TW202226272A - Reactor using azimuthally varying electrical fields - Google Patents

Abstract

Methods, apparatuses, devices, and systems for producing and controlling and fusion activities of nuclei. Hydrogen atoms or other neutral species (neutrals) are induced to rotational motion in a confinement region as a result of ion-neutral coupling, in which ions are driven by electric fields. The controlled fusion activities cover a spectrum of reactions including aneutronic reactions such as proton-boron-11 fusion reactions.

Description

Reactors using azimuthally varying electric fields

The present invention relates to an internuclear reaction and a reactor for initiating and maintaining the internuclear reaction.

Since the 1950s, the scientific and technological community has been striving to achieve controllable and economically viable nuclear fusion. Fusion is a highly desirable source of energy for many reasons, but after billions of dollars and decades of research, the idea of fusion as a sustainable source of clean energy has become a dream come true. The challenge we face is to find a way to sustain fusion reactions in an economical, safe, reliable and environmentally friendly way. This challenge proved extremely difficult. The prevailing view of this technology is that fusion is still 25-50 years away before fusion becomes a viable option for power generation – as the old joke goes “fusion is the energy of the future – and always will be in the future” (“ Next ITERation?”, Sep. 3, 2011, The Economist).

Previous research on large-scale fusion has focused on two approaches: inertial confinement fusion (ICF) and magnetic confinement fusion. ICFs attempt to initiate fusion reactions by compressing and heating needle-sized pellets of fusion reactants, such as a mixture of deuterium and tritium. The fuel is energized by delivering a high-energy laser beam, electron beam, or ion beam to the fuel target, causing the heated outer layer of the target fuel to explode and generate a shock wave that propagates inward through the fuel particles, compressing and heating the fusion reactants, thereby triggering a fusion reaction.

At the time of filing this patent application, the most successful ICF program was the National Ignition Facility (NIF), which cost nearly $3.5 billion to build and was completed in 2009. NIF has reached a milestone in making fuel particles emit more energy than is input, but as of 2015, NIF experiments were only able to achieve about 1/3 of the energy required to ignite. Regarding sustainable reactions, the longest time for an ICF fusion reaction is 150 picoseconds. Even if ICF's efforts achieve ignition conditions that make it a viable energy source, there are still many hurdles. For example, solutions are needed to remove heat from the reaction chamber without interfering with the fuel targets and drive gears, as well as solutions that mitigate the short lifespan of fusion devices due to the radioactive by-products of fusion reactants: deuterium and tritium reactions produce neutrons.

The second major research direction, magnetic confinement fusion, attempts to induce fusion by using a magnetic field to confine thermal fusion fuel in the form of plasma. The approach is designed to prolong the time ions are in close proximity, as well as increase the likelihood of fusion. Magnetic fusion devices apply a magnetic force to charged particles such that when balanced with centripetal force, the particles move in a circular or spiral path within the plasma. Magnetic confinement prevents the hot plasma from contacting its reactor walls. In magnetic confinement, fusion occurs entirely within the plasma.

Most studies of magnetic confinement are based on the Tokamak design, in which hot plasma is confined within a toroidal magnetic field. The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) in Princeton, NJ is the world's first magnetic fusion device to conduct extensive scientific experiments using a 50/50 deuterium/tritium plasma. Built in 1980, it was initially expected that TFTR would eventually achieve fusion energy, but it ultimately fell short and it closed in 1997. The longest plasma duration of any tokamak to date is 6 minutes and 30 seconds, held by France's Tore Supra tokamak. Current efforts in magnetic confinement fusion focus on the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), a tokamak reactor that began construction in 2013. Construction costs have exceeded $14 billion as of June 2015 and are expected to be completed by 2019, and the facility is expected to begin deuterium-tritium testing in 2027. The cost of the project is currently estimated at more than $50 billion, and costs are likely to continue to rise. Recently, the Senate-funded Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development issued a recommendation that the United States withdraw from the ITER program. Due to market realities and the inherent limitations of tokamak fusion power generation designs, many analysts doubt that fusion reactors such as ITER will become commercially viable devices.

An alternative form of magnetic confinement is being investigated at the Maryland Centrifuge Experiment (MCX) at the University of Maryland. It will test the concepts of centrifugal confinement and velocity shear stability. In this experiment, in the design in the presence of a magnetic field, the capacitor was expelled from the cylindrical cathode through the hydrogen gas to the surrounding vacuum chamber. Orthogonal electric and magnetic fields (denoted as J×B) generate forces that drive the rotation of the thermally ionized plasma (>10 ⁵ K) around the discharge electrode. Due to the significant changes in plasma boundary temperature, cold neutral species that significantly affect the plasma flow are inevitably present. The research has focused on the effects of neutral particles, and they argue that "hindering the desired plasma rotation" is required for fusion conditions. A "neutral substance" or simply "neutral particle" is an atom or molecule that has a neutral charge, i.e. they have the same number of electrons and protons, which in the design of the atom is the atomic number. An ion or ionized atom or other particle has an electric charge, ie it has at least one more electron than a proton or at least one more proton than an electron.

Rotating plasma devices that do not employ highly ionized plasma have been considered for nuclear fusion research, but neutral particles have long been considered a hindrance to reaching fusion conditions. Due to limiting effects including neutral drag and instability, one researcher in the field argues that, although "not entirely impossible, it is still unlikely that a self-sustaining fusion reactor relying on rotating plasma alone is possible." (Review Article: ROTATING PLASMAS", Lehnart, Nuclear Fusion 11 (1971).

All credible prior methods face constraints and engineering problems. The total energy balance Q of a fusion reactor is defined as follows:

Q=E _fusion /E _in ,

where E _fusion is the total energy released by the fusion reaction and E _in is the energy used to produce the reaction. The goal is to get a Q value greater than 1 or greater than unity, thereby creating a usable energy source. Officials at United Airlines of Europe (JET) claim to have achieved Q ≈ 0.7, and US National Ignition recently claimed to have achieved Q > 1 (ignoring the very large energy loss of its lasers). The condition of Q = 1, called "balance of profit and loss", means that the amount of energy released through the fusion reaction is equal to the amount of energy input. In fact, the reactors used to generate electricity should exhibit a Q-value much greater than 1, making it commercially viable because only a fraction of the fusion energy is converted into a useful form. Conventional thinking holds that only strongly ionized plasmas without a large number of neutral particles have the possibility to achieve Q > 1. These conditions limit the particle density and energy confinement time that can be achieved in fusion reactors. As such, the field sees the Lawson criterion as a benchmark for controlled fusion reactions—a benchmark that no one has yet achieved when all energy inputs are considered. The pursuit of the Lawson Criterion, or a broadly similar paradigm, has resulted in fusion devices and systems that are large, complex, unmanageable, expensive, and, of course, economically infeasible. The formula for Lawson's criterion is the triple vector product as follows:

，溫度（T））和約束時間(

必大於一個數，這個數取決於帶電聚變產物(

)的能量，玻爾茲曼常數(

)，聚變橫截面(

)，相對速度(

)，和溫度。對於氘 - 氚反應，三重積的最小值發生在溫度T = 14keV，三重積的值約為

keV s / m ³(J. Wesson, "Tokamaks", Oxford Engineering Science Series No 48, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2nd edition, 1997.) 實際上，這個行業基準表明，使用氘氚聚變反應需要超過1.5億攝氏度的溫度才能實現正能量平衡。對於質子 - 硼11聚變，勞森判據表明所需溫度必須大幅度增加。更具體地， nτ˜10 ¹⁶釐米 ^-3/s , 比氘氚聚變高上百倍[來自 Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion: Fundamentals and Applicationsby George H. Miley and S. Krupaker Murali]. Although Lawson's criterion is not discussed in detail here; in essence, Lawson's criterion states that to achieve ignition conditions, the particle density (

, temperature (T)) and constraint time (

must be greater than a number that depends on the charged fusion products (

), the Boltzmann constant (

), fusion cross-section (

),Relative velocity(

), and temperature. For the deuterium-tritium reaction, the minima of the triple product occurs at temperature T = 14keV, and the value of the triple product is approximately

keV s / m ³ (J. Wesson, "Tokamaks", Oxford Engineering Science Series No 48, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2nd edition, 1997.) In fact, this industry benchmark shows that using deuterium-tritium fusion reactions requires more than 150 million degrees Celsius temperature to achieve a positive energy balance. For proton-boron 11 fusion, Lawson's criterion states that the required temperature must be increased substantially. More specifically, n τ˜10 ¹⁶ cm ^-3 /s , which is hundreds of times higher than deuterium-tritium fusion [from Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion: Fundamentals and Applications by George H. Miley and S. Krupaker Murali].

One aspect of Lawson's criterion is based on the premise that thermal energy must be continuously added to the plasma to replace the lost energy, maintain the plasma temperature and keep it fully or highly ionized. In particular, a major source of energy loss in conventional fusion systems is radiation due to electron bremsstrahlung and cyclotron motion when mobile electrons interact with ions in hot plasmas. The Lawson criterion was formulated for fusion methods, where electron radiation loss is an important factor due to the use of a hot and highly ionized plasma with high-speed moving electrons.

Since conventional thinking requires a high temperature and strongly ionized plasma without the significant presence of neutral particles, it is further believed that inexpensive physically confinement reactions are not possible. Therefore, the most widely used methods involve complex and expensive schemes to control the reaction, such as with magnetic confinement systems (eg, ITER tokamak) and inertial restraint systems (eg, NIF laser).

In fact, at least one source material admits that it is not possible to include a fusion reaction with physical structure: "The simplest and most obvious method for providing plasma confinement is through direct contact with material walls, but for two fundamental reasons Impossible: the walls would cool the plasma, and most wall materials would melt. Let's recall that fusion plasmas here require temperatures of ~10 ⁸ K, while metals typically melt at temperatures below 5000 K. ( “Principles of Fusion Energy,” AA Harms et al.). The need for extremely high temperatures is based on the belief that only charged energetic ions can fuse and that Coulomb repulsion limits fusion events. Existing teaching in the field relies on This basic assumption is used in most studies and projects.

In very few designs, researchers consider ways to reduce the Coulomb barrier or repulsion force (the positive nucleus of its repulsive interaction) to reduce the energy required to initiate and sustain fusion. These methods and the methods described above have been largely ignored as impractical.

In the 1950s, Luis Alvarez studied muon-catalyzed nuclear fusion using hydrogen bubble chambers at the University of California, Berkeley. Alverez's work ("Catalysis of Nuclear Reactions by μ Mesons." Physical Review. 105, Alvarez, L.W.; et al. (1957)) demonstrated that nuclear fusion occurs at temperatures significantly lower than those required for thermonuclear fusion. In theory, it is proposed that fusion occurs even at or at room temperature. In the process, a negatively charged muon replaces an electron in the hydrogen molecule. Since muons have 207 times more mass than electrons, hydrogen nuclei are 207 times closer than atomic molecules. When nuclei are brought close together, the probability of nuclear fusion increases greatly, until a large number of fusion reactions are possible at room temperature.

Although muon-catalyzed fusion has received some attention, efforts to use muon-catalyzed fusion as an energy source have not been successful. Current techniques for generating large numbers of muons require large amounts of energy, far exceeding that produced by catalyzing nuclear fusion reactions, and thus fail to achieve breakeven or Q > 1. Furthermore, each muon has only a 1 chance of "sticking" to an alpha particle created by a deuterium nucleus (the nucleus of deuterium) and a tritium nucleus (the nucleus of tritium) (which keeps the "stuck" muon free from the catalytic loop) %, which means that each muon can only catalyze a few hundred deuterium-tritium fusion reactions. Therefore, these two factors -- muons are too expensive to produce and muons are too easy to stick to alpha particles -- muon-catalyzed fusion is limited to the laboratory. To produce useful muon-catalyzed fusion reactions, reactors will need cheaper, more efficient sources of muons and/or a way to catalyze more fusion reactions per muon. So far, no feasible method has been found, not even in theory.

In March 1989, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons submitted an article to the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry reporting that they had discovered a method for reducing the Coulomb barrier by what is now commonly referred to as "cold fusion." They think they have observed nuclear reaction byproducts and a large amount of heat from a small benchtop experiment involving the electrolysis of heavy water on the surface of a palladium electrode. One explanation for cold fusion is that hydrogen and its isotopes can be absorbed at high densities in certain solids such as palladium. The absorption of hydrogen creates a high partial pressure that reduces the average spacing of hydrogen isotopes and thus lowers the barrier. Another explanation is that the electron masking of positive hydrogen nuclei in the palladium lattice is sufficient to lower the barrier.

While the Fleischmann-Pons findings initially received a lot of attention, acceptance by the scientific community was largely crucial, as a Georgia Tech team quickly discovered the problem with their neutron detector, Texas A&M University found that their thermometer was wired badly. These experimental errors, and the many failed attempts by well-known labs to replicate the Fleischmann-Pons experiment, led the scientific community to the conclusion that any positive experimental results should not be attributed to "fusion." Due in part to the public concern, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) organized a panel to review cold fusion theory and research. The U.S. Department of Energy first concluded in November 1989 and again in 2004 that results so far have provided no convincing evidence that the phenomenon of "cold fusion" can produce useful energy.

Another attempt to lower the Coulomb barrier is to use electron masks in solid matrices. Electron masking was first observed in stellar plasmas, and changing the masking factor by only a few percent results in a five-order-of-magnitude change in fusion rate (Wilets, L., et al. "Effect of screening on thermonuclear fusion in stellar and laboratory plasmas" ." The Astrophysical Journal 530.1 (2000): 504.). Wilets discovery: Thermonuclear fusion rate in plasma is controlled by barrier penetration. The barrier itself is governed by the Coulomb repulsion of the fusion core. Because the barrier potential appears in the exponent of the Gamow formula, the results are very sensitive to the masking effects of electrons and positive ions in the plasma. The mask lowers the barrier, thereby increasing the fusion reaction rate; the more charged the nucleus, the more important the mask is.

An example of an attempt to exploit this electronic mask effect to create ignition conditions is presented in US Patent Publication No. US2005/0129160A1 to Robert Indech. In this application, Indech describes a positively charged electron mask between two deuteron nuclei located near the tip of a microscopic cone structure when electrons are concentrated at the top of the cone structure due to an applied electric potential. As disclosed, the cones are arranged on a 3 cm x 3 cm surface.

Although Indech et al. have recognized a potential electron mask to lower the Coulomb barrier of fusion reactors, any efforts that have been successful are doubtful. Most of these efforts appear to propose ignition methods rather than sustained and controlled fusion reactions. Despite efforts in ICF, magnetic confinement fusion, and various approaches to reduce Coulomb barriers, there is currently no commercially viable fusion reactor design.

One aspect of the present disclosure relates to a device comprising features (a)-(f). Features (a) a confinement wall, which is an axial, substantially cylindrical inner surface, wherein the confinement wall has a maximum diameter of less than about 50 centimeters; (b) a plurality of electrodes azimuthally distributed along the confinement wall; feature ( c) The entrance to the confinement area, which is used to allow the introduction of neutral substances into the confinement area. Feature (d) A control system comprising a voltage and/or current source configured to sequentially apply one or more potentials to each of the plurality of electrodes to induce and/or maintain ions and neutrals Rotational motion in the constrained area. (f) reactants attached to or embedded in the confinement wall, during operation, repeated collisions between neutrals and reactants produce interactions of reactants, which in turn release energy and produce nuclei of different masses than neutral particles and reactants product.

In some embodiments, the device includes at least one magnet configured to apply a magnetic field to the confinement region such that the magnetic field is directed at least partially in the direction of the axis of the substantially cylindrical inner surface.

In some embodiments, at least four electrodes are included. In some embodiments, about twenty to eighty electrodes are included. In some embodiments, electrodes of the plurality of electrodes have a width in the azimuthal direction of about 10 centimeters or less.

In some embodiments, an inner ring within an inner region of the inner surface of the confinement wall and separated from the confinement wall by the confinement region; and a second set of multiple electrodes distributed along the azimuthal direction of the inner ring, wherein the control system is controlled by is configured to sequentially apply one or more potentials to each electrode of the second plurality of electrodes. In some embodiments, the inner wall is spaced apart from the inner surface of the constraining wall by an average of about 1 millimeter to 50 centimeters. In another embodiment, the device includes only a set of multiple electrodes distributed along the azimuthal angle of the inner ring; no electrodes are distributed along the confinement wall.

In some embodiments, one or more potentials are applied to each of the plurality of electrodes in a time sequence determined by rotational motion of the ions and the neutral particles in the confinement region speed to be determined. In some designs, the control system is configured to apply an oscillating potential to each of the plurality of electrodes, wherein the frequency of the oscillating potential is between about 60 kilohertz and 1 megahertz.

In some embodiments, the confinement wall includes refractory metal and/or stainless steel. In some embodiments, the confinement wall includes a layered structure, wherein at least one of the layers includes the plurality of electrodes distributed azimuthally along the confinement wall.

In some designs, the nuclear mass of the product is greater than the nuclear mass of the neutral species and the reactant. In some designs, the interaction is a fusion reaction, and in some designs, the fusion reaction is a neutronless reaction. In some designs, the reactant attached to or embedded in the confinement wall includes boron-11, and wherein the neutral species includes neutral hydrogen, deuterium and/or tritium.

In some embodiments, the reactor has one or more electron emitters configured to emit electrons into a region adjacent the confinement wall during operation. Electron emitters are attached or embedded in the confinement walls, possibly containing boron or boron-containing materials.

In some embodiments, the reactor has a heat exchanger that removes thermal energy from one of the electrodes. For example, an electrode may have a fluid circuit through a conduit in the electrode. During operation of the reactor, the confinement region proximate the confinement wall includes an electron-rich region in which the number of electrons is at least about ¹⁰⁶ / ^cm3 higher than the number of positively charged particles. In some embodiments, the electron-rich region extends from the confinement wall into the confinement region a distance from about 50 nanometers to about 50 micrometers during reactor operation. In some embodiments, the electron-rich region has an electric field strength of at least about 10 ⁶ volts/meter.

In some designs, the confinement wall has a radius of at least about 2 meters. In some designs, the length of the constraining wall in the axial direction is at least about 1 meter.

The present disclosure also relates to a method of (a) introducing a neutral species into a confinement region, (b) sequentially applying one or more potentials to each of a plurality of electrodes distributed along the azimuthal direction of the confinement wall. Step (b) induces and/or maintains rotational motion of the ions and neutral species in the confinement region, thereby causing repeated collisions between the reactants to produce the interaction of the reactants, thereby releasing energy and producing A product of the nuclear mass of neutral species and reactants with the reactants attached or embedded in the confinement walls.

In some designs, the method includes applying a magnetic field through the confinement region such that the magnetic field is directed at least partially in the direction of the axis of the generally cylindrical inner surface.

In some designs, at least four electrodes are included. In some designs, approximately twenty to eighty electrodes are included. In some designs, the electrodes of the plurality of electrodes have a width in the azimuthal direction of about 10 centimeters or less, and the electrodes of the plurality of electrodes have a width in the azimuthal direction of about 10 centimeters or less.

In some designs, the one or more potentials are sequentially applied to each of a second plurality of electrodes, an inner ring of the second plurality of electrodes within the inner region of the inner surface of the confinement wall Distributed azimuthally and separated from the confinement wall by the confinement region. The inner wall is evenly spaced from the inner surface of the constraining wall by a distance of about 1 mm to 50 cm.

In some designs, one or more potentials are applied to each of the plurality of electrodes in a time sequence determined by rotational motion of the ions and the neutral particles in the confinement region speed to determine. In some designs, an oscillating potential is applied to each of the plurality of electrodes, wherein the frequency of the oscillating potential is between about 60 kilohertz and 1 megahertz. In some designs, the average velocity of the neutral species in the confinement region is at least about 50,000 m/s.

In some designs, the method includes separating at least a portion of the confinement wall from the remainder of the device for replacement.

In some designs, the nuclear mass of the product is greater than the nuclear mass of the neutral species and the reactant. In some designs, the interaction is a fusion reaction, and in some designs, the fusion reaction is a neutronless reaction.

In some designs, the concentration of neutral species in the confinement region near the confinement wall is at least about 10 ²⁰ /cm ³ . In some designs, the reactant attached to or embedded in the confinement wall includes boron-11, and in some designs, the neutral species includes neutral hydrogen, deuterium and/or tritium.

In some designs, the confinement wall includes one or more electron emitters configured to emit electrons into a region adjacent the confinement wall during operation. Electron emitters are attached or embedded in the confinement walls, and in some embodiments, the material of the electron emitters may comprise boron or a boron-containing material.

In some designs, the confinement region proximate the confinement wall includes an electron-rich region in which the number of electrons is at least about 10 higher than the number of positively charged particles while maintaining the rotation of the neutral species ⁶ / cubic centimeter. The electron-rich region extends from the confinement wall into the confinement region a distance from about 50 nanometers to about 50 micrometers. While maintaining neutral particle rotation, the electron-rich region has an electric field strength of at least about 10 ⁶ volts/meter. In some designs, the average energy of the neutral species in the electron-rich region is about between 0.1 eV and 2 eV

foreword

Various embodiments disclosed herein relate to reactors and methods of operating these under conditions that induce a reaction between two or more nuclei in a manner that produces more energy than is input to the reactor. The present disclosure relates to reactions, such as nuclear fusion reactions or simply fusion reactions, although aspects of the reactions may differ quantitatively or qualitatively from reactions traditionally referred to as nuclear fusion. Thus, when the term "fusion" is used in the remainder of this disclosure, the term does not necessarily imply that it possesses all the characteristics of nuclear fusion in the traditional sense. In some embodiments disclosed herein, the reactor can generate sustained fusion reactions, making it suitable as a viable energy source. As used herein, a sustained fusion reaction refers to a fusion reaction in which the reactor can continuously operate at a state greater than unit for a period of about one second.

In various embodiments, the reactor in which the fusion reaction occurs is designed or constructed to confine or confine rotating matter, including one or more nuclei that participate in the fusion reaction. Various structures are provided to confine rotating matter. Often, though not necessarily, these structures form a solid physical shell. As described herein, the closure structure can have many shapes, such as a generally cylindrical shape. Suitable structures that can be used for physical enclosures are shown in Figures 1 , 7 and 6 .

