage, getter, or the like. The energy removal member may be an inductor and the like structure for directly removing electrical energy, such as a heat exchanger for removing thermal energy. The reactor components can remove products and energy continuously or intermittently. In certain embodiments, a nuclear reactor has one or more containment walls containing reactants and, in some cases, provides a source of reactants, an electric field, or the like. As shown throughout this disclosure, there are many different designs for a nuclear reactor suitable for providing a sustained fusion reaction.

A "rotor" is a reactor or reactor components in which one or more reactants or products (particles) rotate in space. The space may be at least partially defined by the containment walls described herein. In some cases, rotation is induced by magnetic force, power, and/or a combination of the two, as in the case of Lorentz force. In certain embodiments, rotation is induced by applying power and/or magnetic force to the charged particles to rotate within the confinement region, the rotating charged particles colliding with neutrals in the confinement region, and The substance is also rotated, and this phenomenon is sometimes called an ionic-molecular bond. Neutral matter is not affected by electric power or magnetic force, so it does not rotate in the confinement region unless it interacts with charged particles. The rotor containment wall or other external structure may have many closed shapes as described herein. In some embodiments, the outer structure is generally or substantially circular or cylindrical in shape. In such cases, the shape need not be geometrically accurate, but may exhibit certain variations in eccentricity about the axis of rotation, discontinuous curvature (eg, vertices), and the like.

In some cases, the confinement region of the rotor has internal rods or other structures arranged concentrically with the confinement wall. In such a case, the rotor has a "annular space" in which the particles rotate. As used herein, "annular space" refers to a confinement region where this region is substantially annular. It should be noted that some rotors do not have internal rods or other structures to define the annular space. In such cases, the confinement region of the rotor is simply a hollow structure. The annular space may have a generally cylindrical shape, but such a shape may exhibit certain variations in eccentricity about the axis of rotation, discontinuous curvature (eg, apex), and the like.

The resulting electromagnetic field provides a “Lorentz force” due to the combination of electric power and magnetic force on the charge. The magnitude and direction of the force is given by the cross product of the electric and magnetic fields, so the force is sometimes called J×B. When the directions of the electric field and the magnetic field are orthogonal to each other, the force applied to the charged particle has a rotation direction represented by a right-hand rule mnemonic.

In the fusion reaction, the reactants and products involved (which may include protons, alpha particles and boron ( ¹¹ B)) are not necessarily present in 100% purity. As long as such reactants, products or other components of the reaction are described herein, it is understood that such components are substantially present. In other words, the components need not be present at 100% levels, but may be present at lower levels, such as about 95% or about 99% by weight.

A neutron-free reaction is usually understood to be a fusion reaction with neutrons having less than 1% of the total energy emitted. As used herein, a neutron-free or substantially neutron-free reaction meets this criterion.
Examples of neutron-free reactions include:
p+B ¹¹ →3He ⁴ +8.68MeV
D+He ³ →He ⁴ +p+18.35 MeV
p+Li ⁶ →He ⁴ +He ³ +4.02 MeV
p+Li ⁷ →2He ⁴ +17.35 MeV
p+p→D+e+v+1.44 MeV
D+p→He ³ +γ+5.49 MeV
He ³ +He ³ →He ⁴ +2p+1.86 MeV
p+C ¹² →N ¹³ +γ+1.94 MeV
N ¹³ →C ¹³ +e+v+γ+2.22 MeV
p+C ¹³ →N ¹⁴ +γ+7.55 MeV
p+N ¹⁴ →O ¹⁵ +γ+7.29 MeV
O ¹⁵ →N ¹⁵ +e+v+γ+2.76 MeV
^{p + N 15 → C 12 +} He 4 + 4.97MeV
C ¹² +C ¹² →Na ²³ +p+2.24 MeV
C ¹² +C ¹² →Na ²⁰ +He ⁴ +4.62 MeV
C ¹² +C ¹² →Mg ²⁴ +γ+13.93 MeV
Examples of neutron reactions include:
D+T→He ⁴ +n+17.59 MeV
D+D→He ³ +n+3.27 MeV
T+T→He ⁴ +2n+11.33MeV

Coulombic repulsive force is an electrostatic force exerted by two or more particles having the same charge. In the case of two interacting particles, it is proportional to the reciprocal of the square of the separation distance (Coulomb's law). Therefore, when the charged particles approach each other, the repulsive force becomes significantly stronger. In the electric field generated by a plurality of charged particles, the repulsive force received by a charged particle is given by the superposition of the contributions of all nearby charged particles.

Coulomb barrier reduction is a well-understood and generally calculated or experienced Coulombic repulsion between two isolated particles when the particle reaches a sufficient number of electrons or other charged particles to some degree. It is meant to be “decreased” or reduced to any extent, thereby reducing the repulsive force that an isolated particle would otherwise experience. For example, the presence of excess electrons at a density of XX reduces the Coulomb repulsion force between two positively charged YY particles in the electronic domain by ZZ%.
Embodiment of Lorenzian rotor First embodiment

1a-c show a first embodiment of a nuclear reactor in which charged particles, charged species or ions are rotated by Lorentz forces. 1a is a cross-sectional view of the nuclear reactor, and FIG. 1b provides an isometric cutaway view of the same nuclear reactor along the cross-section AA of FIG. 1a. Unless otherwise noted, the orientation using r, Θ, and z coordinates belongs to the cylindrical coordinate system as shown in FIG. 1b. In the illustrated embodiment, the Lorentz driven rotor has an outer wall 110 that also functions as an outer electrode, and a concentric inner electrode 120 that is separated from the outer electrode by an annular space 140 and is sometimes referred to as a discharge rod. By applying a potential between the inner electrode 120 and the shroud 140, an electric field is created across the annular space. When a sufficient potential is applied between the electrodes, some of the gas in the annulus is ionized, producing a radial plasma current across the annulus. In various embodiments, the inner electrode is held at a high positive potential so that the electric field and current flow are in a substantially positive r-direction, while the shroud is grounded.

FIG. 1c shows how Lorentz forces drive charged particles azimuthally within confinement wall 110. In FIG. 1c, the discharge rod has been removed and the axis has been transformed in the z-direction for improved clarity. Although not shown, a magnet (eg, a permanent magnet or superconducting magnet) is used to generate an applied magnetic field that is substantially parallel to the z-axis (substantially axial) within the annular space. The magnetic field is approximately perpendicular to the direction of current flow and is subject to Lorentz forces in the azimuthal (or Θ) direction by moving charged particles, charged species and ions. Considering, for example, the case where the discharge rod has a positive potential with respect to the outer electrode (for example, a positive potential is applied to the discharge rod and the outer electrode is grounded), an electric field is generated in the r direction (144). Generate. In this configuration, positively charged ions move through the annular space 140 toward the outer electrode in the r direction. If the magnetic field is pointing in the z direction (146) at the same time, the ions will be subjected to the Lorentz force in the -Θ direction, or in the clockwise direction when viewed from the perspective shown in Figures 11b and 1c. In some cases, the electric and magnetic fields may be at different angles than normal but not parallel, so that the vertical component is more or less strong enough to generate sufficiently strong azimuthal Lorentz forces. Exists in. This azimuthal force acts on charged particles, charged species, and ions, which then combine with the neutrals, causing them to move at high rotational speeds in the annular space between the central discharge rod and the outer electrode. To be made. The absence of any moving mechanical parts means that there is almost no limit to the speed of rotation possible, thus providing a rotational speed of neutrals and charged particles of, for example, over 100,000 RPS.
Reverse electrical polarity embodiment

5a-d show another embodiment in which the reactor can utilize Lorentz forces to rotationally drive ions and neutrals by ion-neutral binding. A nuclear reactor configured in reverse electrical polarity differs from the nuclear reactor shown in FIGS. different. 5a is a cross-sectional view of the nuclear reactor, and FIG. 5b provides an isometric cutaway view of the same nuclear reactor along the cross-section AA of FIG. 5a. The reverse electrical polarity rotor has an outer electrode 510 and a concentric inner electrode 520 separated from the outer electrode by an annular space 540, sometimes referred to herein as a confinement region. By applying an electric potential to the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode, a radial electric field directed to the inner electrode can be formed in the annular space. When a sufficient potential is applied between the electrodes, some of the gas in the annulus is ionized and a radial plasma current is created across the annulus.

Figure 5c shows how the Lorentz force drives the charged particles azimuthally in the reactor. In FIG. 5c, the inner electrode has been removed from the drawing and the axis described has been translated into the z-direction for improved clarity. Although not shown, a magnet (eg, a permanent magnet or a superconducting magnet) is used to generate an applied magnetic field that is substantially parallel to the z-axis (ie, substantially axial) within the annular space. The magnetic field is approximately perpendicular to the direction of current flow and is subject to Lorentz forces in the azimuthal (or Θ) direction by moving charged particles, charged species and ions. For example, in consideration of the case where a negative potential is applied to the inner electrode and the outer electrode is grounded (or held at a positive potential), an electric field is generated in the negative r direction (544). In this configuration, positively charged ions travel through the annular space 540 in the negative r direction towards the inner electrode. If the magnetic field is pointing in the z direction (546) at the same time, the ions will experience a Lorentz force in the +Θ direction or in the counterclockwise direction as seen from the perspective views shown in Figures 5b and 5c. In some cases, the electric and magnetic fields may be at different angles than normal but not parallel, so that the vertical component is more or less sufficient to generate sufficiently strong azimuthal Lorentz forces. Exists in strength. This azimuthal force acts on the charged particles, charged species and ions, which then combine with the neutrals, which also move at high rotational speeds in the annular space. The absence of any moving mechanical parts means that there is almost no limit to the speed of rotation possible, thus providing a rotational speed of neutrals and charged particles of, for example, over 100,000 RPS.
Embodiment of reversal

6a-d show views of another nuclear reactor embodiment utilizing Lorentz forces to rotationally drive ions and neutrals by ion-neutral coupling. The reactor of this embodiment operates using an inverted field configuration. A reactor having this configuration differs from the reactors shown in Figures 1a-c and 5a-d in that the directions of the electric and magnetic fields in the confinement region are reversed. In this configuration, the magnetic field is directed radially in the positive or negative r-direction, instead of being approximately parallel to the z-axis. Similarly, the electric field is approximately parallel to the z-axis rather than being directed radially. 6a is an isometric view of the reactor, FIG. 6b is a view of the reactor in the z direction, and FIG. 6c is an isometric cross-sectional view of the reactor (corresponding to line AA in FIG. 6b). 6d provides a side view of the reactor. The illustrated embodiment includes an inner annular magnet 626 and a concentric outer annular magnet 616 that also functions as a containment wall. The ring magnets have poles oriented in the same direction so that the corresponding surfaces of the inner and outer ring magnets are the same. In such a case, the outer surface is North Pole 658 and the inner surface is South Pole 659. In some embodiments, there may be one or more additional layers of material on the inner surface of the magnet 658 such that the material of the confinement surface is different than the magnetic material. The region between the concentric magnets forms an annular space 640 that is confined in the z direction by the electrode at one end of confinement region 660a and the electrode at the other end of confinement region 660b. In general, all electrodes on either side of the confinement region (corresponding to electrode 660a or electrode 660b) are given a similar potential. Unlike the hybrid reactor described, the electrode 660a (or electrode 660b) may be a single continuous electrode forming, for example, an annular or disc shape. When the electrode 660a is grounded and a positive potential is applied to the electrode on the opposite side of the annular space 660b, an electric field is applied in the positive z direction through the confinement region. If the magnetic field points in the r direction (as shown), the orthogonal electric and magnetic fields cause the ions to rotate azimuthally in the Θ direction (see, eg, FIG. 6c). Alternatively, if the electric field is directed in the negative z direction by applying a positive potential to electrode 660a while grounding electrode 660b, the ions rotate in the -Θ direction.
Wave particle embodiment

7a and 7b show a second embodiment of a controlled fusion device in which ions are rotated by an oscillating electrostatic field. In this embodiment, a plurality of individual wall electrodes 714 located on or forming the outer ring are combined with an inner electrode 724 located on the inner ring or forming the inner ring 724 by an electric field generated by The azimuthally accelerated ions are generated by the local and azimuthally varying electric field in the annular space 740. In some cases, the wall electrodes jointly form a containment wall, and in some cases, the wall electrodes may be located on or within a portion of the containment wall or scaffold. The electric field travels azimuthally in a controlled order such that the electrostatic force applied to the ions travels approximately continuously in the azimuth direction (Θ or −Θ direction). According to such a system, the charged species are accelerated along the railroad track, like a magnetic levitation train propelled by an oscillating magnetic field. An oscillating potential may be applied to the electrodes. Oscillations change in phase or other parameter from one electrode to an adjacent electrode to induce or maintain the rotational motion of the ions.

Ions existing in the annular space are subjected to an electrostatic force by an electric field, and due to the principle of ion-neutral bond, relatively few or few percentage of ions are required to drive many or several percentage of neutral substances. .. Ions that rotationally drive neutrals can be generated by a suitable mechanism such as inductive coupling or capacitive coupling. In some embodiments, a sequence of RF charges is applied to the wall and/or inner electrode to produce ions. In some embodiments, the wall and/or inner electrode first undergoes an initial charge sequence to ionize a portion of the neutral gas in the annular space, and then a different charge to rotationally drive the ions. Converted to a sequence. For example, the charge distribution used to ionize the gas may include simply grounding the confinement wall electrode 714 while applying a high potential to the inner electrode 724. In some embodiments, already partially ionized gas may be introduced into the annular space 740.

7a and 7b show two binary charge distributions that can be used to rotationally drive the ions in the annular space, many alternative charge sequences are possible. In some charge sequences, the electrodes may, for example, be held at ground potential for a period of time or have an asymmetric charge sequence (eg, positive potential is held for twice the negative potential).

In certain embodiments, the system does not require a magnetic field, such as an axial static magnetic field. FIG. 7a shows this embodiment taken at a first time point when a first potential distribution is provided to the electrodes such that ions (eg, clouds or groups of ions) 704 are subjected to a force in the −Θ direction. Here is an example: FIG. 7b shows the embodiment of FIG. 7a at a later point in time when the electrodes are provided with different potential distributions such that the ions 704 continue to experience azimuthal forces in the ?? direction.
Hybrid embodiment

In certain embodiments, a nuclear reactor includes a drive mechanism that produces both Lorentz forces and oscillating electrostatic fields to rotationally drive ions and neutrals by ion-neutral binding. At any stage of operation, the reactor can use one or both of these mechanisms. 6a-f show an exemplary nuclear reactor suitable for such operation. 6a is an isometric view of the reactor, FIG. 6b is a view of the reactor in the z direction, and FIG. 6c is an isometric view of the reactor (corresponding to line AA in FIG. 6b). 6d provides a side view of the reactor, and FIGS. 6e and 6f are cross-sectional views at different times (corresponding to line BB in FIG. 6d). The illustrated embodiment includes an inner annular magnet 626 and a concentric outer annular magnet 616 that also functions as a containment wall. The ring magnets have poles oriented in the same direction so that the corresponding surfaces of the inner and outer ring magnets are the same. In this case, the outer surface is the North Pole 658 and the inner surface is the South Pole 659. In some embodiments, there may be one or more additional layers of material on the inner surface of the magnet 658 such that the material of the confinement surface is different than the magnetic material. The region between the concentric magnets forms an annular space 640 that is confined in the z direction by one or more electrode pairs 660a and 660b. When different potentials are applied to the electrode pairs 660a and 660b, for example, by applying a positive potential to the electrode 660a while grounding the electrode 660b, an electric field substantially parallel to the z direction is generated in the annular space. As the ions are generated in the annular space, the orthogonal electric and magnetic fields cause the ions to rotate azimuthally in the -Θ direction (see, eg, Figure 6c). When a positive potential is applied to the electrode 660b while the electrode 660a is grounded, the ions rotate in the Θ direction.

In some embodiments, as shown in Figures 6a-e, the plurality of electrodes 660a and 660b are radially distributed along the annular space. In such cases, the reactor may be operated in a similar manner to the reactors of Figures 7a and 7b. During operation, each electrode pair is driven with a substantially similar potential that differs from the potential of the adjacent electrode pair, thereby creating a local electric field in the Θ direction. As shown in FIGS. 6d and 6e, the voltage applied to the electrode pair such that the electrostatic force applied to the ions exhibits a substantially continuous azimuthally (in the Θ or −Θ direction) component. Can be modulated in a controlled sequence. In some configurations, the reactor is first driven by Lorentz forces to drive ions and neutrals and then using the alternating electrostatic field 6 described below to drive the ions and neutrals. Can be configured.
Type of reactor (dimensions)

In one aspect, reactors may be grouped by the output power they provide. According to such a scheme, the nuclear reactor of the present disclosure is divided into small, medium and large nuclear reactors for this study. Small reactors are typically capable of producing about 1-10 kW of power. In some embodiments, these reactors are used for personal applications such as powering automobiles or powering homes. The next category is medium reactors, which typically provide a power of about 10 kW to 50 MW. Medium-sized nuclear reactors can be used for large-scale applications such as server farms and large vehicles such as trains and submarines. Large reactors are reactors designed to output power of about 50 MW to 10 GW and can be used for large-scale operation such as power supply of a part of a power grid and/or an industrial power plant. Although these three general categories provide practical categories to which this disclosure may relate, the nuclear reactors disclosed herein are not limited to any of these categories.

