WO2020161576A1

WO2020161576A1 - An electric generator having a toothless stator

Info

Publication number: WO2020161576A1
Application number: PCT/IB2020/050772
Authority: WO
Inventors: Kabu Walter MAKGERU
Original assignee: The Trustees For The Time Being Of The Kmn Fulfilment Trust
Priority date: 2019-02-04
Filing date: 2020-01-31
Publication date: 2020-08-13
Also published as: ZA202106033B

Abstract

A generator includes a central rotor with at least one magnet configured to generate a magnetic field and a toothless stator provided around the rotor, the rotor being configured to rotate within, and relative to, the toothless stator. The toothless stator comprises a stator body, windings coupled to the stator body, the windings configured to have an electric current induced therein by the magnetic field, and a magnetite material comprising at least magnetite and provided around the windings, such that the windings are embedded in, or surrounded by, the magnetite material.

Description

An Electric Generator Having a Toothless Stator

FIELD OF INVENTION

This invention relates to electric generators and specifically to an electric generator having a toothless stator.

BACKGROUND OF INVENTION

Most prior art electric generators of which the Applicant is aware have stators with teeth (referred to as toothed stators). Typically, these teeth project inwardly and are T-shaped, and adjacent teeth define slots there-between. Current generating windings are provided within the slots. The teeth perform two main functions: (i) they serve to locate and support the windings and (ii) they usually provide a magnetic path between a rotor provided within the stator and the remainder of the stator (often called a back-iron).

This second point of providing a magnetic path can also be a drawback: although the magnetic flux linkage between the stator and the rotor is enhanced, most of the magnetic flux is channelled through the teeth, rather than through the slots and the windings. The Applicant has been experimenting with toothless stator designs in an effort to channel more magnetic flux through the windings themselves, rather than through the teeth. However, without teeth, an airgap between the stator and the rotor effectively increases, which can result in a decrease in the magnetic flux between the stator and the rotor. The Applicant is aware of some previous efforts at toothless stators, namely EP223612, US5323075, and US4968911. All of these patent documents disclose some variant of a toothless stator. Without the traditional teeth, some form of frame or support structure (e.g., of a non-magnetic material) is used to locate and support the windings.

The Applicant desires a toothless generator which can, at least partially, compensate for the short comings of a toothless stator