Neglecting any other function, the walls of the reactor are generally used to confine the rotating mass in the area adjacent to the wall and the inner wall. The limitation of the wall is that it confines the rotating mass within the reactor. As described herein, this wall of the reactor is referred to as the wall, confinement wall or shroud. In various embodiments, the wall also has other functions: particularly as an electrode, as a magnet, as a source of fusion reactants (eg, boron compounds), and/or as an electron emitter. The wall differs from the design of any conventional fusion reactor because the wall does not physically confine the reactant species through magnetic fields and pressure waves (as is done in conventional fusion methods). Other functions of the reactor walls, such as electrodes to apply a voltage difference, magnets as sources of reactant material, electron emitters, provide additional distinctions from conventional fusion reactor designs.

In certain embodiments, the reactor comprises the described walls and an interior space formed by the walls (which may be annular in shape) in which the reactant species (including a majority or a substantial percentage of neutral particles) rotate and collide repeatedly The surfaces of the reactor walls, which sometimes undergo fusion reactions with substances present in the walls. The resulting reaction can reach equilibrium and lead to Q>1 when the energy input to the reactor is considered. To ensure that the fusion reaction time is sustainable in the application of specific energy generation, the ratio of energy output to energy input should be significantly greater than 1. This assumption takes into account the inherent inefficiency of harnessing the energy produced by fusion reactions to maintain conditions that allow polymerization to occur (eg, a specific plasma density in a confinement region). In certain embodiments, the ratio is at least about 1.2. In certain embodiments, the ratio is at least about 1.5. In certain embodiments, the ratio is at least about 2. In certain embodiments, the reactor operates continuously under sustainable conditions for at least about fifteen minutes, or at least about one hour. In one example, hydrogen atoms rotate in the reactor and strike boron or lithium atoms in the reactor walls to fuse. In some embodiments, the reactor includes one or more electron emitters to generate a flux of electrons that generates a strong field during operation to reduce Coulomb repulsion between interacting nuclei.

The reactant can be any substance capable of supporting a fusion reaction in the interior space of the confining walls of the reactor. In various embodiments, at least one of the reactants is a substance that rotates within the interior region of the reactor. In some designs, both reactants are spin species. In some designs, one of the reactants is rotated and the other species remains stationary, such as when the reactants are embedded in reactor walls that confine the rotating species. In certain designs, there are some combinations of rotating and stationary reactants such that fusion reactions occur between rotating species or between rotating and stationary species. In designs where the reacting mass is primarily rotating, the physical structure of the reactor is such that the rotating mass does not have to strike the inner surface of the reactor wall for fusion reactions to occur. In some designs, the rotating species are constrained by forces such as those that prevent them from hitting the reactor walls. In such a design, two rotating objects fuse inside the confinement wall (eg, the confinement region) or along the surface of the wall. In some designs, the rotating species can react with immobilized species (eg, target species) located within the annular region.

In certain embodiments, the reactants are non-neutron reactive species. In other embodiments, the reactant is a neutron-reactive species. One or both of the reactants can also be neutral or uncharged species. The substances present in the reactor are sometimes referred to as "particles". However, these substances are only molecular or atomic-sized particles.

The disclosed small-scale, eg, bench-top, non-neutron reactors do not require or require a biological shield for relatively little neutron radiation. Fusion reactions in the reactors described herein can be characterized as "mild fusion", eg, fusion reactions occur in the temperature range of about 1000K to 3000K, and are comparable to "thermal fusion reactors" (eg, tokamak reactors) easier to handle than. Since fusion is an essentially non-neutronic and "mild" material, the costs associated with "mild fusion" reactors can be significantly reduced. For example, in some designs, a built reactor costs less than $50,000. The disclosed miniature reactors can also have a small weight and footprint, as there is no need for radiation shields and industrial grade hardware that would normally be used in thermal plasma reactors.

The rotational motion of the material in the reactor can be imparted by a variety of mechanisms. One mechanism achieves rotation by applying interacting electric and magnetic fields. The interaction manifests as a Laurentian force acting on charged particles in the reactor. For example in Figures 1a-c and 6 , this design can generate Laurentian forces acting on charged particles. Figures 1a-c show a Laurent-driven reactor, where the reactor has an inner electrode 120 , where the shroud (confining wall) is the outer electrode 110 . In the presence of an applied magnetic field 146 having a perpendicular component, the electric field 144 between the electrodes causes a Laurentian force on charged particles or charged species traveling between the electrodes. This force rotates it in the azimuthal direction, as shown in Figure 1c . In another type of reactor design, rotational motion is imparted to the charged species by sequentially applying an electrical potential or a change in electrical potential to a plurality of electrodes arranged azimuthally around the reactor wall. An example of a suitable reactor design is shown in Figure 7 .

In many embodiments, the reactor is operated in such a way that the rotating charged species interact with neutral particles and impart angular momentum to those neutral species, thereby establishing rotational motion of the neutral species as well as the charged species within the reactor. In many scenarios, most rotating matter is neutral, and charged matter is ionized particles, such as protons (p+). As described herein, this method may be referred to as ionic neutral particle coupling. Figure 2a shows an ion-neutral coupling process in which a few charged particles 204 move surrounding neutrals 206 .

In various embodiments, the reactor is designed to emit electrons in an interior localized region of the reactor where the corresponding fusion event occurs. Referring again to FIG. 2a , these electrons may form an electron-rich region 232 near the confinement wall 210 . The presence of excess electrons lowers the Coulomb barrier, thereby increasing the likelihood of fusion. As described elsewhere in this paper, emitting electrons in this manner creates free electron-rich regions that reduce the inherent Coulomb repulsion between two positively charged nuclei between which nuclear fusion is possible reaction. In certain embodiments, electron emission occurs on or adjacent to the walls that confine the rotating mass within the reactor. In one example, electron emission is provided by passive structures such as boron-containing sheets or strips either embedded or attached to the confinement walls of the reactor. This structure emits electrons when the local temperature increases during reactor operation. In other embodiments, electron emission is achieved using active structures that are controlled independently of the heating generated during normal operation of the reactor. An example of an active structure for electron emission is shown in Figures 21a and 21b , which includes independently controlled resistive elements for heating each electron emitter.

Another aspect of the present disclosure relates to structures or systems for capturing and converting energy produced by fusion reactions within a reactor. One type of energy harvesting system provides direct access to the electrical energy generated by the travel of alpha particles produced by fusion reactions. This energy conversion system can be accomplished by creating an applied electric field in the path of the emitted alpha particles, which causes the particles to decelerate and generate a current in the circuit connected to the electrodes used to generate the electric field. Another type of energy capture system is used to provide energy capture using heat engines, for example including turbines, heat exchangers or other conventional structures for converting thermal energy produced by fusion reactions into mechanical energy. These and other energy capture mechanisms will be discussed later in this disclosure. Interaction of neutral particles with walls

Neutral species interacting with the reactor walls provide a different type of interaction than those used in traditional fusion research. Repeated interactions occur over a relatively large volume, which may be an annular space immediately adjacent the inner wall or inner surface of the constraining wall. Because rotating neutral particles often interact elastically with the wall at smaller angles, such as at oblique or tangential angles, they may immediately leave the wall and re-enter the interior space with energies comparable to when they entered. FIG. 2b shows the trajectory paths that the neutral particles 206 may have as they move along the surface of the confinement wall 210 . When a spinning neutral particle enters or hits a wall, it usually encounters a potential fusion material that may or may not react with it. When it doesn't respond, it re-enters the interior space, where it continues to spin. In this way, it repeatedly interacts with the surface of the wall, and in each such elastic collision, little energy is lost.

Some particle and wall interactions that do not lead to fusion are schematically shown in Figures 3a-d . While these figures depict interactions involving boron 11 and/or titanium, these interactions may also occur when other reactant materials are used in the confinement wall. As shown in Figure 3a , in a small fraction of neutrals interacting with the wall, the neutrals undergo elastic collisions with nuclei in the wall (boron 11 in this design), and the rebounded neutrals retains most of the energy it entered into the interaction. Of all neutral particle and wall interactions, elastic collisions generally have the highest incidence. In a small fraction of the collisions shown in Fig. 3b , the nuclei of neutral particles are close enough to the nuclei of atoms in the wall that the collision becomes an inelastic collision, due to the tunneling that occurs when the two nuclei are in close proximity. Figure 3c depicts another interaction that can occur; in this design, neutral particles penetrate into the reactor wall. This type of collision can occur more frequently when the confinement surface contains materials such as titanium or palladium that can absorb hydrogen molecules.

Figure 3d depicts the inelastic collision of charged particles, such as protons, with a confinement wall. This situation is in contrast to the frequent elastic collisions of neutral particles such as atomic hydrogen with confinement walls (as described in Fig. 3a above). As charged particles approach and leave the confinement wall, the particles may experience braking radiation energy losses. This energy loss is caused by electrostatic interactions between charged particles and electrons in electron-rich regions. Due to electrostatic forces, some kinetic energy is lost and high energy electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays is emitted. In traditional fusion reactors, which focus on trying to fuse ionized particles, the braking radiation can cause huge energy losses. These losses can be largely avoided by using a weakly ionized plasma with a high ratio of neutrals to ions.

In some partial tunneling between the moving neutral nuclei and the nuclei in the wall, nuclear fusion may occur. Figure 4a depicts the stages of a non-neutron fusion reaction that occurs when hydrogen atoms or protons fuse with boron 11 atoms. First, in 482 , a proton moving at high speed collides with a boron 11 atom, and the two nuclei fuse to form an excited carbon nucleus, as shown in 483 . However, the excited carbon nuclei are short-lived, dissociating into beryllium nuclei and emitted alpha particles with a kinetic energy of 3.76 MeV, as shown in 484 . Finally, in 485 , the newly formed beryllium nuclei almost immediately dissociated into two alpha particles, each with a kinetic energy of 2.46MeV. Figures 4b-e depict the surface of the confinement wall 412 and various stages of the same proton-boron 11 fusion reaction shown in Figure 4a . Figure 4a depicts protons traveling at high velocities towards the boron 11 atoms at the confinement wall surface. As a neutral hydrogen atom approaches its confinement wall, it passes through the electron-rich region 432 , which partially masks the repulsive force between the two positively charged nuclei. Figure 4c depicts the stage in which neutral hydrogen fuses with boron atoms to form carbon atoms. In Figure 4d , the carbon nucleus has been decomposed into a beryllium nucleus and an alpha particle. Finally, in Figure 4e , the beryllium nucleus disintegrates, emitting two other alpha particles. Because the potential reactants are neutral particles rather than ions, most of their interactions with atoms in the confinement wall surface are elastic collisions. By contrast, positively charged particles entering the wall are deflected by electrostatic repulsion, keeping them at a distance from other nuclei on the wall. These electrostatic interactions cause charged particles to lose energy; for example, collisions are inelastic. Neutral particles with positively charged nuclei shielded to some extent by orbital electrons do not experience the same repulsive forces. Therefore, neutral particles are more likely to directly affect another atom in the wall. Thus, using neutral particles instead of ions increases the likelihood of a fusion reaction, and neutral particles are more likely to bounce back elastically with higher energies than ions when no fusion reaction occurs.

In general, the rotating neutrals undergo many repeated interactions with the wall—and those neutrals that do not play a role in producing the fusion reaction bounce back elastically with relatively little energy loss. Neutrals tend to re-form from the wall as described above and have enough energy that they can enter the next interaction with the wall, which could potentially create a fusion reaction. Every interaction with the wall has the potential to lead to a fusion reaction between the neutral nucleus and the nuclei in the wall.

When the reactants are different species (for example, ¹¹ B and p+), the fusion rate per unit volume is given by:

dN/dT=n ₁ n ₂ σ ν

where _n1 and _n2 are the densities of the corresponding reactants, σ is the fusion cross-section at a specific energy, and ν is the relative velocity between the two interacting species. For systems in which at least one species rotates in a confinement region and repeatedly strikes a confinement wall containing a second species, the density of species can be on the order of 10 ²⁰ cm ^-3 for rotating species, and for immobilized species such as boron ), the density of matter can be on the order of 10 ²³ cm ^-3 , the fusion cross-section can be ^on the order of ^10-32 cm, and the relative velocity of interacting matter can be on the order of 10 ³ cm/s. In contrast, for tokamak reactors, the density values for each species are on the order of 10 ¹⁴ cm ^-3 , the fusion cross-section is on the order of ^10-28 cm ² , and the velocities of interacting species are on the order of 10 ⁶ cm/s . (Based on information provided by "Inertial Confinement Fusion.pdf" by M. Ragheb dated on January 14, 2015.). Clearly, systems employing neutral species, as described in this paper, have strong advantages due to their higher density. The rate of fusion energy per unit volume of such a system exceeds that of tokamak and inertial confinement systems by at least about eight orders of magnitude. Thus, the systems disclosed herein can achieve a defined rate of energy production in about one billionth of the volume of a tokamak or inertial restraint system. Lowering of Coulomb Barrier

As mentioned above, a credible previous approach to nuclear fusion is to energize the fusion reactants and the supported environment to reach extremely high temperatures of at least 150,000,000 K (13000 eV). This is done to give the fusion reactants enough kinetic energy to overcome their natural electrostatic repulsion. In this environment, each reactant is an atomic nucleus with an inherent positive charge that must first be overcome to allow some possibility of a fusion reaction.

Certain embodiments of the present disclosure use much lower temperatures; eg, about 2000K (0.17 eV) in fusion fusion reactions. These embodiments use neutral species as one or more reactants and/or alter the reaction environment to reduce the strong Coulomb repulsion between reactant nuclei. Reducing the Coulomb force can be achieved in various ways including, for example, (i) providing an electron-rich field in the reaction region and/or (ii) aligning the quantum mechanical spins of the reactant nuclei. Devices and methods for reducing Coulomb repulsion can take a variety of forms, depending on the configuration of the reactor. The following description assumes that the reactor includes an outer confinement wall or an annular space of a shroud. Other reactor configurations can also create an environment that reduces Coulomb repulsion to support fusion, but they can be accomplished in a manner other than that described below.

The following serves as one possible interpretation of the environment surrounding the inner surface of the confinement electrode, which should not be considered a limitation of the disclosure. In this interpretation, the reactants, especially neutral particles, rotate at high speed and strike the inner surface of the electrode. At the same time, electrons are emitted from or near the confinement wall. The rapidly rotating neutral particles have high angular velocities and therefore exert extreme pressure on the inner surface of the confinement wall through the associated centrifugal force. Electrons emitted from the inner surface of the wall oppose the direction of this force.

The emitted electrons will spread from where they were emitted, eg away from the walls and towards the interior space. However, the neutral particle centrifugal force confines the electrons to the inner surface area close to the outer electrode. The resulting thin region of force-equilibrium adjacent to the inner surface of the electrode has a strong field that reduces Coulomb repulsion between reactant nuclei.

The force balance can be expressed mathematically as (i) the balance of the gradient of the product of temperature and density of electrons and neutrals (in the direction away from the wall from which the electrons are emitted), and (ii) the centrifugal force applied to the inner surface. The centrifugal force is proportional to the product of the neutral particle density, the radial position and the square of the angular velocity.

和

是電子和中性粒子的密度，

是中性物質的密度，

是一個旋轉中性物質（例如氫原子）的質量，

是旋轉中性物質的角速度的平方。 In this equation, r is the radial direction away from the inner surface of the confinement electrode, K is the Boltzmann constant, _Te and _T are the electron and neutral temperature in Kelvin,

and

is the density of electrons and neutrals,

is the density of neutral substances,

is the mass of a rotationally neutral substance (such as a hydrogen atom),

is the square of the angular velocity of the rotating neutral material.

In a thin region next to the surface from which the electrons are emitted (eg, the inner surface of the confinement wall), the free electrons generate a strong electric field (see schematics of the electron-rich region 232 adjacent to the confinement wall 210 in Figures 2a-b ). The high concentration of neutrals restricts the mean free paths of electrons, preventing them from following ballistic trajectories, gaining enough kinetic energy to better ionize neutrals. Furthermore, since neutral particles have a higher density than ions, there are relatively few positive ions available for recombination. For example, the ratio of ions to neutrals is in the range of less than about 1:10, less than about 1:100, less than about 1:1000, or less than about 1:100. Therefore, neutral particles are usually distributed between electrons and positive ions. This condition produces a high concentration of excess electrons near the inner surface of the confinement wall, and thus a strong electric field.

The combination of a large excess of electrons (over ions) and a high concentration of neutral particles in a very thin region (eg, near the inner surface of an electrode) produces a very strong electric field. In this region, the strong field reduces the Coulomb repulsion of interacting positively charged nuclei. Therefore, the probability of two positively charged nuclei approaching is significantly increased.

Additionally, as discussed above, the impact of the rotating particles on the inner surface of the confinement wall gives the interacting fusion reactants a repeated opportunity to achieve a fusion reaction. The neutral particles repeatedly pass through the electron enrichment layer and strike the inner surface of the confinement wall or shroud and re-enter the interior space of the reactor. This impact on the wall is the radial component of the centrifugal force generated by rotating particles in a confined environment (eg, the inner surface of the confining wall). Repeated collisions, contacts or impacts increase the likelihood of a fusion reaction in a given area over a given period of time. This repetition replaces the need for long confinement times and resolves the difficulties of achieving Lawson's criterion in conventional methods to achieve fusion reactions. In simple terms, the overall probability of a fusion reaction increases significantly.

As an example, an electron-rich region can be characterized by any combination of the following parameter values:

Free electron density: about 10 ²³ /cm ³

Neutral particle density: about 10 ²⁰ /cm ³

Positive ion density: about 10 ¹⁵ - 10 ¹⁶ /cm ³ (about 10 ^-5 to 0.01% of neutral particles)

Difference in electron and positive ion density: about 10 ⁶ to 10 ⁸ /cm ³

Thickness (radial) of free electron-rich regions (regions where most electron density gradients exist): about 1 μm

Electric field strength in electron-rich region: about 10 ⁶ to 10 ⁸ V/m

Electron temperature: about 1800-2000 K. (about 0.15 to 0.17 eV)

Centripetal acceleration: about 10 ⁹ g's (where g is the acceleration of gravity = 9.8 ms ^-2 )

The free electrons in such a system can be viewed as co-catalyzing the fusion reaction of two nuclei. By analogy, one or more muons combined with protons and deuterons are sometimes described as catalyzing the fusion of hydrogen and deuterium atoms. Just as muons catalyze reactions by bringing two fusion nuclei closer to each other, free electrons near the fusion nuclei catalyze the fusion reactions described herein. Effectively, the electron depletion blocks the two reactants from getting close enough to the energy barrier for the reaction. This is very similar to the action of any catalyst in a chemical or physical environment. Both muons and electrons increase the rate of the reaction, but they don't actually participate in the reaction; they just reduce the energy barrier between the reactants so that the reactants are close enough together for the reaction to occur.

However, muons and electron catalysis share few other similarities. For various reasons, muon-catalyzed fusion is not commercially viable. Notably, muons have a larger mass than electrons, so they are more expensive to make. Furthermore, only a relatively small amount is produced at any one time, which means that the profit-and-loss requirement of fusion is unattainable. In the proton-boron 11 reaction, achieving gain-and-loss fusion requires approximately 10 ¹⁷ successful fusion interactions per cubic centimeter per second. Only a few nuclei in large pools can benefit from muon-catalyzed fusion, far from the level required for fusion.

In contrast, electrons can be generated easily and with high density. For example, electrons can be generated at a density of about 10 ²⁰ or more per cubic centimeter according to the techniques disclosed herein. With such a high density, the electrons act collectively to generate a high electric field, which reduces the Coulomb barrier of interactions between nuclei that are in close proximity over a larger volume. Such a relatively large volume allows for the desired interaction gain and loss of at least about 10 ¹⁷ successful fusion interactions per second per cubic centimeter. the term

A "reactor" is a device in which one or more reactants react to produce one or more products, usually with the release of energy. One or more reactants are provided in the reactor by continuous delivery, intermittent delivery and/or single delivery. They can be supplied in gaseous, liquid or solid form. In some designs, reactants are provided as components of the reaction; for example, they may be included in structures such as walled reactors. Boron 11, lithium 6, carbon 12, etc. can be provided in the walls of the reactor. In some designs, the reactants are provided from an external source (eg, from a gas supply tank). In certain embodiments, the reactor is configured to promote a Q>1 nuclear fusion reaction. The reactor may have elements for removing products and/or energy produced during the reaction. Product removal elements can be ports, channels, getters, and the like. The energy removal components may be heat exchangers and the like for removing thermal energy, as well as inductors and the like for direct removal of electrical energy. Reactor elements may allow product and energy to be removed continuously or intermittently. In certain embodiments, the reactor has one or more confinement walls containing the reactants, and in some designs a source of the reactants, electric fields, etc. are provided. As shown in this disclosure, there are many different designs of reactors suitable for providing sustained fusion reactions.

A "rotor" is a reactor or reactor element in which one or more reactants or products (particles) rotate in its space. This "space" may/or be defined by confinement walls as described herein. In some designs, rotation is caused by magnetism, electricity, and/or a combination of the two, as is the case with the Laurence force. In certain embodiments, rotation is induced by applying electrical and/or magnetic forces to charged particles in a manner that causes them to rotate in the confinement region; the rotating charged particles collide with neutral particles, causing the neutral particles to similarly rotate in the confinement region rotation, a phenomenon sometimes called ionic-molecular coupling. Since neutral particles are not affected by electrical and/or magnetic forces, they do not rotate within the confinement region in designs that do not interact with charged particles. The confining walls or other external structures of the rotor can have many closed shapes as described herein. In some embodiments, the outer structure is generally circular or cylindrical in shape. In this design, the shape does not need to be geometrically precise, but can exhibit certain variations such as eccentricity around the axis of rotation and non-continuous curvatures such as vertices.

In some designs, the confinement region of the rotor has internal rods or other structures arranged concentrically with respect to the confinement wall. In this design, the rotor has an "annulus" in which the particles rotate. As used herein, "annular space" refers to a confinement region, wherein the region is substantially annular. It should be understood that some rotors do not have internal rods or other structures to define the annular space. In this design, the confinement area of the rotor is only the hollow structure. While the annular space is mostly generally cylindrical in shape, such a shape may exhibit certain variations such as eccentricity around the axis of rotation and non-continuous curvatures (eg, vertices), and the like.