The surface area (perimeter and axial product) of the shroud or confinement walls typically limits the maximum power that can be produced by a nuclear reactor. The large surface area shroud supports the fusion reaction over a large area inner surface (eg, 122 in FIG. 1a). For small reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud, generally about 1cm~ about 2m, the surface area of the inner surface is usually between about ^{5 cm} 3 to 20 cm ^3. For medium-sized reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud, generally about 2m~ about 10 m, the surface area of the inner surface is usually between about ^{25m 3 ~150m} 3. For large reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud is generally about a 10m~ about 50m, the surface area of the inner surface is usually between about 125m ³ ~628m ^3. In some cases, the inner radius may be on the order of a few kilometers, with a footprint similar to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) operated by the Swiss CERN laboratory. Each of the above values assumes that a single reactor is part of a single or continuous array of reactors (discussed below).
First embodiment

1a-c show the structure of a nuclear reactor having concentric electrodes for rotationally driving charged particles and fusion reactants using a Lorentzian rotor. This embodiment has an inner electrode 120, an outer electrode 110 and an annular space 140 between the two electrodes. During operation, the electric potential applied between these electrodes creates an electric field 144 in the approximately r direction. Although not shown, this embodiment also includes a permanent magnet or electromagnet (eg, a superconducting magnet) that produces a magnetic field 146 in the z-direction between the inner and outer electrodes. As explained in FIG. 1c, the charged particles moving between the electrodes are subjected to an azimuthal or Lorentz force due to the radial electric field and axial magnetic field.

As shown, the reactor shown in FIG. 1 a has a gap 142 that radially separates the outer surface of the inner electrode 112 and the inner surface of the outer electrode 122. Although the surface areas of the opposing surfaces of the inner and outer electrodes can determine the scale of the reactor, in a wide range of applications the radial clearance is kept relatively constant. In some cases, the upper limit of the gap is limited by the power available to ionize the gas in the annular space to generate plasma current, and the lower limit of the gap is limited by manufacturing tolerances. If the gap is very small, for example less than 0.1 mm, any displacement between the electrodes causes the electrodes to contact and cause a short circuit. Of course, a small gap can be realized because high accuracy is obtained due to manufacturing tolerances. In some embodiments, the gap can be between about 1 mm and about 50 cm, and in some embodiments, the gap can be between about 5 cm and about 20 cm. In some cases, the gap may change along the r-direction and/or the z-direction of the reactor. For example, the radius of the inner electrode may change as a function of position along the z-axis, while the radius of the inner surface of the outer electrode is constant.

The z-direction length of the containment wall created by the outer electrode depends on the radial dimensions of the reactor and power generation requirements. In some embodiments, the length of the outer electrode in the z direction is limited by the type and configuration of magnets for generating the magnetic field. For example, if permanent magnets are placed at either end of the annular space along the z-direction (as shown in FIG. 11), the outer electrode may be limited to about 5 or about 10 cm in the z-direction. However, when a plurality of permanent annular magnets are used to generate the magnetic field (see FIGS. 16 and 17) and an electromagnet or a superconducting magnet is used to generate the magnetic field (see FIG. 10), the outer electrode in the z-direction is The length may be much longer. For example, the outer electrode can be between about 1 m and about 10 m. In general, outer electrode 110 is similar in length to inner electrode 120, but need not always be the case. In some embodiments, the inner electrode may extend beyond the outer electrode in one or both directions. In some embodiments, the length of the outer electrode may exceed the length of the inner electrode, such that the outer electrode extends in one or both directions beyond the inner electrode.

1a-b show one configuration where a solid circular inner electrode is used in combination with a circular outer electrode, many permutations of electrode shapes can be used in this configuration. Some non-limiting examples of alternative embodiments will be apparent to those of skill in the art and will be discussed with reference to Figures 8a-b and 9a-c. Although some examples are provided, the number of additional electrode geometries that are feasible can be readily appreciated.

In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 8a, the inner electrode 820 may be an annular structure that is not always solid. Providing cavities or open spaces in the inner electrode is useful for heat dissipation, use of the inner magnet shown in Figures 17a-c, or use of other components in the reactor. In some cases, the radius of the inner and outer electrodes may vary along the z-direction of the reactor. For example, as shown in FIG. 8a, the inner electrode 820 has a larger circumference at some locations along the z direction, thereby reducing the gap 842 at those locations. Conversely, a uniform inner electrode can be used with an outer electrode whose inner radius varies or fluctuates along the z direction. In some cases, for example, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 8b, both the radius of the inner electrode 820 and the radius of the inner surface of the outer electrode 810 change in the z-direction, thereby causing the gap 842 to move in the z-axis of the reactor. Maintained along the direction.

9a-c show a cross section of a nuclear reactor having a non-circular cross section. As shown, in some embodiments, the inner electrode 920 and the outer electrode 910 may have radii that vary in azimuth (ie, the θ direction). In some cases, the surfaces of the inner and outer electrodes (912 and 922) may have an elliptical cross section as shown in Figure 9a. In some cases, the major and minor axes of elliptical cross-section electrodes deviate by a small percentage, eg, less than 1%. In some embodiments, the surfaces 912 and/or 922 may form a polygonal cross section, such as the heptagon of the nuclear reactor shown in FIG. 9b. In some embodiments, surfaces 912 and 922 can have more than three sides. In some embodiments, more than 8 sides, and in some embodiments more than 16 sides. Corners on surface 912 may be advantageous in certain situations, for example, rotating particles may increase the rate at which they collide with the target material at the corners, increasing the rate of coalescence. .. In some embodiments, for example, in the nuclear reactor configuration shown in FIG. 9c, the radius of the inner or outer electrode defined by surfaces 912 and 922 is the edge of the cross-section of either surface patterned, For example, it may vary in the Θ direction to have sinusoidal, sawtooth or square wave edges. Although the inner and outer electrodes of the described embodiments are coaxial, in some embodiments the axes of the inner and outer electrodes are offset, eg, the inner and outer electrodes are substantially parallel but collinear. The annular space is eccentric to have a z-axis that is not.

The materials for the inner and outer electrodes depend on the reactor dimensions, the fusion reactant selected, and other parameters that control the operation of the fusion reactor. In general, there are many trade-offs, such as cost, thermal and electrical properties, which determine which material is selected for the reactor. High melting points and relatively high conductivity at high temperatures allow refractory metals (eg, tungsten and tantalum) to be selected for small nuclear reactors, but when these materials are used in large nuclear reactors, Costs could increase significantly.

In certain embodiments, the electrode material has a melting point high enough to withstand the thermal energy released during operation of the reactor. In the case of the outer electrode forming the confinement wall where the fusion reaction can occur, the release of thermal energy is often large. To withstand normal use, the material of the outer electrode must have a melting point above the temperature reached by the electrode during operation of the reactor. In some cases, the melting point of the material selected for the electrode is greater than about 800° C., in some cases the melting point of the electrode is greater than about 1500° C., and in other cases The melting point is higher than about 2000°C.

In many embodiments, it is beneficial for the electrode material to have a high thermal conductivity. A reactor is suitable for continuous operation if heat can be extracted from the electrodes at a rate comparable to that introduced to the electrodes in steady state (eg, using a heat exchanger). When the electrode material has a high thermal conductivity, the heat extraction rate is improved and the concern of overheating is reduced. In some cases the thermal conductivity is greater than about 10 (W/mK), in some cases the thermal conductivity is greater than about 100 (W/mK) and some In some cases, the thermal conductivity is greater than about 200 (W/m·K).

In certain cases, for example when the reactor is configured for pulsed operation, it is beneficial for the heat capacity of the electrode material to be high. The high heat capacity causes the electrode temperature to rise at a slower rate during reactor operation. When used for pulsed operation, the generated thermal energy continues to be dissipated through the electrodes between pulses, preventing the electrodes from reaching the melting point. In some cases, the specific heat of the electrode is greater than about 0.25 J/g/°C, in some cases the specific heat is greater than about 0.37 J/g/°C, and in other cases, The specific heat is higher than about 0.45 J/g/°C.

In certain embodiments, the electrode material has a relatively low coefficient of thermal expansion. In some cases, having a low coefficient of thermal expansion allows the reactor to perform better over a wider temperature range. For example, if the reactor has a clearance of about 1 mm at room temperature, expansion of the inner and/or outer electrodes will result in a proportionally much smaller clearance during steady state operation. If the thermal coefficient is too high, the outer and inner electrodes may come into contact and cause a short circuit. Alternatively, if the reactor is designed to have a particular gap at operating temperatures, that gap may be larger than desired when the reactor is first turned on. In some cases, the linear expansion coefficient of the electrode material is less than about 4.3×10 ⁻⁶ ° C. ⁻¹ , and in some cases, the linear expansion coefficient of the electrode material is less than about 6.5×10° C. ⁻¹ . Yes, in other cases, the linear expansion coefficient of the electrode material is less than about 17.3×10 ⁻⁶ ° C. ⁻¹ .

To facilitate nuclear reactor operation, the electrodes may be designed to have mechanical properties such as resistance to degradation during thermal cycling. Under certain conditions, some materials (eg stainless steel) become brittle and eventually fatigue as a result of thermal cycling. Internal stresses can occur when the reactor operates in pulses and the electrodes heat up and cool rapidly. In some cases, the use of electrodes with a single bulk material or the use of two or more materials with similar coefficients of expansion can reduce the effects of thermal duty cycles. Certain materials may deform due to creep at elevated temperatures. Therefore, an electrode material that can maintain strength at high temperature can be selected.

The electrode material is chemically inert and is immune to oxidation, corrosion and other chemical degradation over the life of the reactor. Another consideration regarding electrode materials is whether they are ferromagnetic. In some cases, when a ferromagnetic material is used, an internal local magnetic field is created, preventing the establishment or maintenance of the intended magnetic field in the annular space.

In Lorentz driven nuclear reactors with concentric electrodes, the inner and outer electrodes may be made of materials that are sufficiently conductive so that a potential is uniformly applied to the surface of the electrodes during operation. In certain embodiments, at room temperature, the resistivity of the inner electrode material or outer electrode material is less than about 7×10 ⁻⁷ Ωm, and in some cases less than about 1.68×10 ⁻⁸ Ωm. .. In addition to being capable of conducting at room temperature, the inner and outer electrodes may become conductive at higher operating temperatures when the reactor is not in operation. During operation, the inner or outer electrode may reach temperatures of about 600°C to about 2000°C. During operation, the resistivity of the outer electrode material should be less than about 1.7E-8 Ωm, and in some cases less than about 1E-6 Ωm.

If the reactants or by-products include hydrogen or helium, consider the material's resistance to hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen embrittlement is the process by which a metal (eg, stainless steel) becomes brittle and in some cases is destroyed by the introduction and subsequent diffusion of hydrogen atoms or molecules into the metal. Since the solubility of hydrogen increases at high temperatures, diffusion of hydrogen into the electrode material during reactor operation may increase. The diffusion rate can be further increased if assisted by a concentration gradient in which there is significantly more hydrogen outside the metal, such as by centrifugal densification of hydrogen atoms impinging on the confinement walls. The individual hydrogen atoms in the metal gradually recombine to form hydrogen molecules, creating an internal pressure in the metal. Additionally or alternatively, the entrained hydrogen molecules themselves generate internal pressure. This pressure can increase to the point where the ductility, toughness, and tensile strength of the metal are reduced, cracks form and the electrode breaks. In some cases where the metal contains carbon (such as carbonized steel), the electrode is susceptible to a process known as hydrogen attack, which causes hydrogen atoms to diffuse into the steel and Recombine with to form methane gas. When the methane gas collects in the metal, it creates an internal pressure that leads to mechanical failure of the device. Methods for reducing the effects of hydrogen embrittlement are described elsewhere herein, but generally the sensitivity of the material to embrittlement is taken into account when designing the electrode. In some cases, the electrodes include ceramics such as platinum, platinum alloys, and boron nitride, each of which resists hydrogen embrittlement. In some cases, the metallurgical structure can be modified so that the effect of hydrogen in the metal lattice is less detrimental. For example, in some cases, the metal or metal alloy may undergo a heat treatment to achieve the desired metallurgical structure.

In various embodiments, the inner and outer electrodes are predominantly composed of metals and metal alloys. In some embodiments, the inner and/or outer electrodes are at least partially made of a refractory metal having a high melting point. Refractory metals are known to be chemically inert, suitable for production using powder metallurgy, and stable to creep at very high temperatures. Examples of suitable refractory metals include niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, zirconium, hafnium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium and iridium. In one example, at least the outer electrode comprises tantalum.

In some embodiments, one or both electrodes are manufactured using stainless steel. Advantages of stainless steel include its machinability and corrosion resistance. In some cases, the electrodes are made from a non-carbon based stainless steel (eg, Incoloy, etc.) that is at least partially more hydrogen brittle than carbonized stainless steel. In some cases, the electrodes are made, at least in part, from nickel alloys that maintain strength at very high temperatures, such as Inconel, Monel, Hastelloys, and Nimonic. R. In some cases, at least some of the electrodes are manufactured from copper or copper alloys. In some cases, the electrodes are configured with one or more channels installed to cool the interior and extract heat, so that materials that are less resistant to extreme temperatures can be used.

Under certain operating conditions, absorption of small-atom fusion reactants (eg hydrogen, deuterium, helium) can lead to mechanical failure of the electrode, but with detrimental embrittlement effects for certain materials. It can be reduced or eliminated. For example, under certain conditions, hydrogen-absorbing materials (eg, palladium-silver alloys) appear to be less susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement ((Jimenez, Gilberto et al., "A comparable assess of hydrogen embrittlement: palladium and aluminum palladium. (25 weight% silver) subject to hydrogen absorption/desorption cycle. "Comparative evaluation of hydrogen embrittlement: palladium and silver-palladium silver (25 wt% silver) subjected to hydrogen absorption/desorption cycling" (2016), the entire contents of which are incorporated by reference. In such cases, absorption of the fusion reactant enhances the rate of the fusion reaction, eg, a rotating gas reactant, such as hydrogen, is immobilized hydrogen on an outer electrode (or confinement wall). Atoms may collide, and in some cases the reactants are delivered to the reactor by diffusing the reactants through the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode. , Titanium, palladium, or palladium alloys may be included to deliver the fusion reactants or to increase the collision rate between the fusion reactants.

In some cases, as described elsewhere herein, the outer or inner electrodes may include an electron emissive material that has a high electron emissivity. In some cases, the outer electrode may include a target material that includes a fusion reactant. In some cases, target material is consumed during operation as a result of fusion reactions. For example, in some cases lanthanum hexaboride is used as the target material and boron-11 atoms are consumed during the proton-boron reaction.
First Embodiment-Electrode

In some embodiments, the outer electrode is monolithic made from a single material, while in other embodiments, the outer electrode has a layered or segmented structure that includes two or more materials. In some embodiments, the inner surface of the outer electrode (confining wall) comprises the target material (material containing the fusion reactant) or electron emitting material. In some cases, the target material or electron emitter covers the entire surface area of the confinement wall, and in some cases the target material or electron emitter is located at one or more discrete locations along the confinement wall. (E.g., description of electron emitters in Figures 21a-b).

In some cases, the inner layer of the outer electrode provides one property and the outer layer provides different properties. For example, the inner layer forming the surface of the containment wall may have a high melting point and the outer layer may have good thermal or electrical conductivity.

In some cases, the electrode may include a layer of material that forms a confinement wall that is more resistant to hydrogen embrittlement than the rest of the electrode. In some cases, the electrodes include a ceramic coating that can prevent hydrogen atoms from penetrating the lattice of the outer electrode or provide thermal insulation of the bulk electrode material. In some embodiments, the outer electrode may have an aluminum nitride layer, an alumina layer, or a boron nitride layer. Some materials that have low electrical conductivity at room temperature, such as boron nitride, can be heat treated to improve their electrical conductivity. In some cases, additional material may be added to the surface of the electrode to provide a surface treatment that reduces hydrogen embrittlement. For example, if the electrode is made of a material that is sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement (eg, tantalum), adding a small amount of noble metal to the electrode surface can reduce embrittlement. In some cases, the precious metal may cover only a small portion of the electrode surface. For example, the noble metal covers less than about 50%, less than about 30%, or less than 10% of the electrode surface, significantly reducing the hydrogen embrittlement of the electrode. In some cases, small amounts of platinum, palladium, gold, iridium, rhodium, osmium, rhenium, and ruthenium can be added to the electrode surface to reduce hydrogen embrittlement. In some cases, small spots of precious metal (eg, about 0.5 inch in diameter) can be riveted or welded to the electrode surface. In some cases, noble metal powder is added to the reactor and during normal operation the powder is sputtered onto the electrode surface. In some cases, noble metals may be periodically added to the surface of the electrode, eg, after the reactor has been operating for a predetermined time.

In some cases, the sleeve is attached to the inner surface of the outer electrode so that the inner surface of the sleeve forms the containment wall. In some cases, the sleeve provides, for example, a target material, an electron emitter, a barrier to hydrogen permeation into the outer electrode, and/or thermal protection to the outer electrode. Can be used. In some cases, the sleeve is consumable and/or replaceable. For example, if the sleeve contains target material to be consumed, the sleeve will eventually be replaced. In other cases, the sleeve acts as a sacrificial layer that protects the outer electrode from hydrogen embrittlement. In situations where the sleeve itself fails due to hydrogen embrittlement, the replacement cost is much lower than the entire outer electrode.