The "Laurence force" is exerted on a charge by a combination of electrical and magnetic forces due to the electromagnetic field created. The magnitude and direction of the force is given by the cross product of the electric and magnetic fields; so the force is sometimes referred to as J x B . When the electric and magnetic fields have orthogonal directions, the force applied to a charged particle has a direction of rotation that can be represented by the right-hand rule.

In a fusion reaction, the reactants and products involved - which may include protons, alpha particles and boron ( ¹¹ B) - are not necessarily present in 100 percent purity. In any such reactant, product or other component of the reaction given herein, such component is understood to be largely present. In other words, the components need not be present at a 100% level, but may be present at a lower level, such as about 95% by mass or about 99% by mass.

A non-neutron fusion reaction is generally defined as a fusion reaction in which neutrons carry no more than 1% of the total energy released. As used herein, an aneutron reaction or substantially aneutron reaction is a reaction that meets this criterion. Examples of non-neutron reactions include: p +B ¹¹ →3He ⁴ +8.68 MeV D+He ³ →He ⁴ +p+18.35 MeV p+Li ⁶ →He ⁴ +He ³ +4.02 MeV p+Li ⁷ →2He ⁴ +17.35 MeV p+p→D+e ⁺ +v+1.44 MeV D+p→He ³ +γ+5.49 MeV He ³ +He ³ →He ⁴ +2p+12.86 MeV p+C ¹² →N ¹³ +γ+ 1.94 MeV N ¹³ →C ¹³ +e ⁺ +v+γ+2.22 MeV p+C ¹³ →N ¹⁴ +γ+7.55 MeV p+N ¹⁴ →O ¹⁵ +γ+7.29 MeV O ¹⁵ →N ¹⁵ +e ⁺ + v+γ+2.76 MeV p+N ¹⁵ →C ¹² +He ⁴ +4.97 MeV C ¹² +C ¹² →Na ²³ +p+2.24 MeV C ¹² +C ¹² →Na ²⁰ +He ⁴ +4.62 MeV C ¹² +C Examples of neutron reactions for ¹² →Mg ²⁴ +γ+13.93 MeV include: D+T→He ⁴ +n+17.59 MeV D+D→He ³ +n+3.27 MeV T+T→He ⁴ +2n+11.33 MeV

Coulomb repulsion is the electrostatic force between two or more particles of the same charge. For two interacting particles, it is proportional to the inverse of the square of the separation distance (Coulomb's law). Therefore, when the charged particles approach each other, the repulsive force is significantly enhanced. In an electric field created by multiple charged particles, the repulsive force of one charged particle is the superposition of all nearby charged particles.

Lowering the Coulomb barrier means that when a particle approaches a sufficient number of electrons or other charged particles, the generally known and understood Coulomb repulsion force calculated or experienced between two separate particles is "lowered" or reduced by some calculable amount degree to reduce the repulsive force that individual particles would experience. For example, the presence of excess electrons at a density of XX reduces the ZZ% Coulomb repulsion between two positively charged YY particles in the domain. Laurence Rotor Example first embodiment

Figures la-c show a first embodiment of a reactor in which charged particles, charged species or ions are rotated due to the Laurentian force. Figure 1a is a cross-sectional view of the reactor, while Figure 1b provides an isometric cross-sectional view of the same reactor along the AA interface of Figure 1a , using a cylindrical coordinate system for r, Θ, and z-direction coordinates unless otherwise stated, As shown in Figure 1b . In the depicted embodiment, the Laurence-driven rotor has an outer wall 110 as an outer electrode, a concentric inner electrode 120 sometimes called a discharge rod, separated from the outer electrode by an annular space 140 . By applying an electrical potential between the inner electrode 120 and the shield 110 , an electric field is formed across the annular region. When a sufficient potential is applied between the electrodes, the gas in the annular space is partially ionized, creating a radial plasma current across the annular region. In various embodiments, when the shield is grounded, the inner electrodes are held at a high positive potential such that the electric field and current flow are substantially in the positive r direction.

Figure 1c depicts how the Laurentian force drives charged particles in the azimuthal direction within the confinement wall 110 . In Figure 1c, the discharge rod has been removed and the axis has been translated in the z direction to improve clarity. Although not shown, magnets such as permanent magnets or superconducting magnets are used to generate a magnetic field substantially parallel to the z-axis (substantially axial) within the annular region. The magnetic field is essentially perpendicular to the direction of the current, causing moving charged particles, charged species, and ions to experience Laurentian forces in the azimuthal (or Θ) direction. For example, the discharge rod has a positive potential with respect to the external electrode (eg the discharge rod has a positive potential applied and the external electrode is grounded), thus creating an electric field in the r-direction ( 144 ). In this configuration, the positively charged ions will move in the r-direction through the annular space 140 towards the external electrode. If the magnetic field is also pointed in the z direction ( 146 ), the ions will experience the Lorentz force in the -Θ direction, or clockwise from the angles shown in Figures 1b and 1c . In some designs, the electric and magnetic fields can be at angles that are different from the vertical but not parallel, such that the vertical component exists to a lesser or greater extent, with sufficient strength to generate a sufficiently strong azimuthal Laurence force . This azimuthal force acts on charged particles, charged species and ions, which in turn combine with neutral particles, so that neutral particles in the annular space between the central discharge rod and the outer electrodes are at high Rotation speed moves. The absence of any moving mechanical parts means that there is virtually no limit to the rotational speed, providing for spin rates of neutral and charged particles in excess of, for example, 100,000 RPS. Reverse Polarity Example

Figures 5a-d depict another embodiment in which the reactor can utilize Laurence forces to drive ions and neutrals in rotation through ion-neutral coupling. Reactors of opposite polarity differ from those shown in Figures 1a–c in that the electric field and current (in the direction of positive charge movement by convention) are essentially in the negative r direction. Figure 5a is a cross-sectional view of the reactor and Figure 5b provides an isometric cross-sectional view of the same reactor along section AA of Figure 5a. The reverse-polarity rotor has an outer electrode 510 and a concentric inner electrode 520 separated from the outer electrode by an annular region 540 , referred to herein as a confinement region. By applying a potential to the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode, a radial electric field can be created in the annular space directed towards the inner electrode. When a sufficient electrical potential is applied between the electrodes, a portion of the gas in the annular space is ionized and a radial plasma flow through the annular space is created.

Figure 5c depicts how the Lawrence force is used to drive charged particles azimuthally within the reactor. In Figure 5c , the internal electrodes have been removed from view and the depicted axis has been translated in the z-direction to improve clarity. Although not shown, magnets such as permanent magnets or superconducting magnets are used to generate an applied magnetic field that is substantially parallel to the z-axis (ie substantially in the axial direction) within the annular space. The magnetic field is essentially perpendicular to the direction of the current, causing charged particles, charged species, and ions to experience Laurentian forces in the azimuthal (or Θ) direction. For example, where the inner electrode has a negative potential applied and the outer electrode is grounded (or held at a positive potential), an electric field is created in the negative r-direction ( 544 ). In this configuration, the positively charged ions will move through the annular region 540 in the negative r direction towards the inner electrode. If the magnetic field points simultaneously in the z-direction ( 546 ), the ions will experience the Laurentian force in the +Θ direction or in the counter-clockwise direction from the perspective shown in Figures 5b and 5c . In some designs, the electric and magnetic fields may be at different, but not parallel, angles to the vertical, such that the vertical component exists to a lesser or greater extent, with sufficient strength to generate a sufficiently large azimuthal Laurence force. This azimuthal force acts on charged particles, charged species and ions, which in turn couple with neutral particles, causing the neutral particles in the annular space to also move at high speed. The absence of any moving mechanical parts means there is virtually no limit to the speed at which rotation can occur, so neutral and charged particles can rotate at rates in excess of, say, 100,000 RPS. Reverse Field Example

Figures 6a-d depict multiple views of another reactor embodiment that utilizes Laurence forces to drive ion and neutral rotation through ion-neutral coupling. The reactor of this embodiment operates using a reverse field configuration. The reactor with this configuration differs from the reactors shown in Figures 1a-c and 5a-d in that both the electric and magnetic fields in the confinement region are in opposite directions. In this configuration, the magnetic field is not parallel to the z-axis, but is directed radially in the positive or negative r-direction. Similarly, the electric field is not directed radially but substantially parallel to the z-axis. Fig. 6a is an isometric view of the reactor, Fig. 6b is a view of the reactor in the z-direction, Fig. 6c is an isometric sectional view of the reactor (corresponding to line AA in Fig. 6b ), Fig. 6d is a side view of the reactor view. The depicted embodiment includes an inner ring magnet 626 and a concentric outer ring magnet 616 that also serves as a confinement wall. The poles of the ring magnet are in the same direction, so that the corresponding surfaces of the inner and outer magnets are the same. In this design, the outer surface is the north pole 658 and the inner surface is the south pole 659 . In some embodiments, one or more additional layers of material may be present on the inner surface of magnet 658 such that the confinement surface material is different from the magnetic material. The area between the concentric magnets forms an annular space 640 that is bound in the z-direction by electrodes 660a on one end of the confinement area and electrodes 660b on the other end of the confinement area. Typically, all electrodes on either side of the confinement region (corresponding to electrode 660a or electrode 660b ) are assigned similar potentials. Unlike the hybrid reactor, electrode 660a (or electrode 660b ) may be a single continuous electrode, for example in the shape of a ring or disk. If electrode 660a is grounded and electrode 660b on the other side of the annular space is given a positive potential, an electric field is applied in the confinement region in the positive z-direction. If the magnetic field points in the r direction (as described), the orthogonal electric and magnetic fields cause the ions to rotate azimuthally in the θ direction (see e.g. Fig. 6c ). Alternatively, if electrode 660b is grounded and electrode 660a is applied with a positive potential and the electric field direction is in the negative z direction, the ions will rotate in the -theta direction. Wave-Particle Example

A second embodiment of a controlled fusion device is shown in Figures 7a and 7b , in which the ions are rotated due to the oscillation of the electrostatic field. In this embodiment, the ions are accelerated to rotate in the azimuthal direction by the electric field generated by a plurality of discrete electrodes 714 on or forming the outer ring, or combined with the inner electrodes 724 on or forming the inner ring to A localized, azimuthally varying electric field is generated within annular space 740 . In some designs, the wall electrodes together form the confinement wall, in other designs the wall electrodes may be disposed on or in a portion of the confinement wall or support. The electric field oscillates in a controlled sequence such that the electrostatic force applied to the ions proceeds sequentially in the roughly azimuthal direction (in the Θ or -Θ direction). In this way, the acceleration of charged matter is similar to a maglev train propelled by an oscillating magnetic field along a train track. An oscillating potential can be applied to the electrodes. Oscillation can vary in phase or other parameters between adjacent electrodes, causing or maintaining rotational motion of the ions.

The ions present in the annular space are subjected to electrostatic forces due to the electric field, and by the principle of ion-neutral coupling, a relatively small number or percentage of ions is sufficient to drive a large number or percentage of neutral particles. Ion-driven neutralon rotation can be generated by any suitable mechanism, such as inductive or capacitive coupling. In some embodiments, ions are generated when a sequence of RF charges is applied to the walls and/or inner electrodes. In some embodiments, the walls and/or inner electrodes may first undergo a sequence of charges to ionize some of the neutral gas in the annulus, and then transition into a sequence of charges that drive the rotation of the ions. For example, grounding the wall electrode 714 while applying a high potential to the inner electrode 724 can create a charge distribution of the ionized gas. In some embodiments, gas that has been partially ionized may be introduced into annular region 740 .

While Figures 7a and 7b depict two binary charge distributions that can be used to drive ion rotation in the annular region, many more charge sequences are possible. In some charge sequences, the electrodes may be held at ground potential for a duration, or there may be an asymmetric charge sequence (eg, a positive potential is held for twice the duration of a negative potential).

In certain embodiments, the system does not require a magnetic field, such as an axial static magnetic field. Figure 7a depicts an example of this embodiment at a first point in time when the electrodes are provided with a first potential distribution such that ions (eg ion clouds or ion clusters) 704 are forced in the -Θ direction. Figure 7b depicts the situation in the embodiment of Figure 7a at a later point in time when the electrodes are provided with different potential distributions such that the ions 704 continue to be subjected to azimuthal force in the -Θ direction. Hybrid Embodiment

In certain embodiments, the reactor can generate Laurentian forces and oscillating electrostatic fields to drive ion and neutral particle rotation through ion-neutral coupling. At any stage of operation, the reactor can use one or both of these mechanisms. Figures 6a-f depict exemplary reactors suitable for such operation. Figure 6a is an isometric view of the reactor in the Z direction, Figure 6b is a view of the reactor in the Z direction, Figure 6c is an isometric cross-sectional view of the reactor (corresponding to line AA in Figure 6b), Figure 6d provides the reaction side views of the device, and Figures 6e and 6f are cross-sectional views at different points in time (corresponding to line BB in Figure 6d ). The depicted embodiment includes inner ring magnets 626 serving as confinement walls and concentric outer ring magnets 616 also serving as confinement walls. The poles of the ring magnets are oriented in the same direction so that the corresponding surfaces of the inner and outer ring magnets are the same. In this design, the outer surface is 658 North Pole and the inner surface is 659 South Pole. In some embodiments, one or more additional layers of material may be present on the inner surface of magnet 658 such that the confinement surface material is different from the magnetic material. The area between the concentric magnets forms an annular space 640 that is bound in the z-direction by one or more pairs of electrodes 660a and 660b . When electrode pairs 660a and 660b are given different potentials, eg, electrode 660b is grounded, electrode 660a is applied with a positive potential, creating an electric field in the annular space substantially parallel to the z-direction. When ions are generated in the annular region, orthogonal electric and magnetic fields cause them to angularly rotate in the −Θ direction (see e.g. Fig. 6c ). If a positive potential is applied to electrode 660b while electrode 660a is grounded, the ions will rotate in the Θ direction.

In some embodiments, as shown in Figures 6a-e, a plurality of electrodes 660a and 660b are radially distributed along the annulus. In this design, the reactor is driven in a manner similar to that in Figures 7a and 7b. During operation, each electrode pair is driven at a similar potential that differs from that of the adjacent electrode pair, so that a localized electric field is generated in the Θ direction. As shown in Figures 6d and 6e, the voltages applied to the electrode pairs can be modulated in a controlled sequence such that the electrostatic force applied to the ions exhibits a substantially continuous azimuthal (in the Θ or -Θ direction) varying component. In some configurations, the reactor can be set up to initially operate in such a way that ions and neutrals are driven by the Lawrence force, and then the ions and neutrals are driven using the alternating electrostatic field described above.

Reactor type (size)

In one aspect, reactors can be classified by the output power they provide. In this manner, for the purposes of this discussion, the reactors of the present disclosure are divided into small, medium and large reactors. Small-scale reactors are typically capable of producing about 1-10 kW of power. In some embodiments, these reactors are used for personal applications, such as powering cars or powering homes. The next category is medium-scale reactors, which typically provide about 10 kW-50 MW of power. Medium-sized reactors can be used for larger applications such as server farms, and large vehicles such as trains and submarines. Large scale reactors are reactors that output about 50MW-10GW of power, and can be used for large scale operations, such as powering grids and/or parts of industrial power plants. While these three classifications provide the actual classes to which this disclosure may relate, the reactors disclosed herein are not limited to any one of these classes.

The surface area (the product of the perimeter and the axial direction) of the shroud or confinement wall generally limits the maximum power that the reactor can produce. Shields with large surface areas undergo fusion reactions over a large area of the inner surface (eg, 122 in Fig. 1a ). For small reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud is typically about 1 centimeter to about 2 meters, and the surface area of the inner surface is typically between about 5 cubic centimeters and 20 cubic centimeters. For medium-sized reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud is typically from about 2 meters to about 10 meters, and the surface area of the inner surface is typically between about 25 and 150 cubic meters. For large reactors, the radius of the inner surface of the shroud is typically from about 10 meters to about 50 meters, and the surface area of the inner surface is typically between about 125 cubic meters and 628 cubic meters. In some designs, the inner surface could be on the order of a few kilometers in radius, with a footprint similar to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) operated by the CERN laboratory in Switzerland. Each of the above values assumes that a single reactor is stand-alone, or part of a series of reactors (described below). first embodiment

Figures 1a-c show the structure of a reactor with concentric electrodes utilizing a Laurent wire rotor to drive the rotation of charged particles and fusion reactants. This embodiment has an inner electrode 120 , an outer electrode 110 and an annular space 140 between the two electrodes. During operation, the applied potential between these electrodes produces an electric field 144 in the r-direction. Although not shown, this embodiment also includes a permanent magnet or electromagnet (eg, a superconducting magnet) that generates a magnetic field 146 in the z-direction between the inner and outer electrodes. As shown in Fig. 1c , charged particles moving between electrodes experience azimuthal or Laurentian forces due to radial electric and axial magnetic fields.

As shown, the reactor shown in FIG. 1a has a gap 142 that radially separates the outer surface of the inner electrode 112 and the inner surface of the outer electrode 122 . Although the surface area of the opposing surfaces of the inner and outer electrodes can determine the size of the reactor, the radial gap can remain relatively constant over a wide range of applications. In some designs, the upper limit of the gap may be limited by the power available in the annulus to ionize the gas in the annular space and generate the plasma current, while the lower limit of the gap may be limited by manufacturing tolerances. When the gap is very small, eg less than 0.1 mm, any misalignment between the electrodes may cause the electrodes to contact and create a short circuit. Of course, smaller clearances may be possible due to the higher precision that can be accommodated in manufacturing tolerances. In some embodiments, the gap can be between about 1 millimeter and about 50 centimeters; in some embodiments, the gap can be between about 5 centimeters and about 20 centimeters. In some designs, the gap may vary in the r-direction and/or the z-direction of the reactor. For example, the radius of the inner electrode can vary as a function of position along the z-axis, while the radius of the inner surface of the outer electrode is constant.

The length in the z-direction of the confinement wall created by the external electrodes is determined by the radial dimensions of the reactor and the power generation requirements. In some embodiments, the length of the outer electrode in the z-direction may be limited by the type and configuration of the magnet used to generate the magnetic field. For example, if the permanent magnets are placed along the z-direction at either end of the annular space (as shown in Figure 11 ), the outer electrodes may be limited to about 5 or about 10 cm in the z-direction. However, if multiple permanent ring magnets or electromagnets or superconducting magnets (as shown in Figure 10 ) are used to generate the magnetic field (as shown in Figures 16 and 17 ) then the outer electrodes may be longer in the z-direction. For example, the external electrodes may be between about 1 meter and about 10 meters. Typically, the length of the outer electrode 110 is similar to the length of the inner electrode 120 , but this is not always the case. In some embodiments, the inner electrode may extend beyond the outer electrode on one or both sides. In some embodiments, the length of the outer electrode may exceed the length of the inner electrode, such that the outer electrode extends beyond the inner electrode on one or both sides.

Figures 1a-1b depict one of these configurations, in which a solid circular inner electrode is used in combination with a circular outer electrode, in which other combinations of electrode shapes can also be used. Several non-limiting examples of alternative embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art and are discussed with reference to Figures 8a-b and 9a-c . Several illustrative examples are provided here so that the reader can readily understand that other electrode shapes are possible.

As shown in Figure 8a , in some embodiments, the inner electrode 820 may be a discontinuous annular structure. Cavities or open spaces for internal electrodes, the use of internal magnets as shown in Figures 17a-c , or the use of other components within the reactor, are beneficial for heat dissipation from the reactor. In some designs, the radii of the inner and outer electrodes may vary along the z-direction of the reactor. For example, as shown in Figure 8a , the inner electrode 820 may have a larger circumference at certain locations along the z-direction, thereby reducing the gap 842 at those locations. Instead, a uniform inner electrode and an outer electrode whose inner radius varies or even fluctuates in the z-direction can be used. In some designs, such as the embodiment shown in Figure 8b , both the radius of the inner electrode 820 and the radius of the inner surface of the outer electrode 810 vary in the z-direction such that the gap 842 remains constant along the z-direction of the reactor.

Figures 9a-c depict cross-sections of reactors with non-circular cross-sections. As shown, in some embodiments, inner electrode 920 and outer electrode 910 may have radii that vary in azimuth, ie, in the Θ direction. In some designs, the surfaces of the inner and outer electrodes ( 912 and 922 ) may have elliptical cross-sections as shown in Figure 9a . In some designs, the major and minor axes of the elliptical cross-section electrodes differ by only a small amount, eg, less than 1%. In some embodiments, surfaces 912 and/or 922 may form a polygonal cross-section, such as the reactor shown in Figure 9b , having a heptagonal cross-section. In some embodiments, surfaces 912 and 922 may have 4 or more sides; in some embodiments more than 8 sides, in some embodiments more than 16 sides. In certain designs, corners on surface 912 may be advantageous; for example, the rate of collision of rotating particles with target material at corner locations may increase, resulting in an increased fusion rate. In some embodiments, in the reactor configuration shown in Figure 9c , the radius of the inner or outer electrodes defined by surfaces 912 and 922 can vary in the Θ direction such that the cross-section of either surface is a particular edge; The edge of a sine, sawtooth or square waveform. The inner and outer electrodes in the described embodiments are coaxial, but in some embodiments the axes of the inner and outer electrodes are offset, eg, the annular region is eccentric such that the inner and outer electrodes have Substantially parallel but not collinear z-direction axes.

The materials used for the inner and outer electrodes depend on the reactor size, the selected fusion reactants, and other parameters that control the operation of the fusion reactor. Typically, there are many trade-offs in cost, thermal performance, and electrical properties that determine which materials can be selected for the reactor. Refractory metals (eg, tungsten and tantalum) are a choice for small reactors due to their high melting points and relatively high electrical conductivity at elevated temperatures. However, the use of these materials in large scale reactors can significantly increase the cost of the reactor.

In certain embodiments, the electrode material has a sufficiently high melting point to withstand the thermal energy released during operation of the reactor. For the outer electrodes, which constitute the confinement walls where fusion reactions may occur, the thermal energy released is usually large. For regular use, the melting point of the material of the external electrodes should exceed the temperature reached by the electrodes during operation of the reactor. In some designs, the material selected for the electrodes has a melting point greater than about 800°C, in some designs the melting point is greater than about 150°C, and in other designs the melting point is greater than about 2000°C.

，在一些設計中，熱導率大於約100

,，在另一些設計中，熱導率大於約200

。 In many embodiments, it is beneficial for the electrode material to have high thermal conductivity. A reactor may be suitable for continuous operation if the heat transferred to the electrodes can be extracted from the electrodes (eg, using a heat exchanger) at an equivalent rate under steady state conditions. When the electrode material has high thermal conductivity, the rate of heat extraction can be increased and concerns about overheating of the material are reduced. In some designs, the thermal conductivity is greater than about 10

, in some designs, the thermal conductivity is greater than about 100

, and in other designs the thermal conductivity is greater than about 200

.

In certain designs, such as when the reactor is configured for pulsed operation, it may be beneficial for the electrode material to have a high heat capacity. By having a high heat capacity, the electrode heating rate is slow during operation of the reactor. When used for pulsed operation, the thermal energy generated can continue to dissipate through the electrode between pulses, preventing the electrode from reaching its melting point. In some designs, the specific heat of the electrode should be higher than about 0.25 J/g/°C, in some designs, the specific heat should be higher than about 0.37 J/g/°C, and in other designs, the specific heat should be higher than about 0.45 J/g /°C.

In certain embodiments, the electrode material has a relatively small coefficient of thermal expansion. In some designs, by having a low coefficient of thermal expansion, the reactor can perform well over a wider temperature range. For example, if the reactor has a gap of about 1 mm at room temperature, the gap will be correspondingly much smaller during steady state operation due to expansion of the inner and/or outer electrodes. If the thermal expansion coefficient is too high, the outer electrode and the inner electrode may come into contact and cause a short circuit. Alternatively, if the reactor is designed to have some clearance at the operating temperature, the clearance can be larger than required when the reactor is first run. In some designs, the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the electrode material is less than about 4.3 × 10 ^-6 °C ^-1 , in some designs, the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the electrode material is less than about 6.5 × 10 °C ^-1 , in other designs, The linear thermal expansion coefficient of the electrode material is less than about 17.3×10 ^-6 °C ^-1 .

To facilitate reactor operation, the electrodes can be designed with mechanical properties such as resistance to deformation during thermal cycling. Under certain conditions, some materials, such as stainless steel, become brittle and eventually experience metal fatigue due to thermal cycling. Internal stresses may develop if the reactor is operated in pulsed operation and the electrodes are heated and cooled rapidly. In some designs, the effects of thermal load cycling can be reduced by using electrodes with a single bulk material, or by using two or more materials with similar coefficients of expansion. Some materials may deform due to high temperature. Therefore, electrode materials can be selected that maintain strength at elevated temperatures.

The electrode material may be chemically inert and will not be affected by oxidation, corrosion or other chemical degradation over the life of the reactor. Another consideration for electrode materials is whether they are ferromagnetic. In some designs, if a ferromagnetic material is used, an internal local magnetic field is created that interferes with the establishment or maintenance of the preset magnetic field in the annular space.

In a Laurent wire-driven reactor with concentric electrodes, the inner and outer electrodes may be made of conductive materials such that during operation, the potential is applied uniformly across the surfaces of the electrodes. In certain embodiments, the resistivity of the inner or outer electrode material is less than about 7×10 ⁻⁷ Ωm, and in some designs, less than about 1.68×10 ⁻⁸ Ωm at room temperature. In addition to being conductive at room temperature, the inner and outer electrodes are also conductive at higher temperatures when the reactor is not operating. During operation, the inner electrode or outer electrode may reach a temperature of about 600°C to about 2000°C. During operation, the resistivity of the external electrode material should be no greater than about 1.7E-8 Ωm, and in some designs no greater than about 1E-6 Ωm.

In designs where the reactants or by-products include hydrogen or helium, the resistance of the material to hydrogen embrittlement can be considered. Hydrogen embrittlement is some process by which metals such as stainless steel become embrittled and, in some designs, fracture due to the introduction and subsequent diffusion of hydrogen atoms or molecules into the metal. Due to the increased solubility of hydrogen at higher temperatures, the diffusion of hydrogen into the electrode material may increase during reactor operation. The diffusion rate can be further increased when assisted by a concentration gradient, where there is much more hydrogen outside the metal than inside, eg caused by centrifugal densification of hydrogen atoms impinging on the confinement walls. The individual hydrogen atoms within the metal gradually recombine to form hydrogen molecules, creating an internal pressure in the metal. Additionally or alternatively, the entrapped hydrogen molecules themselves generate internal pressure. The pressure can be increased to a level where the metal has reduced ductility, toughness and tensile strength to the point where cracks form and the electrode fails. In some designs, where the metal contains carbon (such as carbonized steel), the electrodes may undergo a process known as hydrogen impingement—the diffusion of hydrogen atoms into the steel to recombine with the carbon to form methane gas. When methane gas concentrates inside the metal, it can create internal pressures that can cause mechanical failure of the equipment. Although methods to reduce the effects of hydrogen embrittlement are described elsewhere in this paper, electrodes are often designed with the material's susceptibility to embrittlement in mind. In some designs, the electrodes may include platinum, platinum alloys, and ceramics such as boron nitride to reduce hydrogen embrittlement. In some designs, the metallurgical structure can be modified so that the influence of hydrogen in the metal lattice may be reduced. For example, in some designs, the metal or metal alloy may be heat treated to obtain the desired metal structure.

In various embodiments, the inner and outer electrodes consist essentially of metals and metal alloys. In some embodiments, the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode are at least partially made of a refractory metal having a high melting point. Refractory metals are known to be chemically inert, suitable for fabrication using powder metallurgy, and have stable creep resistance at very high temperatures. Suitable refractory metals include niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, zirconium, hafnium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium and iridium. In one example, at least the outer electrode includes tantalum.

In some embodiments, one or both electrodes are fabricated using stainless steel. The advantages of stainless steel include its machinability and corrosion resistance. In some designs, the electrodes are made at least in part from non-carbon based stainless steels (eg, Incoloy), which may be more resistant to hydrogen embrittlement than carbide stainless steels. In some designs, the electrodes may be made at least partially from nickel alloys that retain their strength at very high temperatures, such as Inconel, Monel, Haas Troy nickel-based alloys (Hastelloys) and nickel-chromium-titanium alloys (Nimonic). In some designs, the electrodes are at least partially made of copper or copper alloys. In some designs, where the electrodes are configured with one or more channels for internal cooling to extract heat, materials that are less resistant to extreme temperatures may be used.

While the uptake of small atomic fusion reactants such as hydrogen, deuterium or helium can lead to mechanical failure of the electrodes under certain operating conditions, certain materials may reduce or eliminate detrimental embrittlement effects. For example, under certain conditions, hydrogen-absorbing materials such as palladium-silver alloys do not appear to be affected by hydrogen embrittlement (Jimenez, Gilberto, et al. "A comparative assessment of hydrogen embrittlement: palladium and palladium-silver (25 weight% silver, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). In this design, uptake of fusion reactants may increase the rate of fusion reactions, for example, a rotating gaseous reactant such as hydrogen may interact with an external electrode (or confinement wall) Immobilized hydrogen atoms on collisions. In some designs, reactants are provided to the reactor by diffusing them through internal and/or external electrodes. In some designs, the electrodes may include titanium, palladium, or a palladium alloy for Deliver fusion reactants or increase collision rates between fusion reactants.

In some designs, as discussed elsewhere herein, the outer or inner electrodes may include electron emitting materials with high electron emission rates. In some designs, the outer electrodes may contain target materials for fusion reactants. In some designs, target material is consumed during operation due to fusion reactions. For example, in some designs, lanthanum hexaboride is used as the target material and boron-11 atoms are consumed during the proton-boron reaction.

First Embodiment - Electrodes In some embodiments, the outer electrodes are monolithic, made from a single material, in other embodiments, the outer electrodes have layers or segments comprising two or more materials structure. In some embodiments, the inner surface of the outer electrode, the confinement wall, includes the target material (the fusion reactant-containing material) or the electron emitting material. In some designs, the target material or electron emitter may cover the entire surface area of the confinement wall, in other designs, the target material or electron emitter is located at one or more discrete locations on the confinement wall (e.g., as shown in Figure 21a- Electron emitter shown in b ).

In some designs, inner layers of the outer electrodes provide one property, while outer layers provide different properties. For example, the inner layer forming the confining wall surface may have a high melting point, while the outer layer may have good thermal or electrical conductivity.

In some designs, the electrode may include a layer of material that forms a confinement wall that is more resistant to hydrogen embrittlement than the rest of the electrode. In some designs, the electrodes have a ceramic coating that prevents the penetration of hydrogen atoms into the crystal lattice of the outer electrodes or provides thermal insulation of the bulk electrode material. For example, the external electrode may have an aluminum nitride layer, an aluminum oxide layer or a boron nitride layer. Some materials with low conductivity, such as boron nitride, can be heat treated to improve conductivity. In some designs, the electrodes can undergo a surface treatment that adds a material to the electrode surface to reduce hydrogen embrittlement. For example, when electrodes are made of hydrogen embrittlement-prone materials such as tantalum, embrittlement is reduced by adding small amounts of noble metals to the electrode surface. In some designs, the noble metal may cover only a small portion of the electrode surface. For example, the noble metal may cover less than about 50%, less than 30%, or less than 10% of the electrode surface, thereby significantly reducing electrode hydrogen embrittlement. In some designs, small amounts of platinum, palladium, gold, iridium, rhodium, osmium, rhenium, and ruthenium can be added to the electrode surface to reduce hydrogen embrittlement. In some designs, punctiform regions of precious metal (eg, about 0.5 foot radius) may be riveted or welded to the electrode surface. In other designs, noble metal powder can be added to the surface of the electrode, which will spread to the surface of the electrode during normal operation. In some designs, the noble metal may be periodically added to the electrode surface, such as after the reactor has been operating for a predetermined time.

In some designs, the sleeve is attached to the inner surface of the outer electrode such that the inner surface of the sleeve forms a constraining wall. In some designs, a sleeve may be used to, for example, provide target material, provide electron emitters, provide a barrier to prevent hydrogen penetration to the external electrodes, and/or provide thermal protection for the external electrodes. In some designs, the sleeve is consumable and/or replaceable. For example, if the sleeve contains consumed target material, the sleeve will eventually be replaced. In other designs, the sleeve acts as a depletion layer protecting the outer electrodes from hydrogen embrittlement. In the case where the sleeve itself fails due to hydrogen embrittlement, the replacement cost is much lower than the entire outer electrode.

In some embodiments, the outer electrode may have a porous or mesh-like structure that allows energetic charged particles to pass through the electrode while still confining rotationally neutral particles within the annular space. Charged particles passing through the outer electrode can be guided by the magnetic field of the outer magnet. In some designs, escaping alpha particles are redirected to hardware capable of converting the kinetic energy of the alpha particles into electrical energy (see discussion elsewhere in this article). In some designs, the pore size in the electrode can be less than about 100 microns, and in other designs, less than about 1 micron. Generally, the structure of the inner electrode is similar to that of the outer electrode. Like the outer electrodes, the inner electrodes can be made of a single material, or constructed of a layered or segmented structure of two or more materials. In some embodiments, the inner electrode may be solid; in other embodiments, the inner electrode has an interior space. In some designs, the inner electrode may include one or more passages for internal cooling. In various embodiments, the inner electrodes are connected to a power source that provides current output from the inner electrodes to the grounded outer electrodes. The materials of the outer electrodes are generally also suitable for the inner electrodes, although in some embodiments, the inner electrodes do not include target materials or electron emitting materials. First Embodiment - Magnet

Figures 10a-d show a first embodiment in which the axial magnetic field is applied by an electromagnet such as a superconducting magnet. Figure 10a shows an isometric view of a superconducting magnet surrounding the outer electrodes of the reactor. As shown, the magnet includes a housing 1056 . Figure 10b provides the same perspective view as Figure 10a with the superconducting magnet housing 1056 removed, exposing the superconducting coil windings 1054 . Figure 10c provides a perspective view of the reactor viewed along the z-axis, and Figure 10d is an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the cross-sectional line shown in Figure 10a . As shown, the reactor has an outer electrode 1010 , an inner electrode 1020 , a gap 10 that defines an annular space 1040 between the two electrodes. Current (shown by the arrows in Figure 10a ) is passed through the superconducting coil windings 1054 surrounding the reactor, creating a magnetic field in the z-direction through the annular space. In some embodiments, superconducting magnets are used to generate a magnetic field of about 1-20 Tesla across the annular region. In some designs, the applied magnetic field is between 1-5 Tesla. The coils are placed in an insulating housing 1056 around the reactor, which is maintained at low temperature (eg, less than -180°C) and low pressure. The housing 1056 may be cooled by, for example, an adiabatic expanding gas (eg, He) or a cryogenic liquid, such that the temperature of the superconducting coil is maintained below its critical temperature. In some designs, the housing can be mechanically cooled, avoiding the use of liquid cryogens. The coils can be made of superconducting materials such as niobium titanium or niobium tin, bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCC) or yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO). The coil windings can be wound in the insulating material in wire or ribbon. In some designs, the coil windings may include the superconducting materials described above, placed in a copper matrix to provide mechanical stability. In some embodiments, commercially available superconducting magnets may be used, such as suppliers of Cryomagnetics, Inc. or manufacturers of nuclear magnetic resonance imaging equipment. In certain designs, superconducting magnets such as or similar to the AMS-02 superconducting magnet used for the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer experiments may be used. When superconducting magnets are used to provide the axial magnetic field, the radius of the confinement wall is typically smaller than that of the superconducting magnet, for example, the radius may be limited to about 20 meters in some designs.

When the electromagnet or superconducting magnet is placed around the outer electrode, there may be a gap between the outer electrode 1010 and the housing 1056 of the magnet. This spacing can be used to reduce heat transfer to the magnets. In some designs, a heat exchanger may be placed between the outer electrode 1010 and the magnetic housing. When the outer electrode has a porous or mesh structure, there may be a space between the outer electrode and the magnet housing that allows charged particles to pass through the outer electrode. Charged particles, such as alpha particles, passing through the outer electrodes can be constrained in the r-direction by ion cyclotron motion so that they do not collide with the shell 1156 . In some designs, the separation between the external electrodes is about 3 cm to 6 cm, and in other designs, about 6 cm to 10 cm. As described elsewhere in this paper, charged particles can travel in the z-direction towards the energy conversion device, thereby generating electrical energy. Figures 11a-b show a reactor in which disk-shaped permanent magnets 1150 are placed on either end of the annular space 1140 to generate a substantially axially oriented applied magnetic field (in the figures it points in the z-direction). Figure 11a provides a perspective view in the z-direction, while Figure 11b provides an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the section line in Figure 11a . As shown in Figure 11b , the reactor has an inner electrode 1120 , an outer electrode 1110 forming a confinement wall 1112 , and an annular space between the inner and outer electrodes. Magnets 1150 are placed on either side of the annular space with the same magnetic orientation. For example, two magnets may have north poles towards the positive z direction, or two magnets may have north poles towards the negative z direction. Although not shown, in some embodiments, magnet 1150 may be annular such that the magnet approximates annular space 1140 and provides a substantially uniform magnetic region along the inner surface of outer electrode 1112 . The ring magnet has the same pole orientation as the disk magnet shown in Figure 11 .

Figures 12a-b illustrate another embodiment in which multiple permanent magnets 1250 having the same polarity in the z-direction (eg, the same orientation as the disk magnets shown in Figure 11 ) are placed in the annular space 1240 either side to generate an applied magnetic field in the z-direction along the inner surface of the external electrode 1212 . Figure 12a provides a perspective view in the z-direction and Figure 12b provides an isometric cross-sectional view corresponding to the section lines indicated in Figure 12a . Some features are marked in enlarged view 1201 , which shows inner electrode 1220 , outer electrode 1210 , and permanent magnet 1250 defining the annular space formed. In an embodiment, the use of multiple smaller magnets reduces the cost and physical constraints associated with larger monolithic magnets that can be used in larger reactors. The arrangement of magnets 1250 shown in Figures 12a and 12b can be viewed as two ring magnets facing each other. Although not shown, in some embodiments, a combination of different magnet shapes is used to generate the axial magnetic field. For example, a ring magnet could be used on one side of the annular space, while multiple bar magnets could be used on the other side.

Figures 13a-c show a reactor 1300 with a single internal electrode 1320 , with permanent magnets 1350 aligned along the z-direction separating a plurality of annular spaces 1340 . As shown, the reactor has an inner electrode 1320 , a plurality of outer electrodes 1310 forming confining walls 1312 (which are a combination of wall segments), and an annular space 1340 between each outer electrode and the inner electrode. Figure 13a provides a perspective view in the z-direction, Figures 13b and 13c are cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views, respectively, corresponding to the section lines indicated in Figure 13a . When permanent magnets are placed at either end of the annular region, the length of the annular space in the z-direction may be limited by the strength of the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnets. In some designs, the annular space may be limited to, for example, about 5 or 10 centimeters. By arranging the magnets 1350 in the Z direction between the plurality of annular spaces 1340 , the total surface area on the outer electrodes 1310 and the confinement walls 1312 can be increased. As with the previous embodiments, each magnet 1350 has the same orientation along the z-axis. This design effectively uses permanent magnets between the annular spaces, as each pole helps form the magnetic field applied to the bounding annular space. Although the depicted embodiment uses ring magnets, many other shapes are possible; for example, each magnet bordering the annular space may be composed of many smaller magnets that together form a ring structure (see Figures 12a-b ). In some embodiments, the outer electrode 1310 may be segmented into electrically isolated physically distinct sections. In some embodiments, the external electrodes may be monolithic or otherwise electrically connected, eg, grounding each external electrode corresponding to each annular space 1340 .

Figures 14a-c show a single reactor structure 1400 in which a plurality of annular spaces 1440 separated by permanent magnets 1450 are aligned along the z-direction. As shown, the reactor has a plurality of inner electrodes 1420 and a plurality of outer electrodes 1410 , with confinement walls 1412 formed for the annular space 1440 between each set of electrodes. Figure 14a provides a perspective view in the z direction, and Figures 14b and 14c provide cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the section lines indicated in Figure 14a . Rather than employing a ring magnet and a single internal electrode (as shown in the embodiment of Figures 13a-c ), the embodiment of Figures 14a-c employs a disk magnet and multiple internal electrode segments. The description of the corresponding features of Figures 13a-c refers to the embodiment of Figures 14a-c . In some embodiments, the reactors shown may operate using only a subset of the available annular space, depending on energy requirements. For example, in some embodiments, fusion reactants are introduced into only one annular space, and the voltage potential is applied only to the inner electrodes adjacent to the annular space. In this way, the energy output of the reactor can be controlled according to the energy demand, and also monitored in real time if necessary. Thus, in some embodiments, each of the inner electrodes 1420 and/or the outer electrodes 1410 may be independently controlled.

Figures 15a-15c show the magnetic field produced by a series of loops of magnets 1550 that are substantially coaxial and have the same orientation. Figure 15a is an isometric view of the three magnets, Figure 15b is a view along a common axis of the magnets, and Figure 15c is a cross-sectional view corresponding to the markings shown in Figure 15b . While the previous embodiments utilized magnets that are offset from the annular space in the z-direction, the magnets may also be radially offset from the annular space in the r-direction. As shown by the dashed line in Figure 15c , when considered individually, each ring magnet produces a magnetic field 1545 that starts at its north pole and ends at its south pole. When multiple ring magnets are placed next to each other, the net effect can be a combined magnetic field - a superposition of the individual magnetic fields and directed along a common axis substantially as shown by the solid magnetic field lines 1546 in the figure. This magnet configuration extends the feasible length of the annular space of the reactor while using permanent magnets.

Figures 16a-16c illustrate an embodiment using radially offset ring magnets 1650 to generate an axial magnetic field through the annular region. As shown, the reactor has a single inner electrode 1620 and a single outer electrode 1610 forming a confinement wall 1612 for an annular space 1640 between the electrodes. Figure 16a provides a perspective view of the reactor viewed along the z-direction, while Figures 16b and 16c provide cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the section lines indicated in Figure 16a . Each magnet 1650 has the same polarity in the z-direction. For example, as shown, each magnet 1650 has a south pole facing the positive z direction. This embodiment allows for an annular space extending in the z-direction, creating a larger surface area on the confinement wall 1610 , and allowing for a larger power output potential. The overlapping features of the respective embodiments of Figures 13 and 14 may be applied to the embodiment of Figures 16a-c .

Figures 17a-17c illustrate the use of radially offset magnets ( 1750 , 1752 ) to generate an axial magnetic field through a single annular space. As shown, the reactor has a single inner electrode 1720 and a single outer electrode 1710 that form a confinement wall 1712 of a single annular region 1740 between the electrodes. Figure 17a provides a perspective view of the reactor viewed in the z-direction, while Figures 17b and 17c provide cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the section lines indicated in Figure 17a . The embodiment of Figs. 17a-c goes beyond the embodiment described with respect to Figs. 16a-c in which additional magnets 1752 are placed in the inner region of the inner electrode 1620 . As shown, the additional magnet 1752 has the same orientation as the outer magnet 1750 along the z-direction. In some embodiments, as shown in Figures 17b and 17c , the inner ring magnets 1752 are aligned with the outer ring magnets 1750 in the z-direction. In some embodiments, the inner ring magnets may be offset from the outer ring magnets, or the spacing between the magnets may be different than the spacing between the outer magnets. In some embodiments, the inner magnet may take a different shape than the outer magnet, eg. The inner magnet may be a rod magnet.

In some embodiments, the permanent magnets are made of rare earth elements or alloys of rare earth elements. Examples of suitable magnets include samarium cobalt magnets and neodymium magnets. Other strong magnets developed now or later may also be suitable for use. In some embodiments, permanent magnets may be used to generate a magnetic field in the annular space between about 0.1 and 1.5 Tesla; in some embodiments, the permanent magnets may generate between about 0.1 and about 0.5 Tesla in the annular space between the magnetic fields.