In some embodiments, the outer electrode may have a porous or mesh-like structure that allows energetic charged particles to pass through the electrode while confining rotating neutrals within the annular space. Charged particles passing through the outer electrode can be induced by the magnetic field of the outer magnet. In some cases, the escaping alpha particles are redirected to hardware (described elsewhere herein) that can convert the kinetic energy of the alpha particles into electrical energy. In some cases, the pore size of the electrode is less than about 100 μm, and in some cases less than about 1 μm. In general, the structure of the inner electrode may be similar to that of the outer electrode. Like the outer electrode, the inner electrode may be made of a single material and may have a layered or segmented structure made of two or more materials. In some embodiments, the inner electrode may be solid, while in other embodiments the inner electrode has an internal space. In some cases, the inner electrode may include one or more paths for internal cooling. In various embodiments, the inner electrode is connected to a power supply that provides a current that flows from the inner electrode to the grounded outer electrode. The material of the outer electrode is generally also suitable for the inner electrode, but in certain embodiments, the inner electrode does not include a target material or an electron emitting material.
First Embodiment-Magnet

10a-d show a first embodiment in which an axial magnetic field is applied by an electromagnet (eg a superconducting magnet). FIG. 10a shows an isometric view of the superconducting magnet surrounding the outer electrode of the reactor. As shown, the magnet includes a housing 1056. FIG. 10b provides the same perspective view as FIG. 10a with the superconducting magnet housing 1056 removed and the superconducting coil windings 1054 exposed. 10c provides a perspective view of the reactor as viewed along the z-axis, and FIG. 10d is an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to section line AA shown in FIG. 10a. As shown, the reactor has an outer electrode 1010, an inner electrode 1020, and a gap 10 that defines an annular space 1040 between the two electrodes. The current (as indicated by the arrow in FIG. 10a) passes through the superconducting coil winding 1054 wound in the reactor and creates an applied magnetic field in the z-direction through the annulus. In some embodiments, superconducting magnets are used to generate an applied magnetic field that passes through an annulus of between about 1-20 Tesla. In some cases, the applied magnetic field is 1-5 Tesla. The coil windings are located in a thermally insulated enclosure 1056 located around the reactor, which is maintained at low temperatures (eg, below -180°C) and low pressure. The housing 1056 can be cooled, for example, by the adiabatic expansion of a gas (eg, He) or a cryogenic liquid to maintain the temperature of the superconducting coil below its critical temperature. In some cases, the enclosure is mechanically cooled to avoid the use of cryogenic liquids. The coil winding can be made of a superconducting material such as niobium-titanium or niobium-tin, bismuth strontium calcium calcium copper oxide (BSCC), or yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO). The coil winding may take the form of a wire or tape wrapped with insulation. In some cases, the coil windings may include any of the aforementioned superconducting materials arranged in a copper matrix to provide mechanical stability. In some embodiments, commercially available superconducting magnets can be from vendors (eg, Cryomagnetics, Inc.) or manufacturers of magnetic resonance imaging devices. In some cases, a superconducting magnet such as the AMS-02 superconducting magnet used in alpha magnetic spectroscopy experiments can be used. When using a superconducting magnet to provide the axial magnetic field, the radius of the confinement wall is typically smaller than the radius of the superconducting magnet, for example, in some cases the radius can be limited to about 20 m.

When an electromagnet or superconducting magnet is placed around the outer electrode, there may be a gap between the outer electrode 1010 and the housing of the magnet 1056. This spacing can be used to reduce heat transfer to the magnet. In some cases, a heat exchanger can be placed between the outer electrode 1010 and the magnetic housing. If the outer electrode has a porous or mesh-like structure, there may be a spacing between the outer electrode and the housing of the magnet that allows charged particles to pass through the outer electrode. The charged particles (for example, α particles) passing through the outer electrode do not collide with the housing 1056 because they are bound in the r direction by the movement of the cyclotron of the ions. In some cases, the spacing between the outer electrodes is between about 3 cm and about 6 cm, and in some cases between about 6 cm and about 10 cm. As described elsewhere herein, the charged particles can then move in the z-direction towards the energy conversion means and produce electrical energy. 11a-b show an atom in which a disk-shaped permanent magnet 1150 is placed at either end of the annular space 1140 to generate an applied magnetic field oriented substantially axially (ie, pointing in the z-direction). Indicates a furnace. FIG. 11a provides a perspective view as seen along the z direction, and FIG. 11b provides an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the section line shown in FIG. 11a. As described in FIG. 11b, the reactor has an inner electrode 1120, an outer electrode 1110 forming a containment wall 1112, and an annular space between the inner and outer electrodes. The magnet 1150 is arranged on either side of the annular space and has the same magnetic orientation. For example, both magnets may have a north pole pointing in the positive z direction and a north pole pointing in the negative z direction. Although not shown, in some embodiments, the magnet 1150 may be annular so that the magnet is proximate to the annular space 1140 and provides a substantially uniform magnetic region along the inner surface of the outer electrode 1112. .. It has the same pole orientation as the disk-shaped magnet shown in FIG.

12a-b show a plurality of permanent magnets having the same polarity in the z-direction (eg, the same orientation as the disc-shaped magnet shown in FIG. 11) to generate an applied magnetic field in the z-direction along the inner surface of the outer electrode 1212. 1C illustrates another embodiment in which 1250 is located on either side of annular space 1240. 12a provides a perspective view in the z-direction and FIG. 12b provides an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the section line AA shown in FIG. 12a. Some features are labeled in the magnified view 1201 and show how the annular space is constrained by the inner electrode 1220, the outer electrode 1210, and the permanent magnet 1250. The use of multiple smaller magnets is useful in reducing the cost and physical constraints associated with larger monolithic magnets for large nuclear reactors. The arrangement of magnets 1250 shown in FIGS. 12a and 12b can be viewed as effectively generating two opposing annular magnets. Although not shown, in some embodiments a combination of different magnet shapes is used to generate the axial magnetic field. For example, an annular magnet may be used on one side of the annular space and a plurality of rod-shaped magnets may be used on the opposite side.

13a-c show an embodiment in which a reactor 1300 having a single inner electrode 1320 has multiple annular spaces 1340 bounded by permanent magnets 1350 arranged along the z-direction. As shown, the reactor has an inner electrode 1320, a plurality of outer electrodes 1310 (a combination of wall segments) forming a confinement wall 1312, and an annular space 1340 between each outer electrode and the inner electrode. FIG. 13a provides a perspective view as viewed along the z direction, and FIGS. 13b and 13c provide cross-sectional views and isometric cross-sectional views, respectively, corresponding to the section line shown in FIG. 13a. If a permanent magnet is placed at either end of the annular space, the length of the annular space in the z direction is limited by the strength of the magnetic field that can be generated by the permanent magnet. In some cases, the annular space may be limited to, for example, about 5 or 10 cm. By arranging the magnets 1350 in the z direction between the plurality of annular spaces 1340, the total surface area of the confinement wall 1312 of the outer electrode 1310 can be increased. As with the previous embodiment, each magnet 1350 has the same orientation along the z-axis. In this design, each pole contributes to the formation of the magnetic field applied to the adjacent annular spaces, thus effectively using the permanent magnets between the annular spaces. Although the illustrated embodiment is shown using annular magnets, many other shapes may also be used, eg, each magnet adjacent an annular space together form an annular structure. It can be manufactured with many smaller magnets (see Figures 12a-b). In some embodiments, outer electrode 1310 may be divided into electrically separated, physically distinct portions. In some embodiments, the outer electrodes may be electrically connected monolithically or otherwise, such that each outer electrode corresponding to each annular space 1340 is grounded, for example.

14a-c show an embodiment in which a single reactor structure 1400 has multiple annular spaces 1440 bounded by permanent magnets 1450 arranged along the z-direction. As shown, the reactor has a plurality of inner electrodes 1420 and a plurality of outer electrodes 1410 forming a containment wall 1412 for the annular space 1440 between each electrode group. Figure 14a provides a perspective view in the z-direction, and Figures 14b and 14c provide cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the section line shown in Figure 14a. Instead of using an annular magnet and a single inner electrode as shown in the embodiment of FIGS. 13a-c, the embodiment of FIGS. 14a-c uses a disk-shaped magnet and multiple inner electrode segments. doing. Descriptions of corresponding features from Figures 13a-c are suitable for the embodiment of Figures 14a-c. In some embodiments, the depicted reactor may operate using only a subset of the annular space available depending on energy demand. For example, in some embodiments, the fusion reactant is introduced into only one annular space and the voltage potential is applied only to the inner electrode adjacent the annular space. According to this method, the energy output of the nuclear reactor can be controlled so as to satisfy the energy demand, and can be further controlled in real time as needed. Thus, in some embodiments, individual inner electrodes 1420 and/or outer electrodes 1410 are independently controllable.

15a-15c show the magnetic field produced by a series of rings with magnets 1550 being substantially coaxial and having the same orientation. 15a is an isometric view of three magnets, FIG. 15b shows a view along the shared axis of the magnets, and FIG. 15c is a cross-sectional view corresponding to line AA of FIG. 15b. Although the previous embodiment utilized a magnet that was offset from the annular space in the z direction, the magnet may be radially offset from the annular space in the r direction. Each annular magnet, when considered individually, produces a magnetic field 1545 that begins at its north pole and ends at its south pole, as shown by the dashed line in FIG. 15c. When multiple ring magnets are placed next to each other, the net effect is a composite magnetic field that is a superposition of the individual magnetic fields and is substantially pointing along the shared axis as indicated by the solid magnetic field lines 1546. possible. This magnet is used to extend the achievable length of the reactor annulus while using a permanent magnet.

16a-16c show an embodiment in which a radially offset annular magnet 1650 is used to generate an axial magnetic field through the annular space. As shown, the reactor has a single inner electrode 1620 and a single outer electrode 1610 forming a confinement wall 1612 for an annular space 1640 between the electrodes. 16a provides a perspective view of the reactor as viewed along the z-direction, and FIGS. 16b and 16c provide cross-sectional and isometric views corresponding to the section line shown in FIG. 16a. Each magnet 1650 has the same polarity along the z direction. For example, as described, each of the magnets 1650 has a south pole facing in the positive z direction. This embodiment allows for an annular space extending in the z-direction, creating a larger surface area for the confinement wall 1610 and a larger power output potential. The overlapping features of the corresponding embodiments of Figures 13 and 14 can be applied to the embodiment of Figures 16a-c.

17a-17c show an embodiment in which radially offset magnets (1750, 1752) are used to generate an axial magnetic field through a single annular space. As shown, the reactor has a single inner electrode 1720 and a single outer electrode 1710 forming a confinement wall 1712 for a single annular space 1740 between the electrodes. Figure 17a provides a perspective view of the reactor seen in the z-direction, and Figures 17b and 17c provide cross-sectional views and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the section line shown in Figure 17a. The embodiment of Figures 17a-c exceeds the embodiment described with respect to Figures 16a-c in that the additional magnet 1752 is located in the interior region of the inner electrode 1620. As shown, the additional magnet 1752 has the same orientation as the outer magnet 1750 along the z direction. In some embodiments, the inner annular magnet 1752 is aligned with the outer annular magnet 1750 in the z-direction, as shown in Figures 17b and 17c. In some embodiments, the inner annular magnet may be offset from the outer annular magnet, or the spacing between the magnets may be different than the spacing of the outer magnets. In some embodiments, the inner magnet may take a different shape than the outer magnet, and the inner magnet may be a rod-shaped magnet.

In some embodiments, the permanent magnets are made from rare earth elements or alloys of rare earth elements. Examples of suitable magnets include samarium-cobalt magnets and neodymium magnets. Other strong magnets now or in the future developed may be suitable for use. In some embodiments, the permanent magnets can generate a magnetic field of about 0.1 to 1.5 Tesla in the annular space, and in some embodiments, the permanent magnets have a magnetic field of about 0.1 in the annular space. A magnetic field of ~0.5 Tesla can be generated.

Not all nuclear reactors require permanent magnets. Some have employed electromagnets or superconducting magnets, as described with reference to Figures 10a-d. Some nuclear reactors use a combination of two or more permanent magnets and electromagnets. 18a-d show a first embodiment in which an axial magnetic field is applied by an electromagnet. As shown, the reactor has an inner electrode 1820 and an outer electrode 1810 forming a confinement wall 1812 for an annular space 1840 between the electrodes. Figure 18a shows an isometric view of an electromagnet placed above the reactor. FIG. 18b provides a perspective view of the reactor along the z-axis, and FIGS. 18c and 18d show cross-sectional views and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the section line shown in FIG. 18b. The current is passed through a coil winding 1854 that surrounds the reactor in the z-direction to produce an applied magnetic field in the z-direction, as shown by the magnetic field lines in Figure 18c. The current through the conductive coil may be provided by an AC or DC power supply. If the conductive coil is driven by an AC power supply, the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode may also be driven by an AC power supply of the same frequency. This keeps the rotation of the charged particles in the same direction rather than the alternating direction that would occur if the alternating polarity of the magnetic field were not synchronized with the electric field. The coil may be made of a conductive material such as copper, aluminum, gold or silver. In some embodiments, the coil takes the form of a wire wrapped around the outer electrode, and in some embodiments the coil is placed in a separate housing that can be placed around the outer electrode. ..
Reverse electrical polarity embodiment

The reverse electric polarity rotor has been described above with reference to FIGS. 5a to 5c. In general, unless otherwise stated, the structure of the electrodes corresponding to the first embodiment also describes a reverse electric polarity rotor. For example, the materials for the inner and outer electrodes, the gap between the electrodes (542 in FIG. 5a), and the configuration of the magnets to generate the magnetic field in the z-direction are the same as described for the concentric electrode reactor. Good. However, as described below, some embodiments use different structural configurations and/or different materials (eg, different materials for the inner electrode).

FIG. 5d shows cross-selection of reverse electric polarity rotors. Apply a negative voltage to the inner electrode to ground the outer electrode, ground the inner electrode to apply a positive potential to the outer electrode, or apply more negative potential than the negative potential applied to the outer electrode to the inner electrode. The electric field can be applied in the negative r direction by applying When an electric field is generated by applying a potential to the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode, the positively charged particles in the annular space 540 are attracted toward the inner electrode 520. As the positively charged particles move inward, Lorentz forces azimuthally accelerate the particles, resulting in the spiral trajectory shown in path 503. Over the ionic-neutral bond, the neutral in the annular space rotates with the positively charged particles. Due to the potential difference between the inner electrode and the outer electrode, the surplus electrons on the inner electrode form an electron rich region 532 close to the electrode surface, and rotate in the same direction as the positively charged particles due to Lorentz force. As described elsewhere, this electron-rich region can reduce the Coulomb barrier during fusion. In some cases, this electron-rich region can extend from about 100 um to about 3 mm from the surface of the inner electrode.

In some cases, the movement of the positively charged particles inward causes the recombination of the charged species when the positively charged particles contact the inner electrode or when the positively charged particles encounter free electrons in the electron rich region. appear. In some cases, positively charged particles can move around the orbit of the inner electrode with a Larmor radius 502. In some embodiments, the concentration of positively charged particles may vary radially. For example, the concentration of positively charged particles orbiting the annular space at the Larmor radius is higher than that near the outer electrode. This gradient of charged particles creates a velocity distribution in the annular space that tends to cause the particles to move more slowly near the outer wall, where centrifugal forces cause a higher concentration of neutrals and drive neutrals. The number of positively-charged particles that move by doing so decreases.

In some embodiments, the inner electrode is composed of a single material such as tantalum, tungsten, copper, carbon, or lanthanum hexaboride. In some cases, the inner electrode has a conductive core 520a coated with electron emitting and/or target material 520b. For example, the inner electrode may have a core made of lanthanum hexaboride, boron nitride, or a conductive refractory material (tungsten) coated with another boron-containing material. In some cases, the inner electrode diameter is about 1 cm to about 3 cm, and in some cases about 4 cm to about 6 cm. In some cases, the inner electrode has a very small cross section and may be, for example, a filament or wire. In such embodiments, the inner electrode may have a diameter of less than about 0.5 mm, less than about 0.1 mm, or less than about 0.05 mm. In some cases, the inner electrode may extend in the z-direction a length of about 3 cm to about 10 cm. In some cases, the inner electrode may be small in the z-direction, for example less than about 3 cm, or less than about 1 cm. In some embodiments, the inner electrode may be significantly longer in the z-direction, eg, greater than about 20 cm. In some cases, the z-direction confinement region (length of overlap of the inner and outer electrodes) for a reverse electric polarity nuclear reactor may be limited by a power source that applies a charge to the inner and/or outer electrodes. In some cases, the z-direction length may depend on the gas pressure in the confinement region. In some cases, reducing the gas pressure to a very low pressure and increasing the length in the z-direction can reduce the power required to create a plasma in the annulus.

FIG. 19a shows several ways of actively cooling the inner electrode. In some cases, the inner electrode 1910 has internal passages 1928 through which the fluid passing removes heat. For example, water can be pumped through the internal passages to remove heat from the inner electrode. In some cases, the inner electrode may be connected to a thermally conductive and electrically insulating ceramic block 1923. The ceramic block may be made of a material such as alumina. Heat is dissipated through the ceramic block and is removed from the end of the inner electrode connected to it. In some cases, the ceramic block includes openings or holes to support the inner electrodes. In some cases, set screws are used to secure the inner electrode to the ceramic. In some cases, heat conducted through the ceramic block is used to generate electrical power, eg, via a thermoelectric generator or heat exchanger connected to the ceramic block.

In some cases, the inner electrode may be replaced when the target material is consumed or the electrode is damaged. For example, the boron coated filament used as the inner electrode can be replaced when the boron coating is consumed or when the filament breaks.

In certain embodiments, the length of the inner electrode extends beyond the annular space (limited by the z-edge of the outer electrode). In some cases, the position of the inner electrode is adjusted in the z direction, for example via a linear actuator. For example, if the inner electrode is a wire, during operation of the reactor, the wire is drawn through the annular space to prevent melting of the inner electrode or the portion of the target material (eg, boron coating) that is being consumed is removed. Exchange.

In some cases, the width of the inner electrode can vary along the z direction. FIG. 19b shows a configuration in which the inner electrode 1920 extends beyond the outer electrode 1910 and is held in place by a sleeve 1921 that can act as an extension of the inner electrode. The sleeve 1921 may be made of a conductive material such as copper, stainless steel or tantalum. In some cases, a potential can be applied to the inner electrode through the sleeve, which can reduce resistive heating to the smaller diameter inner electrode. In some cases the sleeve diameter is much larger than the inner electrode diameter. For example, the diameter of the sleeve may be greater than about 10 cm and the diameter of the inner electrode may be less than about 0.5 mm. In some configurations, a set screw may be used to secure the inner electrode to the sleeve. In some embodiments, the sleeve may be screwed directly onto the sleeve. With these and other ancillary features, the sleeve 1921 is permanent, but the inner electrode 1920 is replaceable. In some cases, the sleeve may be coated with a target material such as boron. In some cases, the sleeve may be internally cooled, as described in Figure 19a.

Similar to the reactor of the first embodiment, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes may be limited by the ability of the power supply to generate plasma in the confinement region. In some cases, the outer electrode may be similar in structure to the outer electrode described for the first embodiment. In some cases, the outer electrode may have an outer insulating layer. For example, if an alternating signal is applied to the electrodes of the reactor, or if the reverse polarity electrical reactor is part of a modularized unit consisting of additional reactors that need to be electrically isolated from each other, It is useful. In general, the support structure for both the inner and outer electrodes includes an electrically insulating material that insulates the electrodes from the reactor housing and prevents alternating current paths between the electrodes. In some cases, the outer electrode is a metal sheet (eg, a copper sheet) that is cylindrically defined by placement in a quartz tube. In some cases, the outer electrode is a solid tubular structure located within the insulating structure. In another embodiment, the electrodes are manufactured by coating the inner surface of a quartz tube with a metallic conductive coating.

As explained elsewhere, a small number of ions or positively charged particles are sufficient to drive many neutral particles in rotation. The confinement wall associated with the outer electrode increases the concentration of neutrals radially. However, rotating neutrals are not affected by radial electric fields or axial magnetic fields. Random collisions of the outer wall with other particles can cause the neutrals to deflect into the electron-rich region, and in some cases, the neutrals can collide with the target material at the inner electrode, causing a fusion event. is there. Similarly, in some cases, positively charged particles can also be deflected to the inner electrode to generate a fusion reaction (eg, a proton-boron ¹¹ fusion reaction).

In some cases, reverse electric polarity nuclear reactors operate at constant voltage. For example, the voltage source may apply a potential to the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode to maintain a constant or nearly constant potential difference between the electrodes during operation of the reactor. In another mode of operation, the reverse polarity reactor operates at constant current. When the inner electrode is small and it is prone to failure due to resistance heating, it is beneficial to operate at constant current. In some cases, the reactor initially operates at constant voltage and then transitions to a constant current mode of operation.

In some configurations, energy storage devices such as capacitors and batteries are used to apply a potential to the inner and/or outer electrodes to initiate the fusion reaction. In some cases, the circuit regulates the current and/or voltage provided by the energy storage device. In some cases, energy devices (eg, capacitors) are connected to the inner and/or outer electrodes and discharged until the energy storage device is unable to generate an electric field of sufficient strength to support the fusion reaction. .. In some cases, the nuclear reactor is equipped with an additional energy storage device that is charged by the electrical energy produced by the fusion reaction, and the first energy storage device is discharged. The controller then activates a switch that switches the energy storage device between a charge mode and a discharge mode to allow the fusion reaction to be maintained.

In some cases, the power source is disconnected from the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode and the fusion reaction continues for a predetermined period of time (eg, about 10 minutes) before the potential difference between the electrodes becomes insufficient to sustain the fusion reaction. Occurs for 2 seconds). If the electric field is too small to maintain fusion, the voltage or current source can be reconnected to apply a negative potential to the inner electrode.

Prior to operation of the reverse polarity nuclear reactor, the gas pressure in the annular space may be about 1 atmosphere or higher. In some cases, for example, if the inner electrode is long in the z-direction, the pressure of the inner electrode may be reduced to reduce the power required to initiate the fusion reaction. In some cases, the pressure in the annulus can be reduced to less than about 1 Torr or less than about 10 mTorr before operating the reactor. In some cases, the pressure within the annulus can be adjusted via inlet and outlet valves to control the rate of the fusion reaction.

For reverse electric polarity nuclear reactors, the magnetic field in the confinement region may exceed about 0.5 Tesla, may exceed about 1 Tesla, and may exceed about 3 Tesla. In some embodiments of a reverse electric polarity nuclear reactor, the magnetic field is not substantially perpendicular to the electric field between the inner and outer electrodes. In some embodiments, the magnetic field is not uniform throughout the confinement region. The magnetic field in the confinement region can be adjusted by adjusting the placement and orientation of the magnets and/or electrodes. In some cases, a non-uniform magnetic field may increase the rate at which ions and neutrals collide with the inner electrode. In general, the applied magnetic field and/or the electrical potential applied to the electrodes may vary depending on the reactor geometry, the composition of the reaction gas and the pressure of the reaction gas.

During operation, the concentration of particles (especially those with higher mass) is higher near the outer wall due to centrifugal forces. This helps to extract the fusion product, which has a higher mass than the rotating reactant, from the annular space. For example, if the α-particles are produced by a fusion reaction involving rotating hydrogen species, the α-particles will be concentrated near the outer wall and then removed via the outlet valve. In some cases, the fusion product may be pumped to another reactor where the fusion product is used as a reactant. For example, alpha particles or helium atoms produced in a reverse electric polarity reactor can be transferred to another reactor configured to support a helium-helium fusion reaction.
Inverse field reactor embodiment

Another nuclear reactor embodiment has the reverse field configuration described above in connection with Figures 6a-d. In this configuration, a Lorentzian rotor is used to impart and maintain the rotational movement of particles within the annulus. In general, many of the nuclear reactors described herein can be reconfigured to apply an opposite field, even though the magnetic and electric fields are reversed in orientation.

Permanent magnets (616 and 626) made of magnetic material as described in connection with the first embodiment can be used to apply the radial magnetic field. In some cases, the permanent magnets are replaced with a plurality of azimuthally offset electromagnets with radially oriented axes, so that a magnetic field oriented substantially in the r direction is distributed throughout the annular space. Is applied. In some cases, the surface of the confinement wall may include one or more layers that protect the magnetic material. For example, an aluminum or tantalum layer can protect the outer or inner magnets. In some cases, the protective layer may include a target material that includes fused reactants or electron emitters. In some cases, the containment wall has an internal cooling system that can keep the material below its melting point and prevent demagnetization of the magnet.

In the concentric electrode embodiment, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes is sometimes constrained by the power available to ionize the gas in the annular space. Similarly, the reverse field configuration may constrain the confinement region in the z direction that separates the electrodes 660a and 660b. For example, in some cases the spacing between the electrodes is in the range of about 1 mm to about 50 cm, and in some cases the spacing between the electrodes is in the range of about 5 cm to about 20 cm.

In the concentric electrode embodiment, the length of the annular space in the z direction may be limited by the strength of the permanent magnet. Similarly, in the reverse field configuration, the r-direction gap may be limited by generating a strong magnetic field near the surface of the confinement wall. In some cases, the radial clearance may be limited to, for example, about 10 cm or less, or about 5 cm or less. In some cases, the gap may be larger when the magnet 616 itself provides a sufficiently strong magnetic field near the confinement surface, eg, in some cases the gap will be greater than about 10 cm. In some cases, the inner magnet is not needed.
Wave Particle Reactor Example

An alternative reactor configuration, also referred to as a wave particle example, is briefly described in the preamble and shown in Figures 7a and 7b. In the wave particle embodiment, charged particles are rotated by oscillating an electrostatic field. Neutral species are pushed by charged particles. An electric field is generated by applying a charge to azimuthally spaced electrodes on a confinement wall, an inner wall or another structure in communication with the confinement region. Since this embodiment does not require a magnetic field, the structural limitations of using magnets do not apply. For example, the radius of a nuclear reactor may be larger than that achievable with an annular or disc magnet. Furthermore, this embodiment does not require the flow of current between the inner and outer electrodes, so the structural limitation of concentric electrodes does not apply. In some embodiments of wave particle designs, the confinement wall radius may be greater than about 2 m, in some designs greater than about 10 m, and in some cases greater than about 50 m. Contrary to some implementations of Lorentz-type rotors, the length of the reactor in the z-direction is sometimes not limited by the strength of the permanent magnet, as is the case with the concentric electrode embodiments. In some embodiments, the length of the confinement region (eg, annular region) in the z-direction is greater than about 1 m, in some cases greater than about 10 m, and in some cases greater than about 100 m. In one embodiment, the reactor is curved in the z-direction so that the containment walls form a torus or torus-like shape. In general, reactor size limits are dependent on the energy demands of the reactor and the costs associated with production. In the wave particle embodiment, the degree of control over the rotating species can be set by limiting the number and size of the azimuthally offset electrodes that affect the confinement region. The relatively large number of electrodes along the confinement wall allows for a finer modulation of the electric field lines and can improve the efficiency of moving charged particles using the electric field. In some cases, this is because the dynamically changing electric field drives the particles primarily azimuthally rather than radially. Generally, a nuclear reactor has at least three azimuthally spaced electrodes. Some reactors have at least five azimuthally spaced electrodes and some reactors have more than about 50 azimuthally spaced electrodes. In some cases, the number of electrodes is proportional to the size of the reactor. For example, a reactor with a radius of about 1 m has about 20 to about 40 azimuthally spaced electrodes along the containment wall, and a reactor with a radius of about 2 m has azimuthally spaced electrodes. It has about 40 to about 80 pieces. In some cases, the ratio of the reactor circumference (in meters) to the number of azimuthally spaced inner or outer electrodes is about 3 to about 150, and in some cases about 20. ~100.

In some cases, the electrodes are separated by an electrically insulating material (eg, aluminum nitride or boron nitride). The insulating material can be thick enough to prevent breakdown. The minimum thickness depends on the dielectric strength of the insulating material and the voltage applied to the electrodes. In some cases, the electrically insulating material includes a target material (fusion reactant such as boron-11) and/or an electron emitter.

In some cases, the azimuthal electrode width is less than about 10 cm, in some cases less than about 5 cm, and in some cases less than about 2 cm. The electrodes may have any of a variety of shapes. For example, it may be circular or polygonal. In some cases it is rectangular. In some embodiments, a nuclear reactor utilizes electrodes azimuthally spaced only along the containment wall. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the reactor utilizes only electrodes along the inner wall only or electrodes that confine the confinement region in the z-direction (eg, the electrode arrangement is the reverse field embodiment shown in FIG. 6c). Electrodes 660a and 660b). If the electrodes themselves do not define the containment wall, the surface of the containment wall may be made of another material (eg, target material) or an electron emitter, or the like. For example, the electrodes may be separated from the confinement region by a sleeve containing a coupon made of lanthanum hexaboride.

In some cases, the containment wall is configured to have a heat management member such as a heat exchanger (eg, cooling jacket). The heat exchanger can be used to prevent overheating of the electrodes and/or to supply heated fluid to the heat engine to produce electricity or heat energy. In some cases, heat can be dissipated from the reactor by passing a fluid such as water through the passages in the containment wall. For example, the insulating material that spaces the azimuthally spaced electrodes may have internal passages through which the fluid passes.

In the concentric electrode embodiment, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes may be constrained due to the limited power available to ionize the gas in the confinement region. The wave particle configuration also limits the gap between adjacent electrically spaced electrodes. For example, in some cases the spacing between the electrodes averages in the range of about 1 mm to about 50 cm, and in some cases the spacing between the electrodes averages in the range of about 5 cm to about 20 cm.

In some cases, wave particle reactors have multiple modes of operation. For example, a first phase may be employed to start or strike a plasma and a later phase to drive ions (and indirectly neutrals) in the rotational direction. For example, an RF electric field can be applied radially between the inner and outer electrodes to generate weakly ionized plasma and prepare a nuclear reactor for operation. When plasma is generated between the inner electrode and the outer electrode, a drive signal is sequentially applied to the azimuthally distributed electrodes, and the reactor shifts to a mode in which charged particles and neutrals are rotationally driven. To do.

The vibration signal applied to the azimuthally distributed electrodes to rotationally drive the ions and neutrals can be provided over a wide range of selected frequencies based on the reactor configuration and the desired rotational speed. For example, the drive signal may be applied at a frequency in the range of about 60 kHz to 1 THz, and in some cases at a frequency in the range of about 60 kHz to 1 GHz. In some cases, the frequency of the drive signal is low at the beginning and then gradually or suddenly increases. For example, the drive signal may start at a relatively low frequency, eg 60 kHz, and eventually ramp up to a much higher frequency, eg 100 Mhz.

In some cases, the drive signal uses a controlled voltage to apply the charge. In order to avoid arcing between the electrodes, it is preferred that the charge be applied at high voltage and low current, rather than high current at low voltage. In some cases, the drive signal is applied to the electrodes that are azimuthally spaced from about 1 kV to about 100 kV. In some cases, the drive signal can apply a voltage greater than 100 kV to the electrodes.

Using electrostatic forces, wave particle embodiments can induce rotational speeds in excess of those normally found in Lorentz driven reactors with similar reactor configurations (eg, similar confinement radii). In some cases, electrostatically driven nuclear reactors may rotatably drive gas species at a rate of at least about 1000 RPS, or in some cases at least about 100,000 RPS. In the wave particle embodiment, the control system is used to dictate how charge is applied to the electrodes. In some cases, the control system adjusts the charge sequence applied to the electrodes with the detection rate determined using a high speed camera or another sensor as feedback. In general, azimuthally spaced electrodes have similar structural considerations and may be made of materials similar to those described with respect to the above embodiments using magnetic fields.
Hybrid reactor embodiments

6a-6f briefly describe another common reactor configuration, referred to as a hybrid reactor configuration. In this configuration, both a Lorentzian rotor and a wave particle driver are used to impart and maintain the rotational motion of particles within the annulus. When operating a Lorentzian rotor in a hybrid reactor, some aspects of the above description of the inverse field embodiment may apply. Similarly, some aspects of the above description of wave particle embodiments may apply when operating using the azimuthally spaced electrodes of a hybrid reactor.

Like the reverse field embodiment, permanent magnets (616 and 626) made of magnetic material as described in connection with the first embodiment can be used to apply the radial magnetic field. In some cases, the permanent magnet is replaced with a plurality of azimuthally offset electromagnets with radially oriented axes, so that a magnetic field oriented in approximately the r direction is distributed throughout the confinement region. Is applied. In some cases, the surface of the confinement wall may include one or more layers that protect the magnetic material. For example, an aluminum or tantalum layer protects the outer or inner magnets. In some cases, the protective layer may include a target material that includes fused reactants or electron emitters. In some cases, the containment wall has an internal cooling system that can keep the material below its melting point and prevent demagnetization of the magnet.

In the concentric electrode embodiment, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes is sometimes constrained by the power available to ionize the gas in the annular space. Similarly, in a hybrid reactor configuration, the confinement region or annular space in the z-direction that separates electrodes 660a and 660b may be constrained. For example, in some cases the spacing between the electrodes is in the range of about 1 mm to about 50 cm, and in some cases the spacing between the electrodes is in the range of about 5 cm to about 20 cm.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the length of the annular space in the z-direction may be limited by the strength of the permanent magnet. Similarly, in a hybrid configuration, the r-direction gap may be limited by creating a strong magnetic field near the surface of the confinement wall. In some cases, the radial clearance may be limited to, for example, about 10 cm or less, or about 5 cm or less. In some cases, the gap may be larger when the magnet 616 itself provides a sufficiently strong magnetic field near the confinement surface, eg, in some cases the gap may be larger than about 10 cm. In some cases, the inner magnet is not needed.

In a hybrid embodiment, the control system is used to direct how to apply control signals to the azimuthally spaced electrodes. In some cases, the control system may receive feedback from the sensor to regulate the charge sequence applied to the electrodes. In general, the electrodes (660a and 660b) have similar structural considerations and may be made of materials described as suitable for the electrodes of the first embodiment.