Not all reactors require permanent magnets. Some employ electromagnets or superconducting magnets, as described with reference to Figures 10a-d . Some reactors employ a combination of two or more of permanent magnets and electromagnets. Figures 18a-d show a first embodiment in which an axial magnetic field is applied by an electromagnet. As shown, the reactor has inner electrodes 1820 and outer electrodes 1810 that form confinement walls 1812 of annular space 1840 between the electrodes. Figure 18a shows an isometric view of an electromagnet placed on the reactor. Figure 18b is a perspective view of the reactor along the z-axis, while Figures 18c and 18d depict cross-sectional and isometric cross-sectional views corresponding to the cross-sectional lines shown in Figure 18b . Current is passed through the coil windings 1854 surrounding the reactor in the z-direction, thereby creating a substantially z-direction applied magnetic field through the reactor, as shown by the magnetic field lines in Figure 18c . The current through the conductive coil can be provided by an AC or DC power source. In designs where the conductive coil is driven by an AC power source, the inner electrode and/or the outer electrode may also be driven by an AC power source of the same frequency. Doing this keeps the rotation of the charged particles in the same direction, as opposed to the other way around -- alternating directions that would occur if the alternating polarity of the magnetic field was out of sync with the electric field. The coils can be made of conductive materials such as copper, aluminum, gold or silver. In some embodiments, the coil is wound outside the outer electrode, and in some embodiments, the coil is placed in a separate housing around the outer electrode. Reverse Polarity Example

The counter-electrode rotor has been previously described in Figures 5a to 5c . In general, unless otherwise stated, the structure of the electrodes of the first embodiment is also applicable to the design of the opposite electrical polarity. For example, the configuration of the materials used for the inner and outer electrodes, the gap between the electrodes ( 542 in Figure 5a ) and the magnets used to generate the magnetic field in the z-direction can be the same as the design of the concentric electrode reactor. However, as described below, some embodiments employ different structural configurations and/or different materials (eg, different materials on the internal electrodes).

Figure 5d depicts a cross selection of counter-electrode rotors. The electric field can be applied in the negative r direction by applying a negative voltage to the inner electrode and grounding the outer electrode, by applying the inner electrode to ground and applying a positive potential to the outer electrode, or by applying a more negative potential to the inner electrode than the outer electrode. Positively charged particles in the annular region 540 are pulled towards the inner electrode 520 when a potential is applied to the inner and/or outer electrodes to create an electric field. As the charged particles move inwards, the Lawrence force accelerates the particles in azimuth, potentially resulting in a helical trajectory, as shown by path 503 . Neutral particles in the annular space rotate with positively charged particles through ion-neutral coupling. Due to the potential difference between the inner electrode and the outer electrode, more electrons on the inner electrode form an electron-rich region 532 close to the electrode surface, due to which these electrons rotate in the same direction as the positively charged particles subjected to the Laurentian force. As described elsewhere, this electron-rich region reduces the Coulomb barrier between fusion nuclei. In some designs, the electron-rich region may extend from about 100 microns to about 3 millimeters from the surface of the inner electrode.

In certain designs, the recombination of charged species occurs when the positively charged particle contacts the inner electrode as it moves inward or when the positively charged particle encounters free electrons in an electron-rich region. In some designs, positively charged particles move around the inner electrode along a Larmor radius 502 . In some embodiments, the density of positively charged particles varies in the radial direction. For example, positively charged particles may be denser around the annular space at the Larmor radius than near the outer electrode. This gradient of charged particles can lead to a velocity profile within the annular region, where particles near the outer wall move more slowly, where there is a higher density of neutral particles due to centrifugal force, and fewer positively charged particles drive the medium. Sexual particle motion.

In some embodiments, the inner electrode is composed of a separate material such as tantalum, tungsten, copper, carbon or lanthanum hexaboride. In some designs, the inner electrode has a conductive core 520a coated with electron emission and/or target material 520b. For example, the inner electrode may have a core made of a conductive and heat-resistant material (eg, tungsten) coated with lanthanum hexaboride, boron nitride, or another boron-containing material. In some designs, the diameter of the inner electrode is between about 1 centimeters and about 3 centimeters, and in other designs, between about 4 centimeters and about 6 centimeters. In some designs, the inner electrodes have tiny cross-sections, such as filaments or wires. In such embodiments, the diameter of the inner electrode may be less than about 0.5 millimeters, less than about 0.1 millimeters, or less than about 0.05 millimeters. In some designs, the length of the inner electrode in the z-direction is about 3 centimeters to about 10 centimeters. In some designs, the inner electrodes may be small in the z-direction, eg, less than about 3 centimeters, or less than about 1 centimeter. In some embodiments, the inner electrodes may be longer in the z-direction, eg, longer than about 20 centimeters. In some designs, the z-direction confinement region (the length over which the inner and outer electrodes overlap) for the counter-polarity reactor may be limited by the power source that applies the charge to the inner and/or outer electrodes. In some designs, the length in the z-direction may depend on the gas pressure within the confinement region. In some designs, if the gas pressure is reduced to very low values, an increase in length in the z-direction is allowed, potentially reducing the power required to generate the plasma within the annular space.

Figure 19a depicts several methods of actively cooling the inner electrodes. In some designs, the inner electrode 1910 has an inner passage 1928 through which the fluid can carry heat away. For example, water can be pumped into the internal channels to remove heat from the internal electrodes. In some designs, the internal electrodes may be bonded to a thermally conductive, insulating ceramic block 1923. The ceramic block may be made of a material such as alumina. Heat is dissipated through the ceramic block, removing heat from the tail end of the internal electrode connected to it. In some designs, the ceramic block has open orifices to support the internal electrodes. In some designs, set screws are used to secure the internal electrodes to the ceramic. In some designs, heat conducted through the ceramic block is used to generate electricity, such as by connecting a thermoelectric generator or heat exchanger to the ceramic block.

In some embodiments, the inner electrode may be replaced if the target material is consumed or the electrode is damaged. For example, the boron-coated filament used as the internal electrode can be replaced when the boron coating is depleted or when the filament breaks.

In some embodiments, the length of the inner electrode exceeds the annular region (determined by the z-direction edge of the outer electrode). In some designs, the position of the inner electrode is varied in the z-direction by means of a linear actuator. For example, if the inner electrode is a wire, the wire may be passed through the annular region to prevent melting of the inner electrode during operation of the reactor, or replace a portion of the wire in designs where the target material above (eg, boron coating) is consumed.

In some embodiments, the width of the inner electrodes may vary in the z-direction. Figure 19b shows that the inner electrode 1920 extends beyond the outer electrode 1910 and is held in place by an extended sleeve 1921 that can serve as the inner electrode. Sleeve 1921 may be made of conductive materials such as copper, stainless steel, and tantalum. In some designs, a voltage may be applied to the inner electrodes through the sleeve; this may reduce resistive heating of inner electrodes with small diameters. In some designs, the diameter of the sleeve may be much larger than the diameter of the inner electrode. For example, the diameter of the sleeve may be greater than about 10 centimeters, while the diameter of the inner electrode is less than about 0.5 millimeters. In some configurations, a set screw may be used to secure the inner electrode to the sleeve. In some embodiments, the sleeve may be threaded directly into the sleeve. These and other attachments allow the inner electrode 1920 to be replaceable while the sleeve 1921 is permanent. In some designs, the sleeve may be coated with a target material such as boron. In some designs, as shown in Figure 19a, the sleeve may be internally cooled.

As with the reactor of the first embodiment, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes may be limited by the amount of plasma the power source can generate within the confined area. In some designs, the external electrodes may be similar in structure to the external electrodes described in the first embodiment. In some designs, the outer electrodes may have an outer insulating layer. For example, if an alternating signal is applied to the electrodes of the reactor, or if the reactor of opposite polarity is part of a plurality of reactor modules that need to be electrically isolated from each other. Typically, the support structures for the inner and outer electrodes may contain electrically insulating materials to insulate the electrodes from the shell of the reactor and prevent alternating current between the electrodes. In some designs, the outer electrode is a sheet of metal (eg, copper) that is formed into a cylindrical shape inside a quartz tube. In some designs, the outer electrode is a solid tubular structure within an insulating structure. In another embodiment, the electrodes are prepared by coating the inner surface of a quartz tube with a metallic conductive coating.

As described elsewhere, only a small number of ions or positively charged particles are needed to drive the rotation of a large number of neutral particles. Due to the confinement walls connected to the outer electrodes, the concentration of neutral particles increases in the radial direction. Meanwhile, the rotating neutral particles are not affected by the radial electric field or the axial magnetic field. Due to random collisions with the outer wall and other particles, neutral particles may be deflected into electron-dense regions, and in some designs, neutral particles may strike the target material on the inner electrode, causing fusion to occur. Similarly, in some designs, positively charged particles may also be deflected into the inner electrode where the fusion reaction occurs, where proton-boron 11 polymerization occurs.

In some designs, the counter electric field polarity reactor operates in constant voltage mode. For example, a voltage is applied to the inner and/or outer electrodes to maintain a constant or substantially constant voltage between the electrodes during operation of the reactor. In another mode of operation, the counter electric field polar reactor operates in constant current mode. Working with constant current is advantageous when the internal electrodes are small and prone to failure due to resistive heating. In some designs, the reactor is initially controlled using constant voltage mode and then transitioned to constant current operation.

In some configurations, an energy storage device such as a capacitor or battery is used to apply an electrical potential to the inner and/or outer electrodes to initiate fusion reactions. In some designs, the circuit regulates the current and/or voltage provided by the energy storage device. In some designs, an energy device (eg, a capacitor) is connected to the inner and/or outer electrodes and discharged until the energy storage device can no longer generate an electric field strong enough to support fusion reactions. In some designs, the reactor is configured with an additional energy storage device - charged by the electrical energy produced by the fusion reaction when the first energy storage device is discharged. In some designs, an energy storage device such as a capacitor or battery is used to apply a potential to the inner and/or outer electrodes to initiate the fusion reaction. In some designs, the current and/or voltage provided by the energy storage device is regulated by the circuit. In some designs, an energy device (eg, a capacitor) is connected to the inner and/or outer electrodes and discharged until the energy storage device can no longer generate an electric field strong enough to support fusion reactions to occur. The regulator then modulates the charge and discharge mode switching of the energy storage device so that the fusion reaction can be maintained.

In some designs, the power source is not connected to the inner and/or outer electrodes, and the fusion reaction can continue to occur for a period of time (eg, about 10 seconds) before the potential difference between the electrodes is insufficient to sustain the reaction. When the electric field becomes too small to sustain the fusion reaction, a voltage or current source can be reconnected to apply a negative potential to the inner electrodes.

The gas pressure in the annular region may be about 1 atmosphere or higher prior to operation of the reverse polarity reactor. In some designs, such as when the inner electrode is elongated in the z-direction, the inner electrode may have a low gas pressure to reduce the power required to initiate the fusion reaction. In some designs, the gas pressure within the annular region may be reduced to less than 1 Torr or less than 10 mTorr prior to operating the reactor. In some designs, the gas pressure within the annular region can be adjusted through inlet and outlet valves to control the rate at which fusion reactions occur.

For a reverse-polarity reactor, the magnetic field in the confinement region is sometimes greater than about 0.5 Tesla, sometimes greater than about 1 Tesla, and sometimes greater than about 3 Tesla. In some embodiments of the reverse electric field polarity reactor, substantially the magnetic field is not perpendicular to the electric field between the inner and outer electrodes. In some embodiments, the magnetic field is non-uniform over the confinement area. The magnetic field in the confinement region can be adjusted by adjusting the position and orientation of the magnets and/or electrodes. In some designs, a non-uniform magnetic field may increase the rate at which ions and electrically neutral species collide with the internal electrodes. In general, the applied magnetic field and/or the potential applied to the electrodes can vary depending on the reactor geometry, reactant gas composition, and reactant gas pressure.

During operation, due to centrifugal force, particles, especially higher mass particles, are denser near the outer wall. This may help to extract fusion products from the annular region with higher mass than the spinning reactants. For example, when a fusion reaction produces alpha particles containing rotating hydrogen species, the alpha particles can be concentrated near the outer wall and removed through an outlet valve. In some designs, fusion products can be pumped to another reactor where they continue to be used as reactants. For example, alpha particles or helium atoms produced in a reverse electric field polarity reactor can be moved to another reactor, supporting the occurrence of a helium-helium fusion reaction. Reverse Field Reactor Example

Referring to Figures 6a-d above, another reactor embodiment is described with a reverse field configuration. This configuration employs a Laurence swivel to drive and maintain the rotational motion of the particles in the annular space. In general, opposing fields can be applied to many of the reactors described herein, while the positions of the magnetic and electric fields are shifted.

The magnetic field in the radial direction may be applied using permanent magnets (616 and 626) made of magnetic material such as described in the first embodiment. In some designs, the permanent magnets may be replaced with multiple azimuthally offset electromagnets having radially oriented axes, eg, a magnetic field oriented substantially in the r-direction applied over the entire annular space. In some designs, the surface of the confinement wall may have one or more layers of protective magnetic material. For example, an aluminum or tantalum layer can provide protection for the outer or inner magnet. In some designs, the protective layer may contain target materials for fusion reactants or electron emitters. In some designs, the confinement wall can have an internal cooling system that keeps the material below its melting point and prevents the magnets from demagnetizing.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes is sometimes constrained by the power available to ionize the gas in the annular space. Similarly, in the reverse field configuration, the confinement area in the z-direction separating electrodes 660a and 660b is also limited. For example, in some designs, the separation between electrodes is in the range of about 1 millimeter to about 50 centimeters, and in other designs, the separation between electrodes is in the range of about 5 centimeters to about 20 centimeters.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the length of the annular space in the z-direction may sometimes be limited by the strength of the permanent magnets. Similarly, in the reverse field configuration, the gap in the r-direction may be limited by the strength of the magnetic field generated near the surface of the confining wall. In some designs, the radial clearance may be limited to about 10 centimeters or less, about 5 centimeters or less. In some designs, the gap may be larger when the magnets 616 themselves provide a sufficiently strong magnetic field near the confinement surface; for example, in some designs, the gap may be larger than about 10 centimeters. In some designs, internal magnets are not required. Wave particle example

A second type of reactor configuration, referred to herein as the wave-particle embodiment, is briefly described below and shown in Figures 7a and 7b. In the wave particle embodiment, the charged particles are driven in rotation by an oscillating electrostatic field. Electroneutral matter is propelled by charged particles. The electric field is generated by applying a charge to another electrode located in the azimuthal direction of the confinement wall, inner wall or connected annular region. Since this embodiment does not require a magnetic field, restrictions in the magnet structure do not exist. For example, the radius of the reactor may be larger than feasible with ring or disk magnets. Furthermore, since this embodiment does not require current flow between the inner and outer electrodes, the structural constraints imposed by the concentric electrodes also do not exist. In some embodiments of the wave-particle design, the confinement wall may have a radius greater than about 2 meters, in some designs greater than about 10 meters, and in some designs greater than about 50 meters. Contrary to some embodiments of the Lorentzian rotator, the length of the reactor in the z-direction is not limited by the strength of the permanent magnets, which may occur in the concentric electrode embodiments. In some embodiments, the annular region may have a length in the z-direction greater than about 1 meter, in some designs greater than about 10 meters, and in some designs greater than about 100 meters. In one embodiment, there is a curvature in the z-direction of the reactor such that the confinement wall forms a toroidal annular shape. In general, the size constraints of the reactor can control the energy requirements of the reactor and related production costs. In the wave particle embodiment, the rotating particles can be controlled by affecting the number and size of azimuthally offset electrodes in the annular region. The relatively large number of electrodes along the confinement wall allows the electric field lines to be finely modulated, thereby increasing the efficiency of the electric field for moving charged particles. In some designs, this is because the dynamically changing electric field drives the particles primarily azimuthally rather than radially. Typically, the reactor will have electrodes in at least three azimuthal directions. Some reactors may have at least five azimuthally independent electrodes, and some may have more than about 50 azimuthal electrodes. In some designs, the number of electrodes varies according to the size of the reactor. For example, a reactor with a radius of about 1 meter may have about 20 to about 40 azimuthally independent electrodes along the confinement wall, while a reactor with a radius of about 2 meters may have about 40 to about 80 azimuthally independent electrodes. In some designs, the ratio of the circumference (in meters) of the reactor to the number of independent internal or external electrodes in azimuth is between about 3 and about 150, and in some designs, the ratio is between about 20 and 100 between.

In some designs, the electrodes are separated by an electrically insulating material such as aluminum nitride or boron nitride. The insulating material is thick enough that electrical breakdown does not occur. The minimum thickness can be determined by the dielectric strength of the insulating material and the voltage applied to the electrodes. In some designs, the electrically insulating material includes a target material (such as a fusion reactant of boron-11) and/or an electron emitter.

In some designs, the efficiency of the reactor may also be improved when the electrodes have narrower widths in the azimuthal direction and are separated by an electrically insulating material. In some designs, the electrically insulating material may also be the target material or electron emitter. In some designs, the electrode width in the azimuthal direction may be less than about 10 centimeters, in some designs less than about 5 centimeters, and in some designs less than about 2 centimeters. In some embodiments, the reactor uses only azimuthally independent electrodes along the confinement wall. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the reactor utilizes only internal electrodes, or only electrodes incorporating annular regions in the z-direction. In designs where the electrode itself does not define a confinement wall, the surface of the confinement wall may be made of a target material or an electron emitter. For example, in some designs, the electrodes are separated from the annular region by a sleeve containing rods made of lanthanum hexaboride.

In some designs, the confinement walls are configured with thermal management elements, such as heat exchangers (eg, cooling jackets). Heat exchangers can be used to prevent overheating of the electrodes and/or to supply heated fluid to a heat engine to generate electrical or thermal energy. In some designs, heat can be dissipated from the reactor by passing a fluid, such as water, through channels in the confinement walls. For example, the insulating material of azimuthally separated electrodes may have internal channels for fluid.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes is sometimes limited, which is a limitation of the power available for gas ionization in the annular region. In the wave-particle configuration, the gap between adjacently positioned electrically isolated electrodes can also be constrained. For example, in some designs, the spacing between electrodes is in the range of about 1 millimeter to about 50 centimeters, and in other designs, the spacing between electrodes is in the range of about 5 centimeters to about 20 centimeters.

In some designs, the wave particle reactor has more than one mode of operation. For example, a first stage can be used to initiate or impinge the plasma, followed by a second stage to drive ions (indirectly drive neutrals). For example, a radio frequency electric field can be applied radially between the inner and outer electrodes to generate a weakly ionized plasma to prepare a reactor for operation. Once a plasma is generated between the inner and outer electrodes, the reactor can be switched to another mode in which a drive signal is applied sequentially across the azimuthally distributed electrodes to drive the charged and neutral particles in rotation. (In some designs, wave particle reactors have multiple modes of operation. For example, the first phase can be used to start or hit the plasma, and the latter phase can be used to drive ions (and indirect neutrals) in a rotational direction For example, an RF electric field can be applied radially between the inner and outer electrodes to generate a weakly ionized plasma, preparing a reactor for operation. Once the plasma is generated between the inner and outer electrodes, the reactor can Transition to a mode in which a drive signal is applied sequentially to azimuthally distributed electrodes to drive the rotation of charged and neutral particles.)

The frequency of the oscillatory signal applied to the azimuthally distributed electrodes to drive the rotation of the ions and neutrals is chosen depending on the reactor configuration and the preset rotational speed. For example, the drive signal may be applied in the range of about 60 kilohertz to 1 megahertz, and in some designs in the range of about 60 kilohertz and 1 gigahertz. In some designs, the frequency of the drive signal may start low and then gradually or suddenly increase. For example, the drive signal may start at a relatively low frequency, such as 60 kHz, and eventually reach a frequency of 100 megahertz.

In some designs, the drive signal is charged using a controlled voltage. To avoid arcing between electrodes, it is ideal to use high voltage and low current, rather than high current at low voltage. In some designs, the drive signal is applied to the individual electrodes in azimuth between about 1 kilovolt and about 100 kilovolts. In some designs, the drive signal may apply more than 100 kilovolts to the electrodes.

Using electrostatic forces, rotational speeds (eg, similar confinement radii) that are typically achievable in Laurence-driven reactors of similar construction can be achieved with wave-particle embodiments. In some designs, the electrostatically driven reactor can drive rotation of the gaseous species at a rate of at least about 1000 revolutions per second, and in other designs at least about 100,000 revolutions per second. In the wave particle embodiment, a control system can be used to control how the charge is applied to the electrodes. In some designs, the control system uses the detection speed determined using a high-speed camera or another sensor as feedback to adjust the sequence of charges applied to the electrodes. In some designs, the control system uses the detection speed determined using a high-speed camera or other sensor as feedback to adjust the sequence of charges applied to the electrodes. In general, the azimuthal independent electrodes may have similar structures and may be made of the materials of the above-described embodiments. Hybrid Design Reactor

Another general reactor configuration, referred to herein as a hybrid reactor type, is briefly described with respect to Figures 6a to 6f. This configuration employs a Laurence swivel and a wave-particle driver to maintain the rotational motion of the particles in the annular space. Some of the designs of the first embodiment described above can be applied when operating the Laurence reactor in a hybrid reactor. Similarly, some of the configurations of the wave-particle embodiments described above can be applied when operating with azimuthal electrodes of a hybrid design.

A radial magnetic field is applied using permanent magnets (616 and 626) made of the magnetic material described in the first embodiment, as described in the reverse field embodiment. In some designs, the permanent magnets may be replaced by a plurality of azimuthally offset electromagnets with radially oriented axes such that the magnetic field extends substantially throughout the entire confinement region in the r-direction. In some designs, the confinement wall surface may contain one or more layers of protective magnetic material. In some designs, the protective layer may contain target materials for fusion reactants or electron emitters. In some designs, the confinement wall may have an internal cooling system to keep the material below its melting temperature and prevent demagnetization of the magnets.

In the concentric electrode embodiment, the gap between the inner and outer electrodes is limited by the power available to ionize the gas in the annular region. Similarly, in hybrid reactor embodiments, the confinement or annular region separating electrodes 660a and 660b in the z-direction is limited. For example, in some designs, the electrodes are spaced from about 1 millimeter to about 50 centimeters apart, and in other designs, the electrodes are spaced from about 5 centimeters to about 20 centimeters apart.

In concentric electrode embodiments, the length of the annular region in the z-direction is sometimes limited by the strength of the permanent magnets. Similarly, in hybrid designs, the gap in the r-direction may sometimes be limited by the need to generate magnetic field strength near the surface of the confinement wall. In some designs, the radial clearance may be limited to about 10 centimeters or less, or about 5 centimeters or less. In some designs, the gap may be larger when the magnets 616 provide a sufficiently strong magnetic field near the confinement surface; for example, in some designs, the gap may be larger than about 10 centimeters. In some designs, internal magnets may not be required.

In a hybrid design, a control system is used to control the signals applied to the individual electrodes distributed over the azimuth. In some designs, the control system may receive feedback from the sensor to adjust the sequence of charges applied to the electrodes. In general, the electrodes (660a and 660b) may have similar structures and may be made of materials suitable for making electrodes as described in the first embodiment.

In some designs, the mode of the hybrid design reactor is switched when or before the fusion reaction is performed. For example, the reactor can use a Laurence swivel to maintain particle rotation before switching to a wave-particle drive. Under certain conditions, the Laurence force-driven rotor is more efficient at starting particle rotation in the annular space. Once the particles in the annular space are at a certain rotational speed in the reactor, it is no longer advantageous to continue using the Laurence rotor, and it is possible to switch to the wave-particle driven mode of operation. In some designs, higher particle velocities and more energy production can be achieved by switching to a wave-particle driven mode of operation. In some designs, by switching to a wave-particle drive mode of operation, the resulting energy can be modulated with high precision by adjusting the sequence of drive signals applied to the azimuthally distributed electrodes (660a and 660b). In certain embodiments using electromagnets to generate the electric field, the current source for controlling the magnetic field may be terminated when the reactor enters a wave-particle mode of operation. This can be used to prevent Laurence forces from acting on charged particles in the z-direction. electron emitter

As described elsewhere herein, the confinement walls are sometimes made at least partially of electron-emitting material, referred to herein as electron emitters. Above a certain temperature, these materials emit electrons thermionics. For example, some boron-based electron emitters have emission temperatures in the range of about 1800 gram elvin to about 2000 gram elvin. In some designs, the electron emitter may be in powder form that is compacted, sintered, or otherwise converted into a form suitable for placement within the annular region. In some designs, physical vapor deposition may be used to sinter or deposit the electron emissive material onto the confinement walls of the reactor. In other designs, the electron emitters may be forged into structures that form part of the confinement wall, or attached to the confinement wall.

Some electron emitters are low work function species that do not degrade at high temperatures and other conditions within the reactor. Examples of electron emitters include oxides and borides such as barium oxide, strontium oxide, calcium oxide, aluminum, oxides, thorium oxide, lanthanum hexaborate, cerium hexaboride, strontium hexaboride, strontium hexaborate, hexaboride Yttrium, yttrium hexaboride, hexaboride, samarium hexaboride, and thorium hexaboride. In some designs, the emitters may be transition metals such as carbides and borides, such as zirconium carbide, hafnium carbide, tantalum carbide, and hafnium diboride. ^In some designs, the emitter may be a polymerization reactant such ^as6Li , ^15N ,3He, and deuterium. In some designs, the electron emitter may be a compound containing a fusion reactant. For example, lanthanum hexaboride can serve as an electron emitter and target material for proton-boron 11 fusion. In some designs, fusion reaction products can be used as electron emitters. In some designs, the electron emitter may be a composite of two or more materials, at least one of which has a low work function and emits electrons during operation.

In some designs, the electron emitters are attached as solid elements in the confinement walls of the reactor. In some embodiments, the electron emitters are thin or flat structures attached to the confinement walls, the bulge being inconspicuous in the annular region. Figure 20a depicts a cross section of an electron emitter. In some embodiments, these electron emitters are attached to the surface of the confinement wall using mechanical fasteners such as clips or screws. In some designs, the electron emitters are located in slots in the confinement wall and are held in place by friction. For example, the electron emitters can be held in place with grooves or clamps. In some designs, the emitters are attached to the wall by heat, adhesive, or other processes. In some designs, the electron emitters are less than about 1.2 centimeters thick, in other designs less than about 6 centimeters, and less than about 3 centimeters thick. The size of the sheet-like structures in the azimuthal or z-direction is limited by the size of the reactor. Figure 20b depicts several configurations in which the electron emitters 2036 may be distributed symmetrically along the surface of the confinement wall 2010, and in some configurations the electron emitters may be located in only a few specific areas.

In certain embodiments, when the emitters are disposed on the surface of the confinement wall, they are heated by friction and/or plasma heating during reactor operation. In some designs, additional methods may be used to add energy to the electron emitter to increase the electron emission rate. While the reactor is still relatively cool, additional methods can be used to heat the emitter during initial operation of the reactor. In some designs, additional methods of increasing electron emission can be used to control the rate of fusion reactions.

In some embodiments, the electron emitters on the confinement walls are electrically connected to a power source to enhance electron emission. For example, in some embodiments, electrical current is passed through filaments within the electron emitting material to provide resistive heating. In some designs, the filament is made of a refractory metal such as tungsten. In some designs, such as when the confinement wall is grounded, the electron emitters may be separated from the grounded portion of the confinement wall by an electrically insulating material. In some designs, direct current is applied to the filaments. In some designs, electron emission is further improved or controlled by applying an alternating current to the electron emitter; such as an electrical current with an RF or microwave signal.

Figures 21a-b depict the use of resistive heating to control electron emission in a concentric electrode reactor. 21a is a z-direction view of the reactor with an inner electrode 2120, an outer electrode 2110 separated from the inner electrode by an annular region 2140, and an electron emitting device 2136 placed along the confinement wall 2112 powered by a power source 2135 . Figure 21b is an enlarged view of the electron-emitting device on the confinement wall. The electron emission device includes an electron emitter material 2130, such as lanthanum hexaboride, heated by a filament 2134. In some designs, the device may include insulating layers 2137 and 2138, which may provide electrical and/or thermal isolation from the external electrodes and/or confinement walls (provided they are different). These insulating layers can be made of ceramic materials such as zirconium oxide, aluminum oxide, zinc nitride and magnesium oxide. In some embodiments, the position of the electron emitting device can be adjusted during operation of the reactor. For example, to increase electron emission caused by the frictional heating of rotating matter, actuators can be used to move the device radially inward to the annular region. Alternatively, to limit the reaction, the device can be pulled from the annular region to limit the release of electrons.

In some embodiments, the electron emitter may have a sharp point or tapered structure at one end to improve field electron emission. For example, when an electron emitter is supplied with a potential, a strong electric field generated near a point can cause field electron emission to concentrate at that point due to the narrowing of the geometry.

In some embodiments, one or more lasers are used to increase or control the electron emission of the emitters. As shown in FIG. 22, the reactor 2200 may be equipped with a laser 2231 to direct light within the annular region 2240 onto the electron emitter 2230. As shown, the light from the laser can pass through or along the inner electrode 2220 through the insulated optical fiber 2239. Lasers can be used as emitters for thermionic emission, and can also act on other materials that confine the walls to exhibit the photoelectric effect. For example, metals and conductors can exhibit the photoelectric effect when the current does not neutralize the photons produced by the impact, creating an imbalance. Although FIG. 22 depicts the first embodiment, in a reverse-polarity embodiment, a laser can be used on the internally negatively charged electrodes to increase electron emission. gas supply system

The reactor may have one or more gas valves for introducing fusion reactants and removing fusion products. In some designs, standardized air valves may be used. For example, gas valves for low pressure deposition and etch chambers may be suitable for the reactor. In some designs, gaseous reactants are released into the confinement region somewhere inside the device; for example, the reactant species may pass through internal electrodes. In some designs, a gas valve may be located at one end of the confinement region in the z-direction, in other designs, gaseous reactant species are introduced into the confinement region through a valve located within the confinement wall. The outlet valve for fusion products can be placed in a similar position to the inlet valve. When removing fusion products during reactor operation, the outlet valve may be located on or adjacent to the confinement wall, but offset from the confinement region in the z-direction. In some designs, the inlet and outlet valves may need to be electrically isolated from the electrodes to avoid shorting to ground.

The inlet and outlet valves can also be provided with a vacuum pump system to account for the passage of gaseous species into and out of the reactor. In some designs, the valve may include a flow meter that controls the amount of gas added or removed from the reactor. In some designs, a flow meter can be connected to the control system of the reactor to limit the amount of hydrogen or reactant species put into the chamber. In some designs, the gas inlet introduces neutrals near the confinement region and the gas outlet removes neutrals outside the z-direction fusion region of the reactor. In some designs, the pumping system controls the distribution of neutrals along the z-direction of the reactor to remove neutrals that may reduce the efficiency of converting the kinetic energy of fusion products (eg, alpha particles) into electrical energy.

While the discussed embodiments describe gas species, in other embodiments, the fusion reactants are introduced into the annular region in liquid form. In some designs, instead of filling the annular region with fusion reactants in gaseous form, the annular region may be filled or partially filled with liquid fuel. For example, liquids containing hydrogen ions such as liquid hydrogen, ammonia, alkanes such as butane or methane liquids and liquid hydrides can be used as liquid fuels. In some designs, the liquid fuel may evaporate rapidly after entering the chamber. In some designs, the pressure within the reactor can be controlled by adding liquid fuel to the reactor. For example, by using the temperature difference and the known volume of the annular region, the pressure within the constrained region can be calculated using the ideal gas law. In some designs, the gaseous reactant pressure within the reactor can be carefully monitored so that a high neutral particle density is maintained without affecting the structural integrity of the reactor.

When the reactor is a Lawrence turret, the liquid fuel may be added in a sufficient amount or under thermal conditions so that the liquid does not evaporate immediately upon entering the reaction device. In this design, electrical current can be passed through the liquid fuel by applying a potential between the electrodes. In some designs, the liquid is inoculated with charged particles such as potassium. In designs where a magnetic field is present, the Laurentian force drives the rotation of neutral and charged particles in the liquid fuel. As the kinetic energy of the spin column increases, the liquid near the boundary layer along the confinement wall may evaporate, releasing hydrogen or another reactive gas that may fuse with the target material on the confinement wall. For example, proton-boron 11 fusion may occur when hydrogen is released from a liquid fuel, and the confinement walls contain lanthanum hexaboride. In some designs, the gaseous layer created between the rotating liquid and the confining wall may create a sliding layer that allows the liquid in the annular region to rotate faster by reducing the forces between the liquid and the wall. In some designs, the liquid can absorb heat and reduce the likelihood of electrode melting. Because liquids may have a high density of fusion reactants compared to gases, liquids can be used for extended periods of time without needing to be replaced. Although not limited to the use of liquid fuels, in some designs, a safety valve may be used to release gas from the reactor if the pressure exceeds a threshold. In some designs, such as transportation applications, the fusion reactant can be stored in liquid form and delivered to the reactor as a liquid or gas. By storing the fusion reactants in liquid form, the fuel supply is small and compact.

In some designs, liquid fuel may be supplied to the reactor through a pressurized tank. In some designs, fusion reactants, such as hydrogen, can be stored in small capsules. For example, hydrogen can be stored in glass capsules and fed to the reactor through ports in the confinement walls. In some designs, hydrogen gas may be provided in pressurized form (eg, several atmospheres), and in some designs, hydrogen gas may be provided in liquid form. In designs where the reactor is already operating, the temperature within the reactor can melt the shell of the gas storage capsule, allowing the fuel to be released immediately or within a short period of time (eg, minutes). In some designs, such as when the reactor is cool and not operating, a laser (as shown in Figure 22) can be used to disrupt the capsule material and release the reactant or fuel. In designs such as automotive applications, the use of capsules to store small amounts of the fusion reactant of hydrogen can reduce or eliminate the need for hardware (eg, pressurized tanks) to safely store the reactants.

In some designs, hydrogen-containing solid compounds can be added to the reactor as fusion reactants. For example, when the hydrogen fuel is consumed in the reactor, a polymer fuel block made of polyethylene or polypropylene can be supplied to the reactor through ports in the confinement wall. Once in the reactor, the high temperature induced by the excitation of the reactor (eg, the laser shown in Figure 22) is sufficient to decompose the polymer to release hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, ammonia borane (also known as ammonia borane) can be used as a hydrogen fuel. Ammonia borane releases molecular hydrogen and gaseous boron nitrogen compounds when the reactor reaches a temperature greater than about 100 degrees Celsius. In some designs, ammonia borane or boron-nitrogen compounds can act as electron emitters, and in some designs, boron atoms from ammonia borane can undergo fusion-fusion reactions with hydrogen atoms during operation. In many applications (eg, automotive applications), the use of solid fuels can reduce or eliminate hardware for storing gaseous or liquid fuels for safety and increased convenience. cooling system

In some designs, in order for the reactor to operate continuously, the reactor must be cooled to prevent overheating of the electrodes, magnets and/or other components. In some embodiments, the reactor can be cooled by being completely submerged in the liquid. In some embodiments, the reactor includes a heat sink that draws heat out of the reactor by conduction and transfers it to a fluid medium such as air or a liquid coolant. As an example, a heat exchanger can be used. Fans or pumps can be used to control flow rate conditions and help transfer heat to the fluid medium. Depending on the temperature monitored within the reactor, the fluid velocity can be adjusted to adjust the fluid flow between laminar and turbulent flow. In some embodiments, the fluid passes through a cooling jacket external to the reactor, and in some designs, cooling tubes may be used to cool the components within the reactor. As described elsewhere herein, a heat sink can be used to transfer heat to a fluid that generates electrical energy in a heat engine. Liquids that can be used to cool the reactor include water, liquid lead, liquid sodium, liquid bismuth, molten salts, molten metals and various organic compounds, including some alcohols, hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons. power supply

The reactor may include one or more power sources for supplying electrical current to the electrodes, electromagnets and other electrical components. The power supply can control the current and/or voltage of the two terminals (eg, concentric electrodes). In some embodiments, the power supply is capable of providing a maximum voltage of about 200 volts to about 1000 volts. For example, in some embodiments, the power supply may provide up to 600 volts to the electrodes. In some embodiments, a small scale reactor may be capable of supplying about 0.1 amps to about 100 amps of current and/or about 1 kilowatt of power. For some mid-sized plants, the reactor may provide about 1 amp to about 1 kA of current and/or about 5 kilowatts of power. On some large scale installations, the reactor may provide about 1 amp to 10 kA of current and/or provide hundreds of kilowatts of power.

Depending on the mode of operation of the reaction device, a power source can be used to provide either direct current or alternating current. In some embodiments, alternating current is applied to the electrodes to breakdown the plasma. In some designs, the voltage required to break down the plasma in the annular region may be reduced by about 10% compared to the DC current impinging through the plasma. When using an AC signal to break down the plasma, the power supply provides an alternating current or potential signal at a frequency greater than about 1 kilohertz, or in some designs, greater than about 1 megahertz.

In some configurations, such as when electromagnets are used to provide an axial magnetic field, alternating current may be applied to the electromagnets and electrodes. In some designs, an alternating signal may be applied to the electrodes and the electromagnets having the same frequency but out of phase. In some designs, the power supply may apply a current or voltage signal to the electrodes or electromagnets at greater than about 500 Hz or greater than about 1 kHz. In some designs, the electromagnets operate at the same frequency as the alternating current applied to the electrodes, which keeps the particles spinning. In some designs, a commercially available power source can be used to apply a current or voltage signal to the electrodes of the reaction device or electromagnet. Suitable power suppliers include Advanced Energy Industries and TDK-Lambda American. sensor

When operating the reactor, various parameters can be monitored to control the rate of energy output to improve efficiency, prevent failure of components, and the like. For example, the temperature of the reactor can be monitored to ensure that the components of the reactor do not exceed rated maximum temperature values. If the permanent magnet overheats, it may demagnetize, and if the electrode or any other part overheats, it may melt. . In some designs, the operation of the reactor will reach higher temperatures. For example, some electron emitters must gain enough thermal energy to release electrons to the annular region. The temperature inside the reactor can be monitored using sensors such as thermocouples, infrared images and thermistors. In some designs, the temperature inside the reactor can be inferred by measuring the temperature at other locations within the reactor. For example, the temperature of the inner surface of the outer electrode can be inferred by monitoring the temperature of the outer surface of the outer electrode. In some designs, a low-cost temperature sensor, such as a silicon ribbon temperature sensor, can be used to indirectly measure temperature from an external location.

In some embodiments, the gas pressure within the reactor can be monitored. By monitoring the pressure in front of the electron emitter, information about the electron density can be obtained because they are tightly concentrated on the confinement wall. The controller may use the pressure measurement in the chamber to regulate the flow rate of the gaseous species entering and exiting the annular region. In some embodiments, a camera that takes hundreds or thousands of images per second can be used to monitor the rotational speed within the constrained area. In some designs, the measurement of the rotation of the species within the reactor can be aided by the introduction of species that fluoresce or have detectable optical characteristics such as argon or quantum dots. In some embodiments, the gas mixture in the confinement region can be monitored to determine fusion products, such as 4He and 3He. In some embodiments, detection of fusion products and reactants can be performed using in situ mass spectrometers (eg, Hiden Analytical's residual gas analyzers, which can detect small amounts of deuterium in gas samples), spectrometers, or NMR sensors. In some embodiments, the reactor may be equipped with a Geiger counter to detect radiation levels.

Figures 23a-c show an example of how nuclear magnetic resonance sensing can be used to determine the composition of gaseous reactants in a concentric electrode embodiment. Figure 23a depicts the structure of a reactor with an inner electrode 2320, an outer electrode 2310, and a substantially uniform and constant magnetic field 2391 in the z-direction through the annular region. An axially applied magnetic field is used to align the nuclear spins of the rotating matter and can be applied by a superconducting magnet as described herein. In some designs, the axial magnetic field is greater than about 0.1 Tesla, in some designs, the axial magnetic field is greater than about 0.5 Tesla, and in some designs, the axial magnetic field through the annular region is greater than about 2 Tesla .

When detection is required, the nuclear rotation of the rotating matter in the annular region is perturbed by applying RF pulses in the azimuthal direction. Figure 23b depicts how an azimuthally time-varying magnetic field 2392 is generated by applying an alternating current in the z-direction of the inner electrodes. In some embodiments, the alternating current through the center electrode has a frequency between about 60 Hz to 1 MHz, and in other designs a frequency of about 1 MHz to about 1 GHz. After perturbing the alignment of matter with a time-varying magnetic field, the nuclear spin rates of the rearranged matter were monitored using a detection coil as shown in Figure 23c. The detection coil 2390 is substantially perpendicular to the long axis (z-axis) of the reactor and monitors the current through the coil by the electromagnetic radiation absorbed and re-emitted by the rotating material. In some designs, detection coils similar to those used in medical MRI systems can be used. Control System

The monitored parameters can be input into a control system that maintains the integrity of the system elements and maintains the reaction device in a state suitable for fusion reactions. The control system can control all parameters of the fusion reaction and, in some designs, other operations, such as thermal energy harvesting or utilization processes to convert into electrical or other useful forms of energy. In certain embodiments, the control system maintains a balance between heat generation and heat extraction. For example, to maintain this preset and rated balance, the control system may control the electrical energy applied to the reactor electrodes (eg, by modulating the pulses to lengthen or shorten the time period between each pulse and/or vary the voltage used to generate the plasma) ), changing the magnetic field (e.g. with a tunable magnet combined with a superconducting magnet), changing the density of the reactants.

As discussed elsewhere in this document, some parameters may need to be within bounds such that these two conditions are met. In some designs, the control system receives the identified energy information and adjusts the conditions accordingly. The control system may also have thresholds that, when met, initiate an automatic shutdown process to prevent upper damage to the reactor or operator. For example, the reactor can stop the fusion reaction if the temperature of the confinement wall exceeds a certain threshold or if the radiation reaches a threshold. The control system can stop the reactor by, for example, grounding all electrodes, closing gas input valves, and/or introducing an inert gas species such as nitrogen.

Control system 2462 can send control signals 2463 to adjust various parameter settings of reactor 2464 as needed to control energy output 2465. In some designs, the control system may provide closed feedback such as shown in FIG. 24 . Based on measured input parameters from sensors 2460 and expected energy output signals 2461, control system 2462 may send control signals 2463 as needed to adjust various parameter settings of reactor 2464 to control energy output 2465 or to meet other specifications. Input parameters used by the controller may include temperature, pressure, flow rate, gas composition fraction (eg partial pressure), particle velocity, current discharge between electrodes, voltage, etc. In some designs, the control system utilizes historical data for one or more parameters. For example, while it may be important to know a specific temperature value, it may also be important to know the rate and/or magnitude of temperature fluctuations. Reactor parameters that can be adjusted by the controller include applied current, applied voltage, applied magnetic field strength (in the design of the electromagnet), and gas flow rate (eg, hydrogen flow). Typically, the controller transmits control signals to the associated set of reactor components. For example, a control signal can be passed to the power supply to instruct the power supply to apply a specified voltage. In some designs, the input parameters of the control system can also be set. For example, in determining what voltage should be applied, the controller may adjust the current and/or voltage applied to the electrodes. In some designs, the controller can be improved through machine learning so that the reactor becomes more efficient over time, independent of physical changes in the equipment (for example, when components fail and are replaced) or anticipated energy demands.

Certain operating characteristics of the reactor can be independently controlled. For example, the flow of cooling fluid may be controlled using a control system independent of those responsible for regulating the reactor (eg, current and gas flow rates). In another example, an electron emitting device, as shown in Figure 21a, has a controller that receives the measured temperature of the electron emitter and determines the current to apply to the filament to provide resistive heating.

The above-mentioned control system can be realized by means of computer software control logic in a deviceized or integrated manner. There are many possible ways to control the operation. Based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand how to implement control using hardware and/or a combination of hardware and software.