In some configurations, the hybrid reactor is configured to switch between operating modes when performing the fusion reaction or shortly before performing the fusion reaction. For example, a nuclear reactor may first operate with a Lorentzian rotor to maintain particle rotation, and then transition to a wave particle driver. Under certain conditions, a Lorentz force driven rotor is more efficient at initiating particle rotation in the annular space. When the particles in the annulus reach a critical rotational state in the reactor where the benefits of using a Lorentzian rotor are no longer seen, the reactor switches to the wave particle driven mode. In some cases, transitioning to the wave particle drive mode can increase particle velocity and increase energy production. In some cases, transitioning to the wave particle drive mode allows for more accurate energy generation by adjusting the sequence of drive signals applied to the azimuthally distributed electrodes (660a and 660b). Can be adjusted to In some embodiments in which electromagnets are used to generate an electric field, the current supply for controlling the magnetic field can be terminated when the reactor enters wave particle mode operation. This can prevent Lorentz forces from acting on the charged particles in the z direction.
Electron emitter

As described elsewhere herein, the containment wall may be made, at least in part, of an electron emitting material, referred to herein as an electron emitter. These materials emit electrons via thermionic emission above a certain temperature. For example, some boron-based electron emitters have emission temperatures in the range of about 1500K to about 2500K. In some cases, the electron emitter may be in the form of a powder, which is compressed, sintered or otherwise transformed into a form suitable for placement in the annular space. In some cases, physical vapor deposition may be used to sinter or deposit the electron emitting material on the containment walls of the reactor. In other cases, the electron emitter may be forged into a continuous structure that forms part of or is attached to the containment wall.

Some electron emitters are low work function materials and are not susceptible to degradation when exposed to heat and other environmental conditions in a nuclear reactor. Examples of electron emitters include barium oxide, strontium oxide, calcium oxide, alumina, thorium oxide, lanthanum hexaboride, cerium hexaboride, calcium hexaboride, strontium hexaboride, barium hexaboride, yttrium hexaboride. Oxides and borides such as gadolinium hexaboride, samarium hexaboride and thorium hexaboride. In some cases, the emitters may be carbides and borides of transition metals such as zirconium carbide, hafnium carbide, tantalum carbide and hafnium diboride, for example. In some cases, the emitter can be used as a fusion reaction reactant such as ⁶ Li, ¹⁵ N, ³ He and D (deuterium). In some cases, the electron emitter can be a compound that includes a fusion reactant. For example, lanthanum hexaboride can be used as both an electron emitter and target material for proton- ¹¹ B fusion. In some cases, fusion reaction products can be used as electron emitters. In some cases, the electron emitter can be a composite of two or more materials, where at least one material has a low work function and emits electrons during operation.

In some cases, the electron emitter is mounted as a solid member on the containment wall of the reactor. In some embodiments, the electron emitter (which may be provided in the form of a coupon) has a thin or flat structure and is attached to the containment wall without significantly protruding into the annular space. Figure 20a shows some exemplary cross sections of electron emitters. In some embodiments, these electron emitters may be attached to the surface of the containment wall by mechanical fasteners such as clips or screws. In some cases, the electron emitter is configured to slide into a slot in the confinement wall and is held and secured at least partially by frictional forces. For example, the slot has a groove or clamping mechanism to hold the electron emitter. In some cases, heat, adhesive or another bonding process is used to attach the emitter to the confinement wall. In some cases, the thickness of the structure of the emitter is less than about 1.2 cm, in some cases less than about 6 mm, and in some cases less than about 3 mm. The dimensions of the azimuthal or z-direction electron emitter can be limited by the physical dimensions of the reactor. 20b shows some configurations in which electron emitters 2036 may be symmetrically distributed along the surface of confinement wall 2010, but in some configurations, electron emitters may be located in only a few selected areas. ..

In a particular embodiment, when the emitters are arranged on the surface of the confinement wall, they are heated by the frictional heat and/or plasma heat that is inherent in the operation of the reactor. In some cases, the electron emitter may also be heated differently to increase the rate of electron emission. For example, during initial operation of the reactor, when the reactor is still relatively cold, it may otherwise heat the electron emitter, thereby increasing electron emission. In some cases, controlling the energy applied to the electron emitter (eg, by Joule heating) can control the rate of electron emission and the rate of the fusion reaction.

In some embodiments, the power provided by the power supply is used to provide energy to the electron emitters at the confinement wall. For example, an electric current can pass through a filament within the electron-emissive material to provide Joule heating and increase electron emission. In some cases, the filament is a refractory metal such as tungsten. If the containment wall is electrically grounded, the electron emitter may be separated from the containment wall by an electrically insulating material. In some cases, direct current (DC) may be applied to the filament. In some cases, electron emission is further improved or controlled by applying alternating current (AC) to the filament in contact with the electron emitter, for example via an RF or microwave signal.

21a-b show an example where Joule heating is used to control electron emission in a nuclear reactor with concentric electrodes. FIG. 21 a illustrates an inner electrode 2120, an outer electrode 2110 separated from the inner electrode by a confinement region (eg, an annular space) 2140, and an electron emission module 2136 powered by a power supply 2135 and disposed along a confinement wall 2112. Figure 3 provides a z-direction view of a nuclear reactor having. FIG. 21b provides an enlarged view of the electron emitting module located on the confinement wall. The electron emission module includes an electron emitter material 2130 such as lanthanum hexaboride that is heated by filament 2134. In some cases, the module may include insulating layers 2137 and 2138 that provide electrical insulation and/or insulation with the electrodes and/or confinement walls. In some cases, one layer (2137 or 2138) is used for electrical insulation and another layer is used for thermal insulation. These insulating layers may be made of a ceramic material such as zirconia, alumina, zinc nitride or magnesia. In some embodiments, the position of the electron emission module can be adjusted during operation of the reactor. For example, the module may be moved radially inward into the confinement region, for example using an actuator, to increase electron emission caused by frictional heating of the rotating species, or moved radially outward from the confinement region to be ejected. It is possible to limit the electrons that are generated.

In some embodiments, the electron emitter may have a sharp point or conical structure at one end for improved electric field electron emission. For example, when a potential is applied to the electron emitter, the narrowing of the geometry results in a strong electric field near the point and the field electron emission is concentrated at that point.

In some embodiments, one or more lasers are used to increase or otherwise control electron emission from the emitter. As shown in FIG. 22, the reactor 2200 may be configured with a laser 2231 to guide the light within the confinement region 2240 to the electron emitter 2230. As shown, light from the laser may be optically guided through or along the inner electrode 2220 via the insulating optical fiber 2239. The laser can be aimed at the emitter used for thermionic emission, but can also be directed at other materials such as titanium on the confinement wall that exhibit a photoelectric effect. For example, metals and conductors exhibit a photoelectric effect if the impinging photons are not neutralized by the current and create a charge imbalance that can increase electron emission. FIG. 22 shows a first embodiment in which the laser can be guided to the inner negative electrode in order to increase electron emission in the reverse electrical polarity embodiment.
Gas supply system

A nuclear reactor may have one or more gas valves for introducing fusion reactants and removing fusion products. In some cases standardized gas valves are used. For example, gas valves used in low pressure deposition and etching chambers can be suitable for nuclear reactors. In some cases, the gas reactant is released at the internal location to the confinement region, for example, the reactive species can follow the path through the inner electrode. In some cases, the gas valve can be located at one end of the confinement region or in the annular space in the z-direction, while in other cases the gas reactive species is introduced into the confinement region via a valve in the containment wall. The outlet valve for the fusion product can be placed in a similar location as the inlet valve. If the fusion products are removed during operation of the reactor, the outlet valve may be located at the confinement wall or at a location adjacent to the confinement wall, but offset from the confinement region in the z direction. In some cases, the inlet and outlet valves need to be electrically isolated from the electrodes to prevent grounding and causing a short circuit.

The inlet and outlet valves may have vacuum or pump systems for convenience of loading and unloading gas species into the reactor. In some cases, the valve may include a flow meter that controls the amount of gas added to or removed from the reactor. In some cases, a flow meter can be connected to the control system of the reactor to limit the amount of hydrogen or reactive species that enters the chamber. In some cases, the gas inlet introduces neutrals near the confinement region and the gas outlet removes neutrals that have migrated beyond where fusion occurs in the z direction of the reactor. In some cases, to remove neutrals that can reduce the efficiency of converting the kinetic energy of fusion products (such as alpha particles) into electrical energy, the middle along the z-direction of the reactor A pump system is used to control the distribution of the product.

Although the discussed embodiment describes a gas species, in other embodiments the fusion reactant is introduced into the confinement region in liquid form. In some cases, rather than filling the confinement region with the fusion reactant in the form of a gas, the confinement region is filled or partially filled with liquid fuel. For example, available or readily releasable hydrogen-containing liquids such as liquid hydrogen, ammonia, alkanes such as butane or methane, and liquid hydrides can be used in place of gaseous hydrogen. In some cases, the liquid fuel is provided to evaporate immediately upon entering the chamber. In some cases, liquid fuel is added to the reactor to control the pressure within the reactor. For example, using the temperature difference and the known volume of the confinement region, the ideal gas law can be used to back-calculate the pressure in the confinement region. In some cases, the pressure of the gas reactants within the reactor can be carefully monitored to maintain a high neutral density without compromising the structural integrity of the reactor.

If the reactor is a Lorentz rotor, liquid fuel is added in sufficient quantity or under thermal conditions so that the liquid does not evaporate immediately when it enters the confinement region. In such a case, an electric current can be passed through the liquid fuel by applying a potential between the electrodes. In some cases, the liquid is seeded with charged particles such as potassium. In the presence of a magnetic field, Lorentz forces rotationally drive the charged and neutral components of liquid fuel. As the kinetic energy of the rotating column increases, the liquid near the boundary layer along the confinement wall evaporates, releasing hydrogen gas or another reactive gas that can fuse with the target material at the confinement wall. For example, the release of hydrogen gas from a liquid fuel, if and containment wall comprises lanthanum hexaboride, proton - ^{11 B} fusion may occur. In some cases, the gas layer that develops between the rotating liquid and the confinement wall can form a slip layer that causes the liquid in the confinement region to rotate faster by reducing drag by the liquid-wall interface. In some cases, the liquid may absorb heat, reducing the concern that the electrodes will melt. Since the liquid has a higher density of fusion reactants compared to gas, the liquid can be used without long-term replacement. Although not limited to embodiments that use liquid fuel, in some cases the reactor may have a safety valve to vent gas from the reactor when the pressure exceeds a threshold. For transportation applications and the like, the fusion reactant is stored in liquid form and delivered to the reactor as a liquid or vaporized prior to delivery. By storing the fusion reactant in liquid form, the fuel supply can be small and compact.

In some cases, liquid fuel may be supplied to the reactor by a pressurized tank. In some cases, the fusion reactant (eg, hydrogen) may be contained in small capsules fed to the reactor. For example, hydrogen may be stored in a glass capsule and delivered to the reactor via a port in the containment wall. In some cases hydrogen may be supplied in a pressurized form (eg at a pressure of a few atmospheres), and in some cases hydrogen may be supplied in a liquid form. If the reactor is already in operation, the temperature inside the reactor may melt the material of the capsule vessel and release fuel immediately or for a delayed time (eg, minutes). In some cases, a laser (see, eg, FIG. 22) may be guided through the fuel capsule to destroy the encapsulant and release reactants or fuel, such as when the reactor is cold and not operating. it can. For automotive applications, reducing or eliminating the hardware (pressurized tank etc.) necessary to safely store the reactants makes it convenient to store a small amount of fusion reactants such as hydrogen in capsules. improves.

In some cases, fusion reactants such as hydrogen may be introduced into the reactor as solid compounds. For example, when hydrogen fuel is consumed in the reactor, polyethylene or polypropylene polymer fuel pellets can be fed into the reactor through ports in the containment wall. Once inside the reactor, the elevated temperatures caused by reactor operation or the energy of the laser (eg, the laser shown in FIG. 22) are sufficient to decompose the polymer and release hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, ammonia borane (also known as borazane) may be used as the hydrogen fuel. When the reactor reaches temperatures above about 100° C., ammonia borane releases molecular hydrogen and gaseous boron-nitrogen compounds. In some cases, ammonia borane or boron-nitrogen compounds act as electron emitters, and in some cases boron atoms from ammonia borane may undergo fusion reactions with hydrogen atoms during reactor operation. .. In many applications (eg, automotive applications), solid fuels can be made more convenient by reducing or eliminating the hardware needed to safely store gas or liquid fuels.
Cooling Systems In some cases it is necessary to cool the reactor to prevent overheating of the electrodes, magnets and/or other components in order to allow continuous operation of the reactor. In some embodiments, the reactor can be cooled by completely leaching the liquid bath. In some embodiments, a nuclear reactor includes a heat sink that removes heat from the reactor via conduction and transfers it to a fluid medium such as air or liquid coolant. As an example, a heat exchanger may be used. The fan or pump can control the flow rate and can help carry away the heat transferred to the fluid medium. The velocity of the fluid can be adjusted so that the flow of the fluid is adjusted between laminar flow and turbulent flow in response to the temperature monitored in the reactor. In some embodiments, the fluid may pass through a cooling jacket outside the reactor, and in some cases cooling tubes may be used to cool components within the reactor. Heat sinks, as described elsewhere herein, are used by a heat engine to transfer heat to a working fluid to produce electrical energy. Examples of liquids that can be used as working fluids for cooling a nuclear reactor include water, liquid lead, liquid sodium, liquid bismuth, molten salts, molten metals, and various alcohols, hydrocarbons, halocarbons. Organic compounds are included.
Power supply

The nuclear reactor may include one or a power supply for supplying electrical current to the electrodes, electromagnets and other electrical components required to operate the nuclear reactor. The power supply can control the current and/or voltage between two terminals (eg, concentric electrodes). In some embodiments, the power supply can provide a maximum voltage of about 200V to about 1000V. For example, in some embodiments, the power supply can supply up to 600V to the electrodes. In some embodiments, a small nuclear reactor can provide a current of about 0.1 A to about 100 A and/or can supply at least about 1 kW of power. In some mid-sized embodiments, the nuclear reactor can provide a current of about 1 A to about 1 kA and/or can provide a power of at least about 5 kW. In some large embodiments, the reactor can provide a current of about 1 A to about 10 kA, and/or can supply at least a few hundred kW of power.

Depending on the operating mode of the reactor, the power supply can provide direct current or alternating current. In some embodiments, an alternating current is applied to the electrodes to strike the plasma. In some cases, the voltage required to strike the plasma in the confinement region may be reduced by about 10% or more compared to using direct current to strike the plasma. When an AC signal is used to strike the plasma, the power supply can provide an alternating current or voltage signal at a frequency above about 1 kHz, or in some cases above about 1 Mhz.

In some configurations, alternating current may be applied to both the electromagnet and the electrodes, for example, when the electromagnet is used to provide an axial magnetic field. In some cases, alternating signals may be applied to the electrodes and electromagnets of the same frequency but out of phase. In some cases, the power source can apply a current or voltage signal greater than about 500 Hz, or greater than about 1 kHz to the electrode or electromagnet. In some cases, the electromagnet operates at the same frequency as the alternating current is applied to the electrodes so that the rotation of the particles can be maintained. In some cases, commercially available power supplies can apply current or voltage signals to the electrodes of the reactor or electromagnet. Examples of suitable power supply vendors include Advanced Energy Industries and TDK-Lambda American Inc. Is included.
Sensor

When operating a nuclear reactor, various parameters can be monitored to control the rate of energy output, improve efficiency, prevent component failure, and the like. For example, the temperature of the reactor can be monitored to ensure that the reactor components do not exceed a limited maximum temperature value. If the permanent magnet becomes too hot, it can be demagnetized, and if the electrode or other member becomes too hot, it can yield or melt. In some cases, relatively high temperatures are required for reactor operation. For example, some electron emitters need to acquire sufficient thermal energy before the electrons are emitted into the confinement region. The temperature in the reactor can be monitored using sensors such as thermocouples, inferred imaging and thermistors. In some cases, measuring the temperature at other locations within the reactor can infer a particular temperature within the reactor. For example, the temperature of the inner surface of the outer electrode can be inferred by monitoring the temperature of the outer surface of the outer electrode. In some cases, a low cost temperature sensor, such as a silicon band gap temperature sensor, can be used by indirectly measuring the temperature from an external location.

In some embodiments, gas pressure within the reactor can be monitored. By monitoring the pressure in front of the electron emitter, it can be squeezed against the confinement wall and thus give information about the electron density. By measuring the pressure in the chamber with the controller, the flow rate of gas species entering and exiting the confinement region can be adjusted. In some embodiments, the rotational velocity within the confined region or annular space can be monitored using a camera that captures hundreds or thousands of images per second. In some cases, the rotation of the species in the reactor can be measured by introducing a species that fluoresces or has detectable optical characteristics (eg, argon or quantum dots). In some embodiments, the soot composition in the confinement region can be monitored for fusion products (eg, ⁴ He and ³ He) or small amounts of deuterium in the reactant gas. In some embodiments, detection of fusion products and reactants uses an in-situ mass spectrometer (eg, a Hiden Analytical qRGA capable of detecting small amounts of deuterium in a gas sample), an optical spectrometer or an NMR sensor. Can be executed. In some embodiments, the nuclear reactor may be equipped with a Geiger counter for detecting the level of radiation.

23a-c show an example of how nuclear magnetic resonance sensing may be used to determine the composition of a gas reactant in a concentric electrode embodiment. FIG. 23a shows a reactor having an inner electrode 2320, an outer electrode 2310, and a magnetic field 2391 that is substantially uniform and time-varying in the z-direction 2391 passing through the confinement region. The axially applied magnetic field may be used to align the nuclear spins of the rotating species, and may be applied by the superconducting magnets described elsewhere herein. In some cases, the axial magnetic field is greater than about 0.1 Tesla, in some cases the axial magnetic field is greater than about 0.5 Tesla, and in some cases, the axis through the confinement region. The directional magnetic field is greater than about 2 Tesla.