In some designs, the control system software code (eg, Java, LabVIEW, MATLAB, C++, or Python) can be written in any suitable computer language and executed by the processor, such as in a conventional or object-oriented language. Software code may be stored as a series of instructions or commands on a computer-readable medium, such as random access memory (RAM), read only memory (ROM), magnetic media such as a hard drive, or a floppy disk or a CD- ROM's optical medium. In some designs, the control system can be tested and designed using an FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) and then fabricated through an ASIC process. In some designs, the controller may be a single die that can securely store and execute control logic. Any such computer-readable medium may be provided on a single computing device and may be present on different computing devices within a system or network. radiation mask

In some embodiments, such as when the reactor is aneutron or substantially aneutron, the reactor may require little shielding to reduce radiation exposure. When neutron radiation is a concern, the reactor may be equipped with an appropriate shield. Neutrons pass easily through most materials, and the interactions are sufficient to cause biological damage. In some designs, the reactor can be placed in a neutron-absorbing enclosure. In some designs, the confinement walls of the reactor may include an outer layer for neutron absorption. In some designs, the mask layer may be made of concrete with high water content, polyethylene, paraffin, wax, water, or other hydrocarbon materials. In some designs, the mask layer may include lead or boron as neutron absorbers. For example, boron carbide can be used as a mask layer, where concrete is inexpensive. In some embodiments, the ends of the reactor in the z-direction may include a material such as boron nitride, which not only absorbs neutrons, but is also a thermal and electrical insulator. In some designs, electron emitters such as lanthanum hexaboride have the added function of masking neutron radiation. In some designs, such as large reaction units, tanks of water, oil or gravel can be placed over the reactor to provide an effective shroud. The thickness of the mask layer depends in part on what material is used, where the reactor is located, the type of fusion reaction and the size of the reactor. In some embodiments, the mask layer is greater than about 10 centimeters, in some designs, the mask layer is greater than about 100 centimeters, and in some designs, the mask layer is greater than about 1 meter. replaceable components

Fusion reactors as described herein can be highly configurable and instrumented, with most elements replaceable and/or dismantled. Some elements are permanent and do not wear out over the life of the reactor, while others are replaced after a certain number of operating cycles or time. Under normal operating conditions, some parts of the reactor may eventually fail and need to be replaced. When operating conditions exceed certain thresholds, components may be damaged or worn out faster. For each replaceable component, there may be standard procedures for component removal, disposal, and replacement, as well as a range of indicators and available diagnostics to estimate component wear. Under certain operating conditions, certain components of the reactor may eventually fail and need to be replaced. For example, due to hydrogen embrittlement, the electrode may eventually lose its structural integrity, and the target material may eventually be consumed. In some designs, components such as inner or outer electrodes may develop internal stress and require replacement.

Fusion reactors as described herein can be highly combinable and modular. In certain embodiments, one or more elements may be replaced and/or interchanged. Some components are permanent and do not wear out over the life of the reactor, and some components need to be replaced after a certain operating cycle or operating time. For each replaceable part, there may be procedures for dismantling, processing, refurbishing and/or replacing the part. Additionally, one or more meters and diagnostic instruments may be present to indicate and/or determine the level of depletion of the components.

Examples of replaceable components include one or more electrodes in the reactor, a fusion reactant, a fusion reactant in a vessel (eg, a hydrogen tank), and an energy conversion device connected to the reactor.

Signs that the part should be replaced include a decrease in electrode conductivity, the time the part has been run, and the optical properties of the part (eg, changes in the surface of the part can be detected using optics). Mechanical failure can be determined by visual inspection or, in some designs, by monitoring measured parameters such as electrode temperature, pressure, and conductivity. In some designs, the control system contains a program for determining mechanical failures of electrodes or other components.

In some designs, the conductivity of the electrodes may decrease over time. Due to the instability of the plasma, an electrically insulating dielectric coating can be formed on the electrodes. If the conductivity and/or conductivity of the electrodes is reduced, the reactor efficiency may be reduced and/or excess power may be required. Electrical and/or thermal damage to the reactor may result if no measures are taken to mitigate the decrease in the conductivity and/or conductivity of the reactor. Although much of the discussion herein involves determining the electrical conductivity and/or conductivity of an electrode, it should be understood that electrical conductivity varies from location to location in an electrode. For example, after prolonged operation, the conductivity of the electrode surface on the side where the reaction occurs may be much lower than the conductivity inside the electrode. As another example, the conductivity of the starting material in the electrode may remain substantially unchanged during operation, but the formation of a dielectric film on the surface of the reacting side of the electrode will significantly reduce the overall conductivity of the electrode. Electrical conductivity and/or conductivity may be replaced by resistivity and/or resistance.

Various techniques can be employed to monitor electrode conductivity and/or conductance to determine if attention or replacement of the electrode is required. In one example, using the geometry of the electrode, the conductivity of the electrode can be determined by measuring the resistance between two points on the electrode surface when the reactor is not in operation. This measurement can be performed manually during routine system checks, such as with a multimeter. In some designs, the reactor is configured with a measurement circuit that automatically measures the resistance of the electrodes between operating loops. In some designs, the control system of the reactor can be designed to automatically determine the conductance of the electrodes from the measured resistance. Another way that electrode conductivity can be determined is by performing a diagnostic loop in which the gaseous reactant in the confinement region is replaced by another gas, creating a plasma within the confinement region. For example, hydrogen can be replaced with argon, neon or nitrogen. The control system can monitor the electrical properties of the plasma, measure the voltage of the electrodes and the current through the electrodes. Based on the electrical properties of the argon plasma, the conductivity of the electrodes can be determined. For example, the conductivity of each electrode can be determined by comparing the measured electrical properties of the argon plasma (or another plasma) with the expected electrical properties. In some designs, the expected electrical properties of the plasma, such as argon plasma, can be determined by simulation or by measuring the electrical properties on a new reactor without the dielectric coating.

Reactor electrodes may be predetermined for conductivity or conductance value ratings beyond which maintenance or replacement of the electrodes is required. For example, if the conductivity of the electrode is below about 80% of its preset value, the electrode can be replaced or treated to restore the conductivity to an appropriate level.

In some embodiments, a cleaning cycle is performed when the electrode conductivity or conductivity falls below an acceptable level. For example, the cleaning cycle introduces a cleaning gas, such as argon, into the confinement area and generates a plasma that removes some or all of the dielectric coating. In some designs, a weakly ionized plasma may be sufficient to remove the dielectric coating. In some designs, the argon gas may be fully ionized during the cleaning loop. Depending on the chemical nature of the degradation, chemical remediation treatments may be applied. For example, if electrode degradation results from reduction induced by hydride or other forms of hydrogen, the damaged electrode can be treated with an oxidizing agent such as an oxygen-containing plasma.

In some designs, if the conductivity of the electrodes is below a certain level (eg, around 50% of a preset value), the reactor may be determined to be unsafe to operate. This may indicate that the reactor has developed a thick dielectric film and therefore requires excessive, unsafe power from the power source. In some designs, the control system or safety system can shut down operation until the affected electrode is replaced or restored. In some designs, the reactor control system contains programming for determining mechanical failure of electrodes or other components and then triggering an alarm or automatically shutting down the reactor.

In some embodiments, one or more electrodes or magnets in the reactor comprise a protective or depleting layer. In some designs, the expendable layer is a sleeve (eg, a sleeve that forms the inner surface of the confinement wall) that can be replaced at design intervals. In some embodiments, metal components such as electrodes or sleeves may be removed for repair, eg, annealed to relieve internal stresses that may arise from thermal cycling. In some designs, for example, when a part experiences hydrogen embrittlement, the part can be removed and the part material processed to make a new part. In some designs, embrittled parts, such as tantalum electrodes, can be restored to a ductile state by annealing under vacuum. For example, in some designs, the embrittled components can be recovered by annealing at about 1200 degrees Celsius under vacuum.

The target material (fusion reactant) may eventually be completely consumed and therefore need to be replaced. For example, some embodiments use lanthanum hexaboride, which contains boron-11 as a reactant required for the proton-boron-11 fusion reaction. Once exhausted, this material needs to be replaced. Lanthanum hexaboride can also become brittle and fail due to thermal cycling, which can lead to a reduction in the reactor's ability to sustain a productive fusion reaction; Rotating the path of the particles, the failure of the lanthanum hexaborate no longer has enough boron-11 may result in a reduction in the number of polymerization reactions, and the reaction rate will decrease. In some designs, the control system may notify the operator of a power drop that will correspond to target material that has been depleted or moved out of the confinement area. In some designs, the control system may notify the operator when a consumable material such as lanthanum hexaboride has reached a predetermined usage limit and should be replaced. Example

The following examples represent some embodiments implemented in accordance with the basic principles described herein. 1.) Negative electrode (outer electrode)

The outer electrode, sometimes referred to as a "shroud," consists of a cylindrical metal ring with multiple attachment points to which lanthanum hexaboride or other target material is held. Due to the high heat resistance of refractory metals, the composition of the shield is usually a refractory metal such as tantalum (Ta) or tungsten (W). However, certain embodiments of the reactor use lower melting point metals, such as alloy 316 stainless steel. These embodiments may include a liquid cooling circuit to prevent the shroud from reaching the melting temperature of the alloy. As previously mentioned, the outer electrode can be a more negative electrode or a positive electrode. Conductivity

Plasma is impinged between positive and negative electrodes in the reactor by utilizing electricity from an external power source. The process is mediated by the voltage on the two electrodes and the current through the electrodes and the plasma. The voltage required to hit the plasma and start the fusion reaction is directly related to the conductivity of the two electrodes. As described above, an insulating coating can be formed on the negative electrode, thereby affecting the conductivity of the electrode.

The way to instantly determine the conductivity of the outer electrode is to use a digital multimeter to measure the resistance between two points. In some embodiments, the measured resistance value is entered into evaluation (QA) software, which displays the conductivity and operational status of the outer electrode.

The second analytical method used to determine conductivity is to impinge a glow discharge argon plasma in the reactor. This is achieved by monitoring the electrical properties (voltage and current) of the argon plasma over time by the control software. Through an internal calibration comparison, the control software can determine the conductivity of the electrodes and send the data to the evaluation (QA) software.

If the assessment (QA) software indicates that the conductivity of the composition metal is less than 80% of the standard rating, the AR unit is considered to be no longer in the optimal operating regime and has entered a sub-optimal operating state. If the conductivity is less than 50% of the standard rating, the AR reactor is said to be in an unsafe state of operation, as this would potentially cause electrical and thermal damage by overpowering the power source. If the conductivity is 0%, it indicates that a complete insulating layer has formed on the negative electrode and the system is not operational.

Action: Continue operating the unit as normal.

Non-optimal operation: Run an argon purge loop on the AR reactor using the provided control software. Repeat until conductivity returns to the "best operating" range. If the conductivity does not improve, perform the "UNSAFE OPERATIONS" below.

UNSAFE HANDLING: The outer electrode should be cleaned. structural integrity

The mechanical structure of the shield may be damaged, deformed or embrittled. This can be due to many different reasons.

Failure of the cooling system or improper operation of the cooling system may cause extreme temperatures within the reactor to exceed safe operating values. These extreme temperatures can cause thermal shock to create cracks on or within the shield. Additionally, if these extreme temperatures approach the melting point of the shield material, the shield itself will begin to deform and melt.

A ready-to-implement diagnostic method for detecting structural integrity is a visual inspection of the control software's abnormal temperature alert prompts. The control software can monitor the temperature of several different parts of the installation and check that each part remains within the safety command argument. If the temperature of any such element exceeds safe operating values, a temperature indicator alarm may be triggered. In extreme designs (such as an overheating condition that persists for too long), the system may shut itself down and require a mandatory visual inspection of the integrity of the shield. If the shield is damaged, it can be sent to the QA team for inspection and analysis. 2.) Positive electrode (inner electrode)

The outer electrode, sometimes referred to as a "shroud," consists of a cylindrical metal ring with multiple attachment points to which lanthanum hexaboride or other target material is held. Due to the high heat resistance of refractory metals, the composition of the shield is usually a refractory metal such as tantalum (Ta) or tungsten (W). However, certain embodiments of the reactor use lower melting point metals, such as alloy 316 stainless steel. The high temperature center head can run longer, so it can be replaced less frequently. The center electrode rod is usually made of 316 stainless steel alloy because it does not experience the same extreme temperatures as the head.

In some embodiments, the center electrode rod is cooled with liquid water to prevent overheating. In embodiments utilizing a high temperature head, the head is attached to the rod with molybdenum (Mo) screws. In embodiments utilizing a cryogenic head, the head is also water cooled and welded or welded to the rod so that the cooling circuit is continuous.

As in the case of the outer electrode, the conductivity of the inner electrode mediates the electrical behavior of the plasma. Changes in conductivity will result in changes in the voltage required to break down and sustain the plasma used for fusion reactions. As mentioned above, the instability of the plasma and fusion reactions that take place within the reactor can lead to the build-up of insulating coatings on the surfaces of the inner electrodes, affecting their electrical conductivity.

The measurement technique used to determine the conductivity of the central electrode (various operating schemes described above) is the same as that used for the inner electrode.

The inner electrode has the same operational risks as the outer electrode (or shield) in terms of the structural integrity of the element. , it may be damaged, deformed or embrittled; however, due to the presence of liquid cooling channels inside the inner electrode, methods exist for fault detection in addition to the thermal monitoring of specific components by the control system.

If the temperature of the center electrode rod (or the temperature of the liquid-cooled center electrode tip described above as an alternative embodiment) approaches the melting temperature of the composite material, the outer surface of the rod (or head) can be damaged, allowing water vapor and The liquid water mixture enters the vacuum chamber. This can occur due to a malfunction or improper use of the cooling system, as well as a persistent plasma arc on the center electrode rod (or head) itself. Once this happens, the pressure rises instantaneously as water vapor enters the chamber through the breach. The control system detects this pressure rise and shuts down the system immediately, with a false fault signal, ensuring that the necessary visual inspection is carried out immediately.

Lanthanum hexaboride (commonly referred to as _LaB6 ) is a refractory ceramic material used in the scientific industry as an electron emitter due to its low work function. In the reactor, LaB ₆ was connected to the negative electrode through evenly distributed connection points along the inner wall. LaB ₆ contains the solid boron fuel needed for fusion reactions, which needs to be replaced once the fuel is exhausted.

There are two main isotopes of boron in nature (the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons), ¹⁰ B and ¹¹ B. The most abundant of the two isotopes is 11B, which makes up 80 percent of all boron in this form. Since this is also the isotope required for fusion reactions to occur, it may be necessary to know the relative concentration of this particular isotope in the LaB6 fuel. There are various methods for this concentration detection, including Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), etc.

In some embodiments, no on-site technical diagnostics are capable of measuring the boron isotopic composition of LaB ₆ , in which case the sample needs to be sent to a third-party diagnostic laboratory for analysis.

Due to the ceramic nature of this compound, it is very brittle and highly susceptible to thermal stress. The unstable reactions occurring within the reactor, as well as the rapid heating and cooling present in various components such as the center electrode and shield, can lead to the destruction of the structural integrity of LaB ₆ . It has been observed in several embodiments of the reactor that the LaB ₆ fuel will likely break down over time, thus requiring replacement.

One field-performable diagnostic for determining the structural integrity (and depletion) of lanthanum hexaboride fuel is visual inspection. Certain alarm settings in the control software settings indicate that a visual inspection of lanthanum hexaboride is required. Because the fusion reaction occurs at the locations where the lanthanum hexaboride is located, the entire output power (measured by the control software) is extracted from these locations. If the steady state mains power output of the reactor drops by more than 20%, there may be a problem with one of the lanthanum hexaboride sheets triggering an on-software power indicator alarm. This type of alarm indicates the need for visual inspection of the lanthanum hexaboride piece.

As described herein, a reactor produces energy in one or more forms; often multiple forms of energy are produced simultaneously. During operation, most reactors generate thermal energy. Radiated energy can also be generated in a broad or narrow frequency range. For example, excited species (eg, electronically excited hydrogen atoms) within the reactor produce radiation in one or more frequency bands. Typically, the reactor is operated in a mode that requires and/or produces plasma, which, when present, produces radiant energy. In addition, many reactions produce charged species with high kinetic energy (eg, ions such as alpha particles). The reactor can also generate mechanical energy through pressure changes or oscillations.

Any one or more of these energy forms can be converted into different energy forms that can be used for specific applications. Thus, in certain embodiments, an energy conversion device or element is associated with the reactor. In some designs, an energy conversion device converts thermal energy from the reactor to electrical energy (eg, a thermoelectric device). In some designs, the energy conversion device converts thermal energy from the reactor to mechanical energy (eg, a heat engine). In some designs, energy conversion devices convert electromagnetic radiation from the reactor into electrical energy (eg, photovoltaic devices). In some designs, the energy conversion device converts the kinetic energy of charged reaction products (eg, alpha particles) or ionized fusion reactants (eg, protons) into electrical energy. In some designs, energy conversion devices convert mechanical energy from the reactor to electrical energy (eg, piezoelectric devices).

Various energy conversion devices can be used to convert the thermal energy generated by the reactor into mechanical and/or electrical energy. For example, a thermoelectric generator can be thermally coupled to the reactor to generate electrical energy. Thermoelectric generators may transport thermal energy from the reactor, eg, by being placed on a confinement wall or by a heat transfer device such as a heat pipe. In another example, the reactor may convert thermal energy to mechanical energy (eg, moving a piston or rotating a crankshaft) via a heat engine. In some embodiments, the reactor is equipped with a Stirling engine. In some embodiments, the reactor may be equipped with a heat engine, such as a heat engine using a Rankine cycle, in which the working fluid undergoes a loop phase transition. If electrical energy is required, the heat engine can be equipped with a generator to convert the rotating crankshaft or the oscillating piston into electrical energy.

Some energy conversion devices can convert electromagnetic radiation or radiant energy produced by the reactor into electrical energy. For example, photovoltaic cells can be mounted on one end of the reactor confinement area to convert radiant energy into electrical energy. In some designs, the reactor may include a transparent barrier to provide thermal protection and/or optical means to concentrate radiant energy onto the photovoltaic cells. In some designs, the coordination energy gap of the photovoltaic cell to a narrow band of wavelengths of radiant energy (eg, corresponding to hydrogen) emitted by the co-reactor can be coordinated.

The reactor may also be configured with elements that convert the kinetic energy of the charged particles produced by the reactor into electrical energy. For example, positively charged particles, such as alpha particles, can be forced through an opposing electric field created by one or more electrodes, thereby slowing them down. As the particles decelerate, an electrical current is generated in a circuit connected to a positively charged electrode. In some designs, alpha particles emitted from the reactor can be directed to these electrodes by an applied magnetic field. In some designs, the reactor can be connected to a magnetohydrodynamic generator (MHD generator) that converts the kinetic energy of the plasma produced by the fusion reaction into electrical energy.

In some designs, the reactor may use a single energy conversion device (or energy conversion module) to convert the energy produced by the reactor into mechanical energy and/or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the reactor may use multiple energy conversion devices (or energy conversion modules) to convert the energy produced by the reactor into mechanical energy and/or electrical energy. Since reactors can generate multiple forms of energy, different types of energy conversion devices can be combined to increase the overall mechanical and/or electrical energy produced. In some designs, adding a second energy conversion device may not reduce the energy output of the first energy conversion device, since different devices convert different forms of energy. For example, in some embodiments, the reactor may generate electrical energy from photovoltaic cells that convert radiant energy and thermoelectric generators that convert thermal energy. In this embodiment, the presence of photovoltaic cells may not reduce the electrical energy produced by the thermoelectric generator, and vice versa. In some embodiments, the reactor may be equipped with multiple energy conversion devices to convert the same type of energy. For example, in some designs, the reactor may be equipped with a Stirling engine as well as a thermoelectric generator, both of which utilize thermal energy. In this example, the thermoelectric generator may capture thermal energy not converted into mechanical and/or electrical energy by the Stirling engine. In summary, any combination of the energy conversion devices or modules described herein can be used to generate mechanical and/or electrical energy. shell

Although not shown, the reactor may include a housing that isolates the annular region from the surrounding environment. In some designs, the dimensions of the enclosure depend in part on the outer dimensions of the confinement walls. In some embodiments, the constraining wall defines the boundary of the enclosure in the r-direction, and flanges at both ends of the constraining wall in the z-direction isolate the annular region from the external environment. In some embodiments, the entire system including the control system, power supply, magnets and energy conversion device is placed within the housing. The choice of material for the housing depends on the purpose of the housing. For example, enclosures may be required to provide biological shielding, thermal isolation, and/or enable low-pressure operating conditions. In some designs, the enclosure may have a layered structure, where each layer provides a different function. For example, the housing may include a hydrocarbon material for the bioshield and a ceramic layer to provide thermal insulation. In some designs, multiple enclosures may be used. For example, the first shell may include a flange sealing the annular region in the z-direction, creating a vacuum chamber, while the second shell surrounds the entire reactor. Based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein, one of ordinary skill in the art will know ways and/or methods to construct enclosures that meet reactor applications. Program Condition Multi-level operation or reaction

In certain designs, the energy output and efficiency of the reactor are improved when operating in multiple stages. In some designs, the reactor may have one or more preparatory stages that allow the conditions within the reactor to allow the fusion reaction to occur. For example, a preparation stage in a multistage process can be used to increase the temperature of the electron emitter, cool the temperature of the confinement wall, generate a plasma in the annular region, or change the gas pressure in the annular region. Figure 25 depicts a multi-stage flow diagram that may be used to operate a reactor. In the first run, 2501, the electron emitter is heated until it reaches the temperature at which it emits electrons. After heating the electron emitter in 2501, alternating current is applied between the electrodes of the reactor to generate a weakly ionized plasma.

Immediately after excitation of the plasma in the annular region, the reactor can transition to the stage of rotating charged particles and sustain the fusion reaction. In some Laurentian swivels, a uniform magnetic field is applied while direct current is applied to the electrode quotient. Alternatively, in embodiments where an alternating magnetic field is applied in the z-direction, this means that an alternating current is applied to the electrodes at the same frequency as the magnetic field oscillates. In some designs, the alternating magnetic field can be applied by applying an alternating current to an electromagnet (eg, a superconducting magnet) or a permanent magnet that physically moves, such as a swivel that mounts the magnet on either side of the annular region. In some designs, neutral and charged particles are kept spinning in the same direction by alternating electric and magnetic fields at the same frequency. For example, in some designs, the electric and magnetic fields may oscillate at frequencies between about 0.1 Hz to 10 Hz, in some cases about 10 Hz to about 1 kHz, and in some designs greater than 1 kHz.

In the wave-particle embodiment, an electrical signal can be applied in order to electrodes along the outer edge of the annular region, causing the particles to begin to rotate. For example, the drive signal may start at a low frequency, eg, about 60 Hz, and then rise to a high frequency, eg, about 10 megahertz. In some designs, there are similar multi-stage methods for terminating fusion reactions. In some designs, the reactor has idle periods of operation between the fusion reaction being stopped and then resumed. During the operation of the reactor, the parameters can be closely monitored. In a reactor utilizing a Laurence force to spin a charge, the current density in the annular region near the confinement wall is about 150 A/m to about 10 kA/m, such as about 150 A/m to 9 k A/m². In some designs, the current density near the confinement wall is about 150 A/m2 to about 700 kA/m2. There are also cases where the current density near the confinement wall is about 400 A/m2 to about 6000 kA/m2. In some designs, a sufficiently strong electric field is maintained near the confinement wall to operate the reactor. For example, in some designs, the electric field is greater than about 25 volts/meter, in some designs greater than about 40 volts/meter, and in some designs greater than about 30 volts/meter.