If detection is required, the nuclear spins of the rotating species in the confinement region are perturbed by applying an RF pulse in the azimuthal direction. FIG. 23b shows how an azimuthal time-varying magnetic field 2392 is generated by applying an alternating current in the z direction of the inner electrode. In some embodiments, the frequency of the alternating current passing through the center electrode is about 60 Hz to about 1 MHz, and in some cases about 1 MHz to about 1 GHz. After perturbing the seed array with a time-varying magnetic field, the rate at which the nuclear spins of the seed are rearranged is monitored using a detection coil as shown in Figure 23c. The detection coil 2390 is substantially perpendicular to the long axis (z-axis) of the reactor and monitors the current passing through the coil by electromagnetic radiation absorbed and re-emitted by the rotating species. In some cases, detection coils similar to those used in medical NMR systems can be used.
Control system

The monitored parameters can be provided as inputs to a control system that maintains the integrity of system components and operates the reactor in a manner that supports fusion. The control system can control any of all parameters of the fusion reaction, and in some cases controls the process of collecting or utilizing thermal energy and other operations such as conversion to electrical energy or other useful energy. To do. In certain embodiments, the control system maintains a balance between heat generation and heat extraction. Thus, for example, in order to maintain this predetermined preselected balance, the control system may control the application of electrical energy applied to the electrodes in the reactor (eg, extend the time between each pulse or Reactants by modifying electrical fields, such as by shortening and/or modifying the voltage to generate plasma, by changing the magnetic field (eg, by combination of adjustable magnets and superconducting magnets) You can change the density of.

As described elsewhere herein, some parameters need to fall within a limited process window so that both of these conditions are met. In some cases, the control system receives information identifying the energy demand and adjusts the process conditions accordingly. The control system has criteria to initiate an automatic shutdown process to prevent damage to the reactor or nearby operators. For example, the reactor may quench the fusion reaction if the temperature of the confinement wall exceeds a certain threshold, or if the emission threshold is reached. The control system may quench the reactor, for example, by grounding all electrodes, closing gas input valves and/or introducing an inert gas species (eg, nitrogen).

In some cases, the control system may provide closed loop feedback, for example as shown in FIG. Based on the measured input parameters from the sensor 2460 and the desired energy output signal 2461, the control system 2462 sends a control signal 2463 to adjust various parameter settings of the reactor 2464 as necessary to provide an energy output 2465. Can control or meet other specifications. Input parameters used by the controller include parameters such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, gas composition fraction (eg, partial pressure), particle velocity, current discharge between electrodes and voltage. In some cases, the control system utilizes historical data for one or more parameters. For example, it is important to know a particular temperature value, but it is also important to know the rate and/or range over which the temperature fluctuates. Examples of reactor settings that can be adjusted by the controller include applied current, applied voltage, applied magnetic field strength (for electromagnets), and gas flow rate (eg, hydrogen flow rate). Typically, the controller transmits control signals to the reactor components that make the relevant settings. For example, a control signal can be transmitted to the power supply to instruct the power supply to apply the specified voltage. In some cases, the settings may be input parameters to the control system. For example, in deciding which voltage to apply, the controller may consider the current and/or voltage currently applied to the electrodes. In some cases, the controller uses machine learning to improve its decisions, allowing the reactor to become more efficient over time and resist physical changes in the device (eg, components If it fails and is replaced) or energy demand can be predicted.

Certain operational characteristics of the reactor can be independently controlled. For example, the coolant flow rate can be controlled using a system independent of the control system that regulates the main operating inputs of the reactor, such as current and gas flow rates. In another example, the electron emission module shown in Figure 21a may have an associated controller that receives the measured temperature of the electron emitter and determines which current should be applied to the filament to provide Joule heating.

The control system described above may be implemented in the form of control logic using computer software in a modular or integrated manner. There are many possible ways to control driving. Based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will understand how to implement control functions using hardware and/or a combination of hardware and software.

In some cases, the control system is implemented as software code executed by a processor using a suitable computer language, such as Java, LabVIEW, MATLAB, C++ or Python, using conventional or object-oriented technology, for example. obtain. The software code is a sequence of instructions or commands on a computer-readable medium, such as random access memory (RAM), read only memory (ROM), magnetic medium such as a hard drive or floppy disk, or optical medium such as CD-ROM. Can be saved as In some cases, the control system may be tested and designed using a FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) and then manufactured in an ASIC process. In some cases, the controller may be a single chip capable of safely storing and executing control logic. Such computer-readable media can reside on or in a single computing device, and can reside on or in different computing devices in a system or network. For example, the control system can be implemented using one or more processors, PLCs, computers, processor-memory combinations, and variations and combinations thereof. The control system can be a distributed control network, a control network, or large-scale plants and facilities known to those skilled in the art, other types of control systems controlling individual devices, and combinations and variations thereof.
Radiation Shields In some embodiments, a reactor may require few shields to reduce radiation exposure, for example, if the reactor supports neutron-free or near-neutron-free reactions. If there is concern of neutron emission, the reactor may be equipped with a suitable shield. Neutrons easily pass through most substances, but interact enough to cause biological damage. In some cases, the reactor may be located in a neutron absorbing enclosure. In some cases, the containment wall of the reactor includes an outer layer for absorbing neutrons. In some cases, the shield layer may be made of high moisture content concrete, polyethylene, paraffin, wax, water or other hydrocarbon materials. In some cases, the shield layer may include lead or boron as the neutron absorber. For example, boron carbide can be used as a shield layer, but the cost of concrete is very high. In some embodiments, the z-direction end of the nuclear reactor may include a material such as boron nitride that is adiabatic and electrically insulating as well as absorbing neutrons. In some cases, the electron emitter (eg, lanthanum hexaboride) serves the additional function of providing a shield from electron radiation. In some cases, in large reactors, tanks of water, oil or gravel, etc. may be placed above the reactor to provide an effective shield. The thickness of the shield layer depends, in part, on the materials used, the location of the reactor, the type of fusion reaction, and the dimensions of the reactor. In some embodiments, the shield layer is greater than about 10 cm, in some cases the shield layer is greater than about 100 cm, and in some cases the shield layer is greater than about 1 m.
Replaceable parts

Depending on the erosive nature of the plasma and fusion products in the reactor, the electrodes may be damaged, deformed, embrittled, etc. Under normal operating conditions, some components of the reactor will eventually fail and must be replaced. Furthermore, when operating conditions exceed certain thresholds (eg, high temperature, pressure, plasma potential or reactant concentration), the component will be damaged or worn faster. If hydrogen is used as the reactant, the electrodes can undergo hydrogen embrittlement over time. If the brittle electrode is not replaced, it will turn into a powder. In some cases, a nuclear reactor may inadvertently operate outside normal operating conditions, resulting in increased wear or structural damage to one or more electrodes or other components. For example, if the cooling system fails, the temperature of the electrode may approach the melting point and the electrode may deform. In some cases, thermal stress may cause microfractures on or within the electrode. If the electrode's internal cooling system ruptures and water vapor enters the confinement region, the reactor pressure can spike.

The fusion reactor described herein is highly configurable and modular. In particular embodiments, one or more members may be modified and/or replaced. It is expected that some components will be permanent and designed not to wear during the life of the reactor, while some components will be replaced after a certain operating cycle or hours. For each replaceable member, there is a designated procedure for removing, handling, modifying and/or replacing the member. Additionally, there may be one or more indicators and field-enabled diagnostics that indicate or predict deterioration of the component.

Examples of replaceable components include one or more electrodes within a nuclear reactor, fusion reactants, vessel fusion reactants (eg, hydrogen gas vessels), and energy conversion devices associated with the reactor.

Examples of indicators that a member needs to be replaced include a decrease in electrode conductivity, the time the member is in operation and the optical properties of the member (eg, optically detecting changes in the surface of the member). Is included. Mechanical failures can be determined by visual inspection or, in some cases, by monitoring measured parameters such as temperature, pressure and electrode conductivity. In some cases, the control system includes logic to determine mechanical failure of electrodes or other components.

In some cases, the conductivity and/or conductance of the electrodes may decrease over time. Due to the volatility of the plasma, there may be an electrically insulating dielectric coating formed on the electrodes. Reducing the conductivity and/or conductance of the electrodes may reduce reactor efficiency and/or require excessive power. If nothing is done to mitigate the reduction in reactor conductance and/or conductivity, the reactor can be electrically and/or thermally dangerous. Although much of the discussion herein has been concerned with determining the conductivity and/or conductance of electrodes, conductivity depends on location within the electrode. For example, the conductivity of the electrode's reaction-facing surface can be much lower than the conductivity inside the electrode after long-term operation. As another example, the conductivity of the original material in the electrode does not change significantly during operation, but a dielectric film formed on the reaction-facing surface of the electrode may significantly reduce the total conductance of the electrode. Instead of conductivity and/or conductance, resistivity and/or resistance may be determined.

Various techniques can be employed to monitor the conductivity and/or conductance of the electrodes, or to determine when the conductivity or conductance of the electrodes has reached a level that requires attention or replacement. In one example, the electrode geometry can be used to determine the electrical conductivity of an electrode by measuring the resistance between two points on the electrode surface when the reactor is not operating. This measurement can be performed manually for routine system checks, for example using a multimeter. In some cases, nuclear reactors are configured with a measurement circuit that automatically measures the resistance of the electrodes between operating cycles. In some cases, the reactor control system may be configured to automatically determine the electrode conductance from the measured resistance. Another way to determine the conductance of an electrode is to change the gas reactant in the confinement region to another gas and perform a diagnostic cycle that creates a plasma in the confinement region. For example, hydrogen gas can be replaced with argon gas, neon gas or nitrogen gas. The control system then monitors the electrical properties of the plasma and measures the voltage at the electrodes and the current passing through the electrodes. The conductivity of the electrodes can be determined based on the electrical properties of the argon plasma. For example, the conductivity of each electrode can be determined by comparing the measured electrical behavior of the argon plasma (or another plasma) with the expected electrical behavior. In some cases, the expected electrical behavior of the plasma (eg, argon plasma) can be determined by simulating or measuring the electrical behavior of a new reactor without a dielectric coating.

Predetermined thresholds of low conductivity or conductance values can be assigned to the electrodes of a nuclear reactor to trigger maintenance or replacement of the electrodes. For example, if the conductivity of the electrode is below about 80% of the expected value, then the electrode is replaced or treated to restore the conductivity to an appropriate level.

In some embodiments, a cleaning cycle is performed when the conductivity or conductance of the electrodes falls below acceptable levels. For example, in a cleaning cycle, a cleaning gas (eg, argon gas) is introduced into the confinement region to operate the reactor and create a plasma to remove some or all of the dielectric coating. In some cases, the weakly ionized plasma is sufficient to remove the dielectric coating. In some cases, the argon gas may be completely ionized during the cleaning cycle. Depending on the degradation chemistry, chemical repair treatments can be employed. For example, if the electrode degradation is due to hydride formation or other forms of hydrogen-mediated reduction, the damaged electrode may be treated with an oxidant (eg, oxygen-containing plasma).

In some cases, it may be determined that the reactor will not operate safely when the conductivity or conductance of the electrode falls below a specified level (eg, about 50% of its expected value). This may indicate that a thick dielectric film is being formed and the reactor requires dangerous levels of power from the power source. In some cases, the control system or associated safety system may be shut down until the affected electrodes are replaced or repaired. In some cases, the reactor control system includes logic to determine mechanical failures of electrodes or other components and then trigger reactor alerts or automatic shutdowns.

In some embodiments, one or more of the electrodes or magnets in the reactor include a protective or sacrificial layer. In some cases, the sacrificial layer may be a replaceable sleeve (eg, the sleeve forming the inner surface of the containment wall) at predetermined intervals. In some embodiments, metal parts such as electrodes or sleeves can be removed and subjected to a repair process, eg, an annealing process, to remove internal stresses that may have occurred due to thermal cycling. In some cases, for example, if the component has undergone hydrogen embrittlement, the component may be removed and the material of the component reprocessed to produce a new part. In some cases, embrittled components (eg, tantalum electrodes) can be restored to their ductile state by annealing under vacuum. For example, in some cases, an embrittled component can be repaired by annealing at about 1200° C. under vacuum.

The target material (fusion reactant) is eventually consumed and needs to be replaced. For example, some embodiments use lanthanum hexaboride with boron-11 as the reactant required for the proton-boron-11 fusion reaction. When consumed, this material needs to be replaced. Due to thermal cycling, lanthanum hexaboride may also become brittle and fail. Destruction or decomposition of lanthanum hexaboride reduces the yield of the fusion reaction. In some cases, the control system may notify the operator of power depletion corresponding to depletion of target material or removal from the confinement region. In some cases, the control system alerts the operator when the consumable (eg, lanthanum hexaboride) has reached a predetermined usage limit and needs to be replaced.

Example

The following non-limiting examples represent some embodiments that may be practiced in accordance with the broader principles described herein.
1. ) Negative electrode (outer electrode)

The outer electrode, sometimes referred to as a "shroud", comprises a cylindrical metal ring with multiple points attached to lanthanum hexaboride or other target material. The composition of the shroud is typically a refractory metal such as tantalum (Ta) or tungsten (W) due to the high thermal resistance of refractory metals, although certain embodiments of reactors include alloys such as alloy 316 stainless steel. Use low temperature metal. These embodiments may include a liquid cooling circuit that prevents the shroud from reaching the critical melting point of the composite metal. As explained, the outer electrode may be a more negative electrode or a more positive electrode.
conductivity

By utilizing the electric power from the external power source, it collides with the plasma in the reactor between the positive electrode and the negative electrode. This event is mediated by the voltage between the two electrodes and the current flowing through the electrodes and the plasma. The voltage required to bombard the plasma and initiate the fusion process may be directly related to the conductivity of the two electrodes. As mentioned above, there may be a dielectric (electrically insulating) coating deposited on the negative electrode, thus affecting the conductivity of the electrode.

A field-feasible diagnostic for determining the conductivity of the outer electrode is to measure the resistance between two points using a digital multimeter. In some implementations, when the resistance is measured, its value is entered into the QA software to indicate the outer electrode conductivity and operating conditions.

A second diagnostic for determining conductivity involves striking a glow discharge argon plasma in the reactor. This is done by the control software and then monitors the electrical behavior (voltage and current) of the argon plasma. By automatically comparing with the internal calibration, the control software can determine the conductivity of the electrodes and send the data to the QA software.

If the QA software indicates that the conductivity is below 80% of the standard conductivity rating of the composition metal, then the AR unit is said to be out of optimal operating conditions and in non-optimal operating conditions. If the conductivity is below 50% of the standard rating, the AR unit is said to be in an unsafe operating condition. This is because it draws too much power from the power source and poses a potential electrical and thermal hazard. When the conductivity is 0%, a complete insulating layer is formed on the negative electrode, indicating that the system does not run.

Operation: Continue operation unit as normal.

Non-optimal operation: Perform an argon flush cycle on the AR unit using the control software provided. Repeat until the conductivity enters the "optimal" zone. If the conductivity does not improve, perform the following “non-safe driving”.

Non-safe operation: The outer electrode needs to be cleaned.
Structural integrity

The mechanical structure of the shroud can be damaged, deformed or embrittled. This can happen for a variety of reasons.

Failure of the cooling system or improper operation of the cooling system can lead to extreme temperatures within the reactor that exceed safe operating parameters. These extreme temperatures can cause thermal shock and microfracture on or within the shroud. Furthermore, when these extreme temperatures approach the melting point of the shroud composition, the shroud itself will deform and begin to melt.

A field-feasible diagnostic for detecting structural integrity defects is a visual inspection prompted by an abnormal temperature alert from the control software. The control software monitors the temperatures of several different parts of the unit to ensure that each part is within safe operating parameters. When the temperature of such a member falls outside safe operating parameters, a temperature indicator can be triggered to send an alarm. In extreme cases (e.g., increased duration of such superheated members), the system requires shutting itself down and forcing a visual inspection of shroud integrity. If the shroud is damaged, it will be sent to the QA team for inspection and analysis.
2. ) Positive electrode (inner electrode)

The inner electrode can include a cylindrical metal disk and a hollow metal cylinder attached to a high voltage ceramic feedthrough on the back of the chamber. These two members are referred to as the "head" and "rod". The composition of the center electrode head is typically a refractory metal such as tantalum (Ta) or tungsten (W) due to the high thermal resistance of the refractory metal, but different embodiments of the reactor include alloy 316 stainless steel. Use low temperature metal. The hot center head runs longer and should be replaced less frequently. The center electrode rod is typically not made to the same extreme temperatures as the head, so it is made of alloy 316 stainless steel.

In some embodiments, the center electrode rod is cooled with liquid water to prevent overheating. In embodiments utilizing a hot head, the head is attached to the rod with molybdenum (Mo) set screws. Even in embodiments utilizing a cold head, the head is water cooled and welded or soldered to the rod so that the cooling circuit is continuous.
conductivity

As with the outer electrode, the conductivity of the inner electrode tunes the electrical behavior of the plasma. The change in conductivity results in a change in the voltage required to strike and maintain the plasma for the fusion reaction. As mentioned above, the volatility of the plasma and fusion reactions generated in the nuclear reactor forms a dielectric coating on the surface of the inner electrode and affects its conductivity.

The standard diagnostics that can be performed in the field to determine the conductivity of the center electrode (for the various operating conditions above) are the same as those of the inner electrode.
Structural integrity

The inner electrode has the same operational risk as the outer electrode (or shroud) with respect to structural integrity of the component. Although it can be damaged, deformed or embrittled, there are additional methods for fault detection other than thermal monitoring of certain parts by the control system due to the liquid cooling channels inside the inner electrode.

When the temperature of the center electrode rod (or, as shown in the alternative embodiment, the temperature of the liquid-cooled center electrode head) approaches the melting point of the composition material, the outer surface of the rod (or head) ruptures into the vacuum chamber. Allows the ingress of a combination of water vapor and liquid water. This can occur due to failure or improper use of the cooling system, as well as a sustained plasma arc of the center electrode rod (or head) itself. When this occurs, the pressure rises momentarily due to the predominance of water vapor entering the chamber through the crack. The control system detects this increase in pressure and immediately shuts down the system as well as displaying an error fault that guarantees immediate and necessary visual inspection.
3. ) Lanthanum hexaboride target

Lanthanum hexaboride, commonly referred to as LaB ₆ , is a refractory ceramic material used in the scientific industry as an electron emitter because of its low work function. In a nuclear reactor, LaB ₆ is attached to the negative electrode via attachment points that are evenly distributed along the inner wall. LaB ₆ contains the solid boron fuel needed for the fusion reaction and needs to be replaced when the fuel runs out.
Boron isotope composition

Boron in nature has two major isotopes, ¹⁰ B and ¹¹ B, which have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutron atoms. The most abundant of these two isotopes is ¹¹ B, with 80% of all boron present in this form. This is because some isotopically required for the fusion reaction occurs, it is necessary to know the relative concentration of the particular isotope present in the LaB ₆ fuel. Inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), etc. to detect this concentration There are various ways.

In some embodiments, there are no in-situ diagnostics that can measure the boron isotope composition of LaB ₆ as these are techniques that require the sample to be sent to a third party analytical diagnostic lab. ..
Structural integrity

Due to the ceramic nature of this compound, it is very brittle and very susceptible to thermal stress. And volatile reaction occurring in the reactor, the rate of rapid heating and cooling present in various components such as the center electrode and the shroud, there is a possibility that the structural integrity of the LaB ₆ is destroyed. In some embodiments of the reactor, LaB ₆ fuel has been observed that tend to degrade over time, which ensures the need for replacement.

LaB ₆ structural integrity of the fuel (and lack thereof) for determining, one field at a feasible diagnosis is visual inspection. Ensuring the need for visual inspection of the LaB _6, there is a specific indicator provided by the control software. Since the fusion reaction occurs at the LaB ₆ sites, all output power (eg, measured with control software) is extracted from these sites. If the steady state power of the reactor drops by 20% or more, it indicates a problem with one of the LaB ₆ pieces and triggers an alarm in the power indicator of the software. This type of alarm ensures the need for visual inspection of the LaB ₆ piece.
Energy conversion hardware

A nuclear reactor as described herein produces one or more forms of energy, and typically produces multiple energies simultaneously. When operating, most nuclear reactors produce thermal energy. It is also possible to generate radiant energy over a wide range or narrow range of frequencies. For example, excited species within a nuclear reactor (eg, electronically excited hydrogen atoms) emit radiation in one or more frequency bands. Generally, a nuclear reactor operates in a mode that requires a plasma and/or a mode that produces a plasma, and produces radiant energy in the presence of the plasma. Furthermore, many reactions produce charged species (eg, ions such as alpha particles) with high levels of kinetic energy. A nuclear reactor may also generate mechanical energy due to pressure fluctuations or vibrations.

Any one or more of these energy formats can be converted into various energy formats that can be used for a particular application. Thus, in certain embodiments, the energy conversion device or component is connected to the associated nuclear reactor. In some cases, the energy conversion device converts thermal energy from the nuclear reactor into electrical energy (eg, thermoelectric device). In some cases, the energy conversion device converts thermal energy from the nuclear reactor into mechanical energy (eg, a heat engine). In some cases, energy conversion devices convert electromagnetic radiation from a nuclear reactor into electrical energy (eg, photovoltaic devices). In some cases, the energy conversion device converts the kinetic energy of a charged reaction product (eg, alpha particles) or ionization fusion reactant (eg, protons) into electrical energy. In some cases, the energy conversion device converts mechanical energy from a nuclear reactor into electrical energy (eg, piezoelectric device).

Various energy conversion devices can convert thermal energy generated by a nuclear reactor into mechanical energy and/or electrical energy. For example, a thermoelectric generator can be thermally connected to a nuclear reactor to produce electrical energy. The thermoelectric generator may be thermally connected to the reactor, for example, by placing it in the containment wall of the reactor or by delivering thermal energy from the reactor via a heat transfer device such as a heat pipe. .. In another example, a nuclear reactor may convert thermal energy into mechanical energy (eg, piston movement or crankshaft rotation) via a heat engine. In some embodiments, the nuclear reactor is equipped with a Stirling engine. In some embodiments, a nuclear reactor may be equipped with a heat engine, for example, using a Rankine cycle in which the working fluid undergoes a periodic phase change. If electrical energy is required, the heat engine can be configured, for example, to have a generator that converts a rotating crankshaft or a oscillating piston into electrical energy.

Some energy conversion devices can convert electromagnetic or radiant energy produced by a nuclear reactor into electrical energy. For example, a nuclear reactor may have solar cells at either end of the confinement region to convert radiant energy into electrical energy. In some cases, the reactor may include a transparent barrier layer that provides thermal protection and/or an optical device for focusing radiant energy into the solar cell. In some cases, solar cells may have a tuned band gap that corresponds to a narrow band wavelength of radiant energy (e.g., corresponding to hydrogen) emitted from a nuclear reactor.

Further, the nuclear reactor can be configured to have a member that converts kinetic energy of charged particles emitted from the nuclear reactor into electric energy. For example, positively charged particles (eg, alpha particles) can force an opposite electric field generated by one or more electrodes that slows their movement. When the particles slow down, a current is generated in the electrical circuit connected to the positively charged electrode. In some cases, alpha particles emitted from the reactor can be guided to such electrodes via an applied magnetic field. In some cases, a nuclear reactor can be configured to have a magnetohydrodynamic generator (MHD generator) that converts the kinetic energy of the plasma produced as a result of a nuclear reaction into electrical energy.

In some cases, a nuclear reactor may use a single energy conversion device (or energy conversion module) to convert the energy produced by the nuclear reactor into mechanical and/or electrical energy. In some embodiments, a nuclear reactor may use multiple energy conversion devices (or energy conversion modules) to convert the energy produced by the nuclear reactor into mechanical and/or electrical energy. Since nuclear reactors can produce various forms of energy, different types of energy conversion devices can be combined to increase the total mechanical and/or electrical energy produced. In some cases, the addition of the second energy conversion device does not reduce the energy output of the first energy conversion device, as it allows the energy conversion device to absorb different forms of energy produced by the reactor. This is for conversion. For example, in some embodiments, a nuclear reactor may produce electrical energy from both solar cells that convert radiant energy and thermoelectric generators that convert thermal energy. In this example, the presence of solar cells may not reduce the electrical energy produced by the thermoelectric generator, and vice versa. In some embodiments, a nuclear reactor may be equipped with multiple energy conversion devices that convert the same type of energy produced by the nuclear reactor. For example, in some cases, a nuclear reactor may be equipped with both a Stirling engine and a thermoelectric generator, both of which utilize thermal energy. In this embodiment, the thermoelectric generator can easily obtain thermal energy that has not been converted into mechanical and/or electrical energy by the Stirling engine. In general, any combination of energy conversion devices or modules described herein can be used to generate mechanical and/or electrical energy from a nuclear reactor.
Case

Although not shown, the reactor may include a housing that separates the containment region from the ambient environment. In some cases, the dimensions of the housing are controlled in part by the outer dimensions of the containment wall. In some embodiments, the containment wall defines the boundaries of the housing in the r direction and the containment region is isolated from the external environment using flanges on opposite ends of the z direction containment wall. In some embodiments, the entire system including the control system, power supply, magnets and energy conversion device is located within the housing. The material selected for the enclosure depends on the intended purpose of the enclosure. For example, a housing may be required to provide biological shielding, thermal isolation and/or to allow low pressure operating conditions. In some cases, the housing may have a layered structure, with each layer providing a different function. For example, the housing may include a hydrocarbon material for biological shielding and a ceramic layer to provide thermal insulation. In some cases, multiple enclosures can be used. For example, the first enclosure can include a flange that seals the confinement region in the z-direction to create a vacuum chamber, and the second outer enclosure encloses the entire reactor. Based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein, one of ordinary skill in the art will know and understand how to implement and/or implement a housing that meets the needs of a nuclear reactor application.
Process conditions Multistage operation and/or reaction

In some cases, the energy output or efficiency of a nuclear reactor is improved when operating in multiple stages. In some cases, a nuclear reactor may have one or more preparatory steps to create conditions within the nuclear reactor for carrying out fusion reactions. For example, preparatory steps in a multi-step process can be used to raise the temperature of the electron emitter, cool the temperature of the confinement wall, generate a plasma in the confinement region, or change the gas pressure in the confinement region. .. FIG. 25 shows an example of a multi-step process flow for operating a nuclear reactor. In the first operation 2501, the electron emitter is heated until it reaches a predetermined temperature for emitting electrons. After heating the electron emitter at 2501, an alternating current is applied between the electrodes of the reactor to strike a weakly ionized plasma.

Immediately after starting the plasma in the confinement region, the reactor transitions to the stage of rotating charged particles in the reactor to maintain the fusion reaction. In some Lorentz type rotors it means applying a direct current to the electrodes when a uniform magnetic field is applied. Alternatively, in embodiments where an alternating magnetic field is applied in the z-direction of the reactor, this may mean applying an alternating current to the electrodes at the same frequency as the magnetic field oscillates. In some cases, an alternating current is applied to an electromagnet (eg, a superconducting magnet) or a physically moving permanent magnet, eg, having a rotor with an alternating magnetic orientation on either side of the confinement region. Thus, an alternating magnetic field is applied. In some cases, the rotation of neutrals and charged particles is maintained in the same direction by alternating electric and magnetic fields at the same frequency. For example, in some cases both electric and magnetic fields may oscillate at frequencies of about 0.1 Hz to 10 Hz, in some cases about 10 Hz to about 1 kHz, and in some cases above 1 kHz. is there.
In wave particle embodiments, a charge sequence of electrodes or a drive signal can be applied to the electrodes adjacent to the confinement region to initiate rotation. For example, the drive signal may start at a low frequency, such as about 60 Hz, and then ramp up to a higher frequency, such as about 10 MHz. In some cases, a nuclear reactor may include a similar multi-stage process to stop the fusion reaction. In some cases, the reactor may have an idle phase that occurs between when the fusion reaction is stopped and when it is restarted. The parameters can be closely monitored during the operation of the reactor. In nuclear reactors that utilize Lorentz forces to rotate charged species, the current density in the confinement region or annulus near the confinement wall ranges from about 150 A/m ² to about 10 kA/m ² . For example, it can be about 150 A/m ² to about 9 kA/m ² . In some cases, the current density near the confinement wall is in the range of about 150 A/m ² to about 700 kA/m ² , and in some cases about 400 A/m ² to about 6000 kA/m ^2. May be. In some cases, the reactor is operated to maintain a sufficient electric field near the containment wall. For example, in some cases, the electric field is greater than about 25 V/m, in some cases greater than about 40 V/m, and in some cases greater than about 30 V/m.

In some multi-stage operations, the reactor can periodically alternate the direction in which charged particles rotate. In some cases, alternating the directions in which charged particles rotate can increase the collision rate between two rotating fusion reactants. In some cases, the directions of rotation can be alternated to increase or control the rate of fusion within the reactor. In some embodiments, by alternating the direction of rotation, fusible events occurring in the annular space rather than on the confinement surface may slow down the fusible events on the confinement wall. If the containment wall becomes too hot, it may be beneficial to reduce the heat provided to the containment wall, for example. In the case of a Lorentz rotor, the directions of rotation can be alternated by applying alternating electric and/or magnetic fields. For example, if the magnetic fields alternate, but the electric field is maintained, the Lorentz forces on the charged particles also alternate directions. In some cases, the applied electric field and/or magnetic field is at a frequency between about 0.1 Hz and about 10 Hz, in some cases about 10 Hz to about 1 kHz, and in some cases greater than about 1 kHz. Alternating in frequency. This has the effect of concentrating electrons in the electron rich region and concentrating rotating particles in close proximity, and in some cases increasing the number of fusion reactions.
Gas conditions

If a gas (eg hydrogen or helium reaction gas) is introduced into the confinement region, it may be beneficial for the reaction gas to have a certain purity. In some cases, impurities contained in the volume of the reaction gas may reduce the fusion rate and total energy output. When the reactant gas is available in pure form, the reactant gas has a purity of at least about 99.95% by volume or at least about 99.999% by volume. That is, the impurities in the cylinder are less than 10 vpm (per one millionth of the volume).

In some cases, the natural isotope of hydrogen, deuterium, may be found in the hydrogen reaction gas. For example, deuterium can be present in impurities in hydrogen tanks, thus presenting a potential hazard if present in sufficient amounts in the reaction gas. If the fuel contains too much deuterium, a fusion reaction other than proton-boron ¹¹ may occur in the nuclear reactor. In some cases, these other reactions may release radioactive byproducts. To monitor the amount of deuterium in the reaction gas, the reactor may be equipped with a sensor, such as qRGA from Hiden Analytical Mass Spectrometer.

Prior to ignition, the reactor may contain neutrals to ions in a mole fraction of about 0%. After striking the plasma, the reactor can be operated so that the molar fraction of ions to neutrals in the rotating gas species is from about 1:1000 to about 1:1,000,000. In some cases, the mole fraction of ions to neutrals in the reaction gas varies with the particular stage of the multi-step process flow. For example, in the process flow of FIG. 23, after starting the plasma in step 2502, the mole fraction of gas ions to neutrals may be higher in step 2503 than that of a reactor operating in steady state. is there.

The reactor may be equipped with gas inlet and outlet valves, as described elsewhere. In principle, the flow of gas through the gas inlet valve and/or the gas outlet valve can be controlled in order to maintain the desired gas composition or gas pressure in the confinement region. In some cases, the volume of gas in the confinement region can be exchanged at a rate of less than about once a minute, or once an hour. In many embodiments, the gas valve may be sealed to prevent fluid flow during operation of the reactor.

In some cases, the reaction gas is maintained at standard temperature and pressure before the plasma is generated in this confinement region. In some cases, such as when using a vacuum enclosure, a vacuum pump is used to reduce the pressure to less than about 1×10 ⁻² Torr, and in some cases to about before using a vacuum in the confinement region. It can be reduced to less than 1×10 ⁻⁶ Torr. In some cases, in order to increase the density of the neutrals, the reaction gas supply line may increase the pressure in the reactor to less than about 0.1 Torr before striking the plasma in the confinement region or during operation of the reactor. High, and in some cases higher than about 10 Torr. During operation of a nuclear reactor, particles may experience centripetal accelerations of about one billion times the gravitational acceleration of the Earth's surface. In some cases, gas pressure and/or density along the containment wall can be monitored during operation of the reactor. If the pressure induced by the rotating species is insufficient near the confinement wall, the electron rich region will diffuse further into the confinement region and will not provide the desired electron screening effect. In some cases, the gas pressure near the containment wall can be monitored in real time. Prior to initiating the plasma, the temperature of the gas may be approximately room temperature, in some cases heating the gas first. In some cases, the gas is heated to greater than about 1,800°C, and in some cases the gas is heated to greater than about 2,200°C. During operation of the reactor, the gas may be heated such that the gas in the confinement region is in the range of about 400°C to about 800°C, and in some cases about 900°C to about 1500°C. ..

Reactant gases, as described elsewhere, are delivered to the reactor by a variety of mechanisms. If an inlet valve is used, the gas reactant is delivered from a gas canister or pressurized tank. In some embodiments, the reaction gas (eg, hydrogen) can be delivered to the containment region by diffusing out of the containment wall or hydrogen absorbing material (eg, titanium or palladium).
Operating conditions to reduce Coulomb barrier

As described elsewhere herein, the fusion rate per volume per unit time can be expressed as dN/dT=n1n2σν.

Where n1 and n2 are the densities of the respective reactants, σ is the fusion cross section at a particular energy, and ν is the relative velocity between the two interacting species. The product (σν) can be increased by reducing the Coulomb barrier. In some cases, the fusion cross-section is about 10 ⁻³⁰ cm ² to about 10 ⁻⁴⁸ cm ² , and in some cases, about 10 ⁻²⁸ cm ² to about 10 ⁻²⁴ cm ² . .. In some cases, the relative velocity is 10 ⁴ m/s to 10 ⁶ m/s, and in some cases about 10 ³ m/s to about 10 ⁴ m/s. In some cases, reduction of the Coulomb barrier may result in a fusion reaction rate of about 10 ¹⁷ to about 10 ²² per cubic centimeter per second along the confinement wall.