In some multi-stage operations, the reactor may periodically alternate the direction of rotation of the charged particles. In some designs, the chance of collision between two rotating fusion reactants can be increased by alternating the direction in which the charged particles rotate. In some designs, the direction of rotation can be alternated to increase or control the rate of fusion in the reactor. In some embodiments, the fusion reaction rate on the confinement wall is reduced by alternating the direction of rotation so that the fusion reaction occurs within the annular space rather than on the confinement surface. This may be beneficial to reduce the heat of the confinement wall if it becomes too hot. In the design of the Laurence swivel, the direction of rotation can be alternated by varying the alternately applied electric and/or magnetic fields. For example, if you alternate the magnetic field while maintaining the electric field, the Laurentian force on the charged particle will also alternate in direction. In some designs, the applied electric field and applied magnetic field alternate at a frequency between about 0.1 Hz to about 10 Hz, in some designs about 10 Hz to about 1 kHz, and in some designs greater than about 1 kHz. This could help concentrate electrons in electron-rich regions, keep spinning particles in close proximity, and, in some designs, increase the number of fusion reactions. gas condition

In designs where gases are introduced into confined areas, for example, in hydrogen or helium reactive gases, it may be beneficial to have reactive gases of some purity. In some designs, impurities in the reactive gas volume can reduce the reaction rate and overall energy output. In designs where the reactant gas is readily available in pure form, the reactant gas purity is at least about 99.95% to 99.999% by volume. That is, the impurity in the reactor is less than 10 per million volume.

In some designs, deuterium, a naturally occurring isotope of hydrogen, may be found in the hydrogen reaction gas. For example, deuterium-containing impurities may be present in hydrogen tanks and, therefore, are potentially dangerous when present in large quantities in the reaction gas. If too much deuterium is present in the fuel, fusion reactions other than proton-boron 11 may occur within the reactor. In some designs, these other reactions may release radioactive by-products. To monitor the amount of deuterium in the reaction gas, the reactor can be equipped with a sensor, eg, using an in situ mass spectrometer (eg, a residual gas analyzer from Hiden Analytical), for monitoring the amount of deuterium in the hydrogen reaction gas.

The reactor may contain a molar ratio of ions to neutrals, approaching 0%. After breakdown of the plasma, the molar ratio of ions to neutrals in the rotating gas species in the reactor is from about 1:1000 to about 1:1,000,000. In some designs, the molar ratio of ions to neutrals in the reactant gas varies with specific stages of the multistage process flow. For example, in the flow shown in Figure 25, the molar ratio of ions to neutrals may be higher in stage 2502 after starting the plasma than in stage 2503 when the reactor is operating at steady state.

The reactor was equipped with gas inlet and outlet valves as described elsewhere. In principle, the flow through the inlet valve and/or the gas outlet valve can be controlled to maintain the desired gas composition or gas pressure within the confined area. . In some designs, the gas volume in the confinement region may be replaced at a rate of less than about once per minute or about once per hour. In many embodiments, the gas valve may be sealed so that there is no fluid flow during reactor operation.

In some designs, the reactant gas is maintained at standard temperature and pressure prior to generating the plasma in the confinement region. In some designs, such as when a vacuum enclosure is used, a vacuum pump can be used to reduce the pressure to less than about 1 x ^10-2 Torr, in other designs the confinement area is less than about 1 x ^10-6 prior to breakdown of the plasma care. In some designs, in order to increase the density of the electrically neutral species, the reactant inlet increases the internal pressure to greater than about 0.1 Torr in the confinement region prior to breakdown of the plasma or during operation, and in other designs to greater than about 10 torr. During the operation of the reactor, the particles are subjected to a centripetal acceleration that is a billion times the acceleration of gravity on the Earth's surface. In some designs, the gas pressure and/or density around the confinement wall may be monitored during operation of the reactor. If there is insufficient pressure to induce rotating species near the confinement wall, the electron-rich region can diffuse further into the confinement region and fail to provide the desired electron masking effect. In some designs, the gas pressure near the confinement wall can be monitored instantaneously. The temperature of the gas may be close to room temperature before the plasma is generated, and in some designs, the gas is heated first. In some designs, the gas is heated to greater than about 1,80 degrees Celsius, and in other designs, the gas is heated to greater than about 2,200 degrees Celsius. During steady operation of the reactor, the gas temperature may be heated such that the gas in the confinement region is in the range of about 400 degrees Celsius to about 800 degrees Celsius, and in some designs, about 900 degrees Celsius to about 1,500 degrees Celsius.

As discussed elsewhere, the reactant gas can be delivered to the reactor by various mechanisms. In designs that use feed valves, gaseous reactants can be delivered from gas tanks or pressurized tanks. In some embodiments, a reactive gas such as hydrogen may diffuse into the confinement region by diffusing from the confinement walls or hydrogen absorbing materials such as titanium or palladium. Reduced operating conditions for Coulomb barriers

As described elsewhere in this article, the fusion rate per unit volume per unit time can be expressed as:

dN/dT=n ₁ n ₂ σ ν

where _n1 and _n2 are the densities of the respective reactants, σ is the reaction cross section at a specific energy, and ν is the relative velocity between the two interacting species. The product (σν) can be increased by lowering the Coulomb barrier. In some designs, the reaction cross-section can be between about 10-30 square centimeters and about ^10-48 square centimeters, and in other designs, about ^10-28 square ^centimeters and about ^10-24 square centimeters. In some designs, the relative velocity is between ^104m /s and ^106m /s, in other designs between about ^103m /s and about ^104m /s. In some designs, the reduction of the Coulomb barrier can result in a reaction rate of about 10 ¹⁷ to 10 ²² fusion reactions per second per cubic centimeter along the confinement wall.

As discussed elsewhere, electron-rich regions can be formed near the confinement walls to provide a masking effect between colliding fusion nuclei. In some designs, electron emitters can be used to provide free electrons to this region. Electron emitters can be excited by optics (eg, using a laser), friction heating of rotating particles, and/or by Joule heating.

In the electron-rich region, the electron density can be in the range of about 10 ¹⁰ to about 10 ²³ per cubic centimeter, and in some designs, the electron density is on the order of about 10 ²³ per cubic centimeter. In some embodiments, the density of electrically neutral species in the electron-rich region can be in the range of about 10 ¹⁶ to 10 ¹⁸ per cubic centimeter, and in other designs, the density of electrically neutral species in the confinement region is about 10 ²⁰ per cubic centimeter order of magnitude of cubic centimeters. The density of positive ions is much lower than the density of neutral particles in the electron-rich region. In some designs, the density of positive ions is from about 10 ¹⁵ per cubic centimeter to about 10 ¹⁶ per cubic centimeter. In some designs, the ratio of electrons to positive ions in the electron-rich region is from about ¹⁰⁶ :1 to about ¹⁰⁸ :1.

The radial thickness of the electron-rich region can be described as the region where the greatest electron gradient exists. In some designs, the electron-rich region has a size in the range of about 50 nanometers to about 50 micrometers, and in some designs, the electron-rich region is about 500 nanometers to about 1.5 micrometers.

In electron-rich regions, eg, about 1 micron from the confinement walls, a strong electric field may exist. In some designs, the electric field strength within the electron-rich region (or confinement region) is greater than 10 ⁶ volts/meter, and in other designs, the electric field is greater than about 10 ⁸ volts/meter. In some designs, the electron temperature in this region is from about 10,000 gram elvin to about 50,000 gram elvin, and in other designs from about 15,000 gram elvin to about 40,000 gram elvin.

In some designs, if one parameter is constrained by physical constraints, that parameter may ultimately affect other parameters within the electron-rich region. For example, the Lawson criterion involves the balancing of parameters.

In some designs, the parameters of the electron-rich region may depend in part on the targeted fusion reaction. For example, the parameter ranges are different in the p+11B reaction versus the D+D reaction.

Another way to increase the probability of fusion events is through spin orientation of the fusion reactants. The nuclear force has spin-dependent properties. When the spins are aligned, the Coulomb barrier between two fusion nuclei (eg, between the nuclei of the deuteron and the deuteron) decreases. Nuclear magnetic moments play a role in quantum tunneling. Specifically, when the magnetic moments of two fusion nuclei are parallel, there is an attractive force between them. As a result, the total barrier between two nuclei with parallel magnetic moments is reduced and tunneling events are more likely to occur. Conversely, when the two fusion nuclei have antiparallel magnetic moments, the barrier increases and tunneling is less likely. When the magnetic moment of a particular type of nucleus is positive, the fusion nucleus tends to align in the direction of the applied magnetic field. Conversely, when the moment is negative, the fusion nucleus tends to align antiparallel to the applied field. Most fusion nuclei, which are potential fusion reactants, have positive magnetic moments (p, D, T, 6Li, 7Li, and 11B all have positive moments; 3He and 15N have magnetic moments). In certain embodiments, a magnetic field is provided at each point within the device in a direction generally aligned with the magnetic moment. This results in a reduction in the overall energy barrier between the nuclei when the first and second working materials have the same positive magnetic moment or the same negative magnetic moment. This is believed to result in an increase in the probability of tunneling and the occurrence of fusion reactions. This effect can also be called spin polarization or magnetic dipole-dipole interaction. In addition, the rotation of the fusion nucleus around the magnetic field lines also helps to determine the total angular momentum of the nucleus. Therefore, the Coulomb barrier is further reduced when the cyclotron motion of the fusion nucleus generates additional angular momentum in the same direction.

In some designs, the spin states of fusion reactants (eg, ¹ H and ¹¹ B) within the confinement region and along the confinement walls can be aligned by applying a magnetic field in the range of 1 to 20 Tesla. In embodiments where a magnetic field is used to provide the Laurentian force, the magnetic field may also align the spin state of the fusion reactant. The fusion reaction rate can be significantly enhanced by reducing the Coulomb barrier by a combination of electron masking and spin polarization (achieved by a strong magnetic field acting on the fusion nucleus of the reactants). The electrostatic attraction between two nuclei contains spin-dependent periods, which dominate at short distances (eg, less than 1 fm). application

The fusion reactors described here have a wealth of applications that can address many societal issues, including, for example, reliance on fossil fuels. In some designs, the use of fusion reactors can create viable and/or practical energy-intensive applications that are not feasible or practical with conventional methods of generating electricity. Some fusion reactor applications are now briefly discussed.

In some designs, fusion reactors can be used to retrofit fossil fuel power plants, such as those that burn coal, natural gas, or oil. In some designs, the fusion reactors described herein can be used to retrofit fission power plants. In some designs, when a power plant is retrofitted, only the portion of the power plant that produces energy may need to be replaced or updated. The power plant retrofit is thus simple and low-cost, as the turbines, generators, cooling towers, connections to the distribution network and other infrastructure can be reused. For example, a coal-fired power plant can be retrofitted by replacing a coal-fired boiler with the reactor vessel described herein. Similarly, nuclear fission power plants can be retrofitted by replacing the control rods and uranium fuel with the fusion reactors described herein.

In some designs, fusion reactors employ a modular design of multiple smaller reactors. By having multiple reactors, the output power of the plant can be adjusted to meet energy demands by varying the number of reactors running. Additionally, if a single reactor can be repaired or replaced while other reactors remain operational, the overall power output of the plant may not be significantly affected.

In some designs, fusion reactors can be used as industrial (eg fiberglass manufacturing) heat sources. In some designs, the reactor is configured as a heat source for a steam generator (eg, a steam generator for steam cleaning or metal cutting). In some designs, the fusion reaction of the reactor produces helium as the source of helium (for example, when the reactor undergoes proton-boron-11 fusion). In some designs, the reactor can be used as part of a water heater, such as a domestic water heater. For example, the reactor can be placed within a water tank, or can be thermally coupled to the water tank, and the heat emanating from the reactor is used to heat the water. In some designs, fusion-based water heaters can be used with water radiators for indoor heating.

In some designs, fusion reactors are used for transportation applications. For example, fusion reactors can be used in cars, planes, trains and ships. For example, a car may be equipped with one or more reactors containing energy conversion modules to generate electrical and/or mechanical energy. In an electric vehicle, the electrical energy produced by the reactor can be used to charge a battery or capacitor, which provides power to the electric motor. For example, the reactor may be operated to charge the battery whenever the state of charge of the battery falls below a certain threshold. In some designs, mechanical energy may be generated by means including a Stirling engine, which powers the car. In some designs, fusion reactors could be used to power outer space vehicles. Some designs for outer space vehicles use fission reactors, such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators. This design is plagued by the use and production of radioisotopes. They also need to carry relatively large amounts of radioactive fuel. Since the reactors described herein are neutronless or substantially neutronless, these reactors may be more preferred for manned spacecraft. Additionally, the reactors described herein produce the same amount of energy with significantly higher energy densities than fuels required for fission or chemical reactions.

Claims that do not use "means" or "steps" are not in the form of "means plus function" or "step plus function". (See 35 USC §112(f)). It is the applicant's intent that only the requirement to use "method" or "step" be construed under or under 35 U.S.C § 112(f).

The present disclosure may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics of the present invention. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive. Accordingly, the scope of the present disclosure is indicated by the appended claims rather than the foregoing description. All possible embodiments within the meaning and scope of the claimed scope should be deemed to be included.

110: External electrodes 112: Internal electrode 120: Internal electrode 122: External electrode 140: Annular space 142: Gap 144: Particle electric field direction 146:Particle Magnetic Field Direction 204: Charged Particles 206: Neutral Particles 210: Constraint Wall 232: Rich Electronics District 412: Constraint Wall 432: Rich Electronics District 482: Stage 483: Stage 484: Stage 485: Stage 502: Larmor radius 503: Path 510: External electrode 520: Internal electrode 520a: Conductive core 520b: Target material 532: Rich Electronics District 540: Ring Area 542: Clearance 544: Particle Electric Field Direction 546: Particle Magnetic Field Direction 616: Outer ring magnet 626: Inner ring magnet 640: Annular space 658: North Pole 659: South Pole 660: Electrodes 660a: Electrodes 660b: Electrodes 704: Ion 714: Electrodes 724: Internal electrode 740: Annular space 810: External electrode 820: Internal electrode 842: Clearance 910: External Electrodes 912: External electrode surface 920: Internal electrode 922: Internal electrode surface 1010: External Electrodes 1020: Internal Electrodes 1040: Annular space 1054: Superconducting Coil Windings 1056: Shell 1110: External electrodes 1112: Constraint Wall 1120: Internal electrode 1140: Annular space 1150: Magnet 1201: Zoom in view 1210: External electrodes 1212: Inner Surface 1220: Internal electrode 1240: annular space 1250: Permanent magnet 1300: Reactor 1310: External electrodes 1312: Constraint Wall 1320: Internal electrode 1340: Annular space 1350: Magnet 1400: Reactor 1410: External Electrodes 1412: Constraint Wall 1420: Internal electrode 1440: Annulus 1450: Permanent Magnet 1545: Single Magnetic Field 1546: Solid Magnetic Field Lines 1550: Magnet 1610: External Electrodes 1612: Constraint Wall 1620: Internal Electrodes 1640: Annulus 1650: Magnet 1710: External Electrodes 1712: Confinement Wall 1720: Internal Electrodes 1740: Ring Zone 1750: Outer Ring Magnet 1752: Inner Ring Magnet 1810: External Electrodes 1812: Confinement Wall 1820: Internal Electrodes 1840: Annulus 1854: Coil Winding 1910: Internal electrodes 1920: Internal electrodes 1921: Sleeve 1923: Ceramic blocks 1928: Internal access 2010: Constraining Walls 2036: Electron Emitters 2110: External Electrodes 2112: Constraint Wall 2120: Internal Electrodes 2130: Electron Emitter Materials 2134: Filament 2135: Power 2136: Electron Emitting Device 2137: Insulation layer 2138: Insulation layer 2140: Ring Area 2200: Reactor 2220: Internal Electrodes 2230: Electron Emitter 2231: Laser 2239: Insulated Optical Fiber 2240: Ring area 2310: External Electrodes 2320: Internal Electrodes 2390: Detection Coil 2391: Magnetic Field 2392: Time-varying magnetic field 2460: Sensor 2461: Energy output signal 2462: Control System 2463: Control signal 2464: Reactor 2501: Stage 2502: Stage 2503: Stage

Figures la-c are some views of the first embodiment reactor.

Figure 2a–b shows the motion of charged and neutral particles rotating inside the confinement wall.

Figure 3a–d are schematic diagrams of the interaction of neutral and charged particles with confinement walls.

Figures 4a-e are schematic diagrams of the non-neutron hydrogen boron fusion reaction stages.

Figure 5a-d Schematic diagram of the reverse polarity reactor.

Figures 6a-f are schematic diagrams of mixing reactors.

Figures 7a-b are schematic diagrams of a wave particle reactor.

Figures 8a-b are schematic diagrams of various electrode configurations for the first embodiment reactor.

Figures 9a-c are schematic cross-sectional views of the first embodiment reactor.

Figures 10a-d depict the reactor of the first embodiment with an axial magnetic field applied by means of superconducting magnets.

Figures 11a-b are a first embodiment of the reactor in which permanent magnets apply an axial magnetic field in the reactor.

Figures 12a-b depict the reactor of the first embodiment in which a magnetic field is applied in the confinement region using permanent magnets.

Figures 13a-c are plant diagrams of the first embodiment reactor.

Figures 14a-c are plant diagrams of the first embodiment reactor.

Figures 15a-c how the ring magnets are positioned along a common axis to generate a magnetic field substantially in the direction of that axis.

Figures 16a-c are schematic diagrams of the reactor of the first embodiment in which a magnetic field is applied in the confinement region using a ring magnet.

Figures 17a-c are schematic diagrams of the reactor of the first embodiment in which radially offset magnets are used to apply a magnetic field in the confinement region.

Figures 18a-d are schematic diagrams of a reactor of a first embodiment in which an electromagnet is used to apply a magnetic field in a confined region.

Figures 19a-b are schematic diagrams of various embodiments of a counter-polarity reactor.

Figures 20a-b are schematic illustrations of various electron emitters that can be placed on a confinement wall.

21a-b are schematic diagrams of electron emission modules that can be placed on the confinement walls of the reactor.

Figure 22 is a reactor configured with a laser used to increase or control electron emission from electron emitters.

Figures 23a-c depict a configuration in which NMR sensing is used to determine the composition of gaseous reactants within the reactor.

Figure 24 depicts how the control system is set up to operate the reactor using closed loop feedback.

Figure 25 is a schematic diagram of a multi-stage process flow that can be used to operate the reactor.

704: Ion

714: Electrodes

724: Internal electrode

740: Annular space

Claims (24)

A method for initiating and maintaining an internuclear reaction, comprising: introducing neutral species into the confinement region; and sequentially applying one or more potentials to each of a plurality of first electrodes distributed along the azimuthal direction of a confinement wall, wherein the confinement wall has a substantially cylindrical inner surface having an axis , wherein the confinement wall at least partially surrounds the confinement region, wherein sequentially applying the one or more potentials to each of the plurality of the first electrodes induces and/or maintains rotational motion of ions and the neutral particles in the confinement region ;and Wherein, the rotational motion of the neutral particles produces repeated collisions between the neutral particles and the reactants to interact with the reactants, thereby releasing energy and producing products having The nuclear mass is different from the nuclear mass of either the neutral particle and the nucleus of the reactant attached to or embedded in the confinement wall. The method of claim 1, further comprising applying a magnetic field through the confinement region such that the magnetic field is at least partially directed in the direction of the axis of the substantially cylindrical inner surface. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of the first electrodes comprises at least four electrodes. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of the first electrodes comprises about twenty to eighty electrodes. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrodes of the plurality of the first electrodes have a width in the azimuthal direction of about 10 centimeters or less. The method of claim 1, further comprising sequentially applying the one or more potentials to each of a plurality of second electrodes along the constraint The inner wall within the inner region of the inner surface of the wall is azimuthally distributed and separated from the constraining wall by at least the constraining region. The method of claim 6, wherein the inner wall is spaced apart from the inner surface of the constraining wall by an average distance of about 1 millimeter to 50 centimeters. The method of claim 1, wherein sequentially applying one or more potentials to each of the plurality of the first electrodes comprises applying the one or more potentials according to the confinement region The velocities of the rotational motion of the ions and the neutral particles are applied in a time sequence determined by the speed of rotation. The method of claim 1, further comprising applying an oscillating potential to each of the plurality of the first electrodes, wherein the frequency of the oscillating potential is between about 60 kilohertz and 1 megahertz between. The method of claim 1, wherein the neutral particles move within the confinement region at an average velocity of at least about 50,000 meters per second. The method of claim 1, wherein the confinement region, the confinement wall, and the plurality of the first electrodes are in a device, and wherein at least a portion of the confinement wall is separated from the rest of the device , for replacement. The method of claim 1, wherein the nuclear mass of the product is greater than the nuclear mass of any one of the nuclei of the neutral particle and the reactant. The method of claim 1, wherein the interaction is a fusion reaction. The method of claim 13, wherein the fusion reaction is a neutronless reaction. The method of claim 1, wherein the reactant attached to or embedded in the confinement wall comprises boron-11. The method of claim 1, wherein the neutral particles comprise neutral hydrogen, deuterium and/or tritium. The method of claim 1 wherein the neutral particles in the confinement region proximate the confinement wall have a concentration of at least about 10 ²⁰ per cubic centimeter. The method of claim 1, further comprising one or more electron emitters configured to emit electrons into an area adjacent the confinement wall during operation. The method of claim 18, wherein the electron emitter is attached to or embedded in the confinement wall. The method of claim 18, wherein the electron emitter comprises boron or a boron-containing material. The method of claim 1, wherein, while maintaining the rotational motion of the neutral particles, the confinement region proximate the confinement wall includes an electron-rich region having a positive specific band ratio The number of electric particles exceeds the number of electrons by at least about 10 ⁶ /cm 3 . The method of claim 21 wherein, while maintaining the rotational motion of the neutral particles, the electron-rich region extends from the confinement wall into the confinement region a distance from about 50 nanometers to about 50 microns. The method of claim 21 , wherein the electron-rich region has an electric field strength of at least about 10 ⁶ volts/meter while maintaining the rotational motion of the neutral particles. The method of claim 21, wherein the neutral particles in the electron-rich region have energies between about 0.1 eV and 2 eV on average while maintaining the rotational motion of the neutral particles .

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