Electron-rich regions can be formed near the confinement walls to provide a screening effect between colliding nuclei, as described elsewhere. In some cases, electron emitters are used to provide free electrons to this region. The emitters are energized optically (eg, using a laser) by frictional heating and/or Joule heating of the rotating particles.

Within the electron rich region, the electron density is on the order of about 10 ¹⁰ cm ⁻³ to about 10 ²³ cm ⁻³ , and in some cases, within this region, the electron density is about 10 ²³ cm ^−. It is a digit of ^three . In some embodiments, the neutral density in the electron rich region is from about 10 ¹⁶ cm ⁻³ to about 10 ¹⁸ cm ⁻³ , and in some cases, the neutral density in the confinement region is about. It is on the order of 10 ²⁰ cm ⁻³ . In the electron-rich region, the density of cations is found to be much lower than the density of neutrals. In some cases, the cation density is from about 10 ¹⁵ cm ⁻³ to about 10 ¹⁶ cm ⁻³ . In some cases, in the electron rich region, the electron to cation ratio ranges from about 10 ⁶ :1 to about 10 ⁸ :1.

The radial thickness of the electron rich region is characterized as the region where most of the electron gradient is present. In some cases, the electron rich region is in the range of about 50 nm to about 50 um, and in some cases, the electron rich region is about 500 nm to about 1.5 um.

For example, a strong electric field may exist in an electron rich region about 1 um away from the confinement wall. In some cases, the electric field in the electron-rich region (or confinement region) is greater than 10 ⁶ V/m, and in some cases, the electric field is greater than about 10 ⁸ V/m. In some cases, the temperature of the electrons in this region is from about 10,000K to about 50,000K, and in some cases from about 15,000K to about 40,000K.

In some cases, if one parameter is constrained by physical constraints, that parameter can be a driving parameter that affects other parameters in the electron rich region. For example, the Lawson criterion concerns the balance of parameters.

In some cases, the electron rich region parameters depend in part on the targeted fusion reaction. For example, the p+ ¹¹ B reaction and the aD+D reaction have different parameter ranges.

In general, certain embodiments of the present disclosure reduce, or reduce, the Coulomb barrier by creating, modifying, or exploiting effects that have a negative (attraction) potential. In these embodiments, the potential approaching the nucleus has a significantly reduced Coulomb barrier due to tunneling.

Another way to increase the probability of a fusion event is to align the spins of the fusion reactant. Nuclear force has a spin-dependent component. If the spins are aligned between two nuclei (eg deuterons and deuterons), they reduce the Coulomb barrier. Nuclear magnetic moment plays a role in quantum tunneling. Specifically, when the magnetic moments of two nuclei are parallel, an attractive force is generated between the two nuclei. As a result, the total potential barrier between two nuclei having parallel magnetic moments is lowered, and a tunneling event easily occurs. When two nuclei have antiparallel magnetic moments, conversely, the potential barrier increases and tunneling is unlikely to occur. When the magnetic moment of a particular type of nucleus is positive, the nucleus tends to align the magnetic moment in the direction of the applied magnetic field. Conversely, when the moment is negative, the nuclei tend to align antiparallel to the applied electric field. Most of the nuclei, including most of the nuclei of interest as potential fusion reactants, have positive magnetic moments (p, D, T, ⁶ Li, ⁷ Li and ¹¹ B all have positive moments). Has ³ He and ¹⁵ N have negative moments). In certain embodiments, a magnetic field is provided that aligns the magnetic moments in approximately the same direction at all points within the device where the magnetic field is present. This reduces the total potential energy barrier between nuclei when the nuclear magnetic moments of the first and second working materials are both positive or negative. It is believed that this will increase the rate of tunneling and more fusion reactions will occur. This effect is also called spin polarization or magnetic dipole interaction. Furthermore, the rotation of the nucleus around the magnetic field lines also contributes to the determination of the total angular momentum of the nucleus. So if the cyclotron motion of the nucleus adds additional angular momentum in the same direction as the polarization of the nuclear magnetic moment, the Coulomb barrier is further reduced.

In some cases, the spin states of the fusion reactants (eg, ¹ H and ¹¹ B) within the confinement region and along the confinement walls are aligned by applying a magnetic field in the range of 1-20T. If a magnetic field is used to provide the Lorentz force, the magnetic field can also be aligned with the spin states of the fusion reactant. For example, the combination of electron screening and the reduction of the Coulomb barrier by spin polarization (which is enabled by the strong magnetic field acting on the reactant nuclei) can significantly improve the fusion rate. The electrostatic attraction between two nuclei includes spin-dependent terms that dominate over short distances (eg, less than 1 fm).
Use

The fusion reactors described herein have a wealth of applications that can solve many social problems such as dependence on fossil fuels. In some cases, the use of fusion reactors makes possible and/or practical energy-intensive applications not possible or practical with conventional power generation methods. A brief review of some applications of fusion reactors.

In some cases, fusion reactors can retrofit fossil-fuel power plants, such as those that burn coal, natural gas, or oil to produce electricity. In some cases, the fusion reactor described herein may be a retrofit of a fission power plant. When modifying a power plant, in some cases, only the energy producing part of the power plant needs to be replaced or renewed. This allows the turbines, generators, cooling towers, connections to the grid and other infrastructure to be reused, making power station retrofitting simple and cost effective. For example, a coal power plant can be retrofitted by replacing the coal-fired boiler with a fusion boiler utilizing the nuclear reactors described herein. Similarly, fission power plants can be retrofitted by replacing the control rods and uranium fuel with the fusion reactors described herein.

In some cases, fusion reactors have a modular design that uses multiple small nuclear reactors. By having multiple reactors, the power output of the plant can be adjusted to meet energy needs by varying the number of reactors in operation. Moreover, if individual reactors can be repaired or replaced while other reactors are operating, the total power output of the plant may not be significantly affected.

In some cases, fusion reactors can be used as heating interfaces for industrial processes such as glass fiber manufacturing. In some cases, a nuclear reactor may be configured as a heat source for a steam generator (eg, a steam generator used for steam cleaning or metal cutting). In some cases, the reactor is used as a source of helium, which is produced as a result of the fusion reaction (eg, when the reactor performs a proton-boron-11 fusion). In some cases, the nuclear reactor can be used as part of a water heater, such as a domestic water heater. For example, the reactor may be located inside the water tank or may be thermally coupled to the water tank so that the heat generated by the reactor is used to heat the water. In some cases, a fusion-based water heater may be combined with a water radiator to provide indoor heating.

In some cases, fusion reactors are used in transportation applications. For example, fusion reactors power cars, planes, trains and boats. For example, a motor vehicle may be equipped with a nuclear reactor equipped with one or more energy conversion modules configured to produce electrical and/or mechanical energy. In electric vehicles, the electrical energy produced by a nuclear reactor can be used to charge a battery or capacitor to power an electric motor. For example, when the state of charge of the battery falls below a certain threshold, the reactor can be operated to charge the vehicle battery. In some cases, mechanical energy is produced, for example, by a Stirling engine for providing driving power to a vehicle. In some cases, a fusion reactor can power a spacecraft. Some designs of spacecraft use nuclear fission reactors, such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Such designs suffer from the use and production of radioisotopes. Also, it is necessary to carry a relatively large amount of radioactive fuel. These reactors are much more preferred for manned spacecraft, as the reactors described herein can be neutron-free or nearly neutron-free. Moreover, the energy density of the fusion reactants used in the nuclear reactors described herein is significantly higher than the fuel required for fission or chemical reactions to produce the same amount of energy.

Claimed elements that do not list "means" or "steps" are not in the form of "means+function" or "step+function" (see 35 USC § 112(f)). Applicant has found that only the claim elements stating "means" or "steps" are 35 U.S.M. S. C. It is intended to be interpreted under or based on § 112(f).

The present disclosure may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or basic characteristics of the invention. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive. The scope of the disclosure is, therefore, indicated by the appended claims rather than the foregoing description. All changes that come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope.

Claims (56)

A nuclear reactor,
A confinement wall at least partially surrounding a confined region within which charged particles and neutrals are rotatable;
A plurality of electrodes adjacent to or in proximity to the confinement region,
A voltage and/or current source configured to apply an electric potential between at least two of the plurality of electrodes, the applied electric potential generating an electric field in the confinement region, the electric field alone or with a magnetic field. A control system in combination to induce and/or maintain rotational operation of the charged particles and the neutrals in the confinement region;
Reactants located within or adjacent to the confinement region that, during operation, interact with the reactants by repeated collisions between the neutrals and the reactants. And the interaction releases energy and produces a product, and the nuclear mass of the product is different from the nuclear mass of any of the neutrals and the nuclei of the reactants, and during operation, the reactants A reactant having an electron rich region in the confinement region proximate to, wherein the amount of electrons in the electron rich region is at least about 10 6 /cm ³ more than in positively charged particles;
Reactor equipped with. The plurality of electrodes are azimuthally distributed around the confinement region, and the control system applies the time-varying voltage to the plurality of electrodes to charge the charged particles and the neutral material. Configured to induce rotational operation in a confined area,
The nuclear reactor according to claim 1. The nuclear reactor is configured to induce rotational operation of charged particles and neutrals in the confinement region by an interaction between the electric field in the confinement region and an applied magnetic field. The nuclear reactor according to 1 or 2. During operation, the ratio of electrons to cations in the electron rich region is about 10 ⁶ :1 to 10 ⁸ :1.
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. During operation, the electric field strength of the electron rich region is at least about 10 ⁶ V/m,
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. During operation, the average temperature of the electrons in the electron rich region is about 10,000K to 50,000K,
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. During operation, the average energy of the neutrals in the electron rich region is about 0.1 eV to 2 eV.
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. During operation, the density of the electrons in the electron rich region is about 10 ¹⁰ cm ⁻³ to about 10 ²³ cm ⁻³ .
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. In operation, the electron rich region extends from the reactant to the confinement region to a distance of about 50 nm to 50 μm,
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. In operation, the concentration of neutrals in the confinement region proximate to the reactants is at least about 10 ¹⁶ /cm ³ .
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. During operation, the concentration of the neutrals in the confinement region proximate to the reactants is from about 10 ¹⁶ /cm ³ to about 10 ¹⁸ /cm ³ .
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. Further comprising an electron emitter located within or adjacent to the confinement region, the electron emitter generating electrons in the confinement region during operation,
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. The electron emitter is attached or fitted to the confinement wall,
The nuclear reactor according to claim 12. Further comprising one or more insulating layers configured to provide thermal insulation and/or electrical insulation, inserted between the confinement wall and the emitter.
The nuclear reactor according to claim 13 or 14. The one or more insulating layers include zirconia, alumina, zinc nitride and magnesia,
The nuclear reactor according to claim 14. The electron emitter has at least one point protruding into the confinement region,
The nuclear reactor according to any one of claims 12 to 15. Further comprising a filament in thermal communication with the electron emitter,
The control system is further configured to apply a current through the filament.
The nuclear reactor according to any one of claims 12 to 16. Further comprising a temperature sensor configured to monitor the temperature of the electron emitter,
The control system is configured to apply an electric current to the filament based on a monitored temperature.
The nuclear reactor according to claim 17. Further equipped with a laser,
The laser emits a light beam arriving on the electron emitter or the confinement wall through the confinement region, and the interaction between the light beam and the electron emitter or the confinement wall causes the electrons to Configured to cause ejection into the interior of the confinement region,
The nuclear reactor according to any one of claims 12 to 18. The electron emitter is configured to enter and exit the confinement region during operation of the reactor.
The nuclear reactor according to any one of claims 12 to 19. The control system is further configured to control movement of the electron emitter in the confinement region.
The nuclear reactor according to claim 20. Further comprising a temperature sensor installed to monitor the temperature of the electron emitter,
The control system is configured to control movement of the electron emitter in the confinement region based on a monitored temperature.
The nuclear reactor according to claim 21. The electron emitter comprises boron or a boron-containing material,
The nuclear reactor according to any one of claims 12 to 22. The reactant includes boron-11,
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. The nuclear mass of the product is greater than the nuclear mass of any one of the neutrals and the reactant nuclei,
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. The interaction is a fusion reaction,
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. The fusion reaction is a neutronless reaction,
The nuclear reactor according to claim 26. The neutral substance includes neutral hydrogen, deuterium and/or tritium,
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. Extracting thermal energy, kinetic energy and/or mechanical energy from the nuclear reactor of the charged reaction product to convert the thermal energy, kinetic energy and/or mechanical energy into electric energy and/or mechanical energy, Further comprising an energy conversion device arranged to perform work outside the nuclear reactor,
Reactor according to any one of the preceding claims. A method of operating a nuclear reactor,
Applying a potential between at least two of a plurality of electrodes in the reactor, the reactor comprising:
A confinement wall at least partially surrounding the confinement region;
A plurality of electrodes adjacent to or in proximity to the confinement region,
A control system comprising a voltage and/or current source configured to apply an electric potential between at least two of said plurality of electrodes, the applied electric potential generating an electric field in said confinement region;
A reactant disposed within the confinement region or adjacent to the confinement region,
The electric field in the confinement region acts alone or in combination with a magnetic field to induce and/or maintain rotational operation of charged particles and neutrals in the confinement region,
During operation of the reactor, the confinement region proximate to the reactants includes an electron rich region, the amount of electrons in the electron rich region being at least about 10 ⁶ /cm ³ more than positively charged particles,
During the operation of the nuclear reactor, an interaction with the reactant is generated by repeated collisions between the neutral matter and the reactant, the interaction releases energy and produces a product, and A method for operating a nuclear reactor, wherein the nuclear mass of the product is different from the nuclear mass of any one of the nucleus of the neutral substance and the nucleus of the reactant. The plurality of electrodes are azimuthally distributed around the confinement region, and the control system applies the time-varying voltage to the plurality of electrodes to charge the charged particles and the neutral material. Configured to induce rotational operation in a confined area,
31. The method of claim 30. The electric field acts on the confinement region in combination with the magnetic field to induce and/or maintain rotational operation of the charged particles and the neutrals in the confinement region,
31. The method of claim 30. During operation of the reactor, the ratio of electrons to cations in the electron rich region is about 10 ⁶ :1 to 10 ⁸ :1.
The method according to any one of claims 30 to 32. The electric field strength of the electron rich region is at least about 10 ⁶ V/m during operation of the reactor;
The method according to any one of claims 30 to 33. During operation of the nuclear reactor, the average energy of the neutrals in the electron rich region is about 0.1 eV to 2 eV.
The method according to any one of claims 30 to 34. During operation of the reactor, the density of electrons in the electron rich region is about 10 ¹⁰ cm ⁻³ to about 10 ²³ cm ⁻³ .
The method according to any one of claims 30 to 35. During operation of the reactor, the electron rich region extends from the reactant to the confinement region to a distance of about 50 nm to about 50 μm,
The method according to any one of claims 30 to 36. During operation of the reactor, the concentration of the neutrals in the confinement region proximate to the reactants is at least about 10 ¹⁶ /cm ³ .
The method according to any one of claims 30 to 37. The concentration of the neutrals in the confinement region proximate to the reactants during operation of the reactor is from about 10 ¹⁶ cm ⁻³ to about 10 ¹⁸ cm ⁻³ .
The method according to any one of claims 30 to 38. Further comprising an electron emitter located within or adjacent to the confinement region, the electron emitter generating electrons in the confinement region during operation,
The method according to any one of claims 30 to 39. Further comprising controlling the generation of electrons in the confinement region,
The method of claim 40. Controlling the generation of electrons in the confinement region includes applying an electric current to a filament in thermal communication with the electron emitter.
The method of claim 41. Further comprising monitoring the temperature of the electron emitter,
The current applied to the filament is based on the monitored electron emitter temperature,
43. The method of claim 42. Controlling the generation of electrons in the confinement region comprises moving the electron emitter into and out of the confinement region,
The method according to any one of claims 41 to 43. Further comprising monitoring the temperature of the electron emitter,
Ingress and egress of the electron emitter from the confinement region is based on the monitored temperature of the electron emitter,
The method of claim 44. Controlling the generation of electrons in the confined region comprises:
Controlling the light emission of the laser,
The laser is configured to emit a light beam arriving through the confinement region onto the electron emitter or onto the confinement wall.
46. A method according to any one of claims 41-45. Further comprising monitoring the temperature of the electron emitter,
Controlling the light emission of the laser based on the monitored temperature of the electron emitter,
The method of claim 46. The electron emitter is attached or fitted to the confinement wall,
48. A method according to any one of claims 40-47. The electron emitter comprises boron or a boron-containing material,
49. A method according to any one of claims 40-48. The reactant includes boron-11,
A method according to any one of claims 30 to 49. The nuclear mass of the product is greater than the nuclear mass of any of the neutrals and the reactant nuclei,
The method according to any one of claims 30 to 50. The interaction is a fusion reaction,
52. A method according to any one of claims 30-51. The fusion reaction is a neutronless reaction,
53. The method of claim 52. The fusion reaction occurs in the electron rich region at a rate of about 10 ¹⁷ to about 10 ²² fusion reactions per cubic centimeter per second.
53. The method of claim 52. The neutral substance includes neutral hydrogen, deuterium and/or tritium,
55. The method according to any one of claims 30-54. Further comprising converting thermal energy, kinetic energy and/or mechanical energy from the charged reaction product into electrical energy and/or mechanical energy to perform work outside the nuclear reactor.
The method according to any one of claims 30 to 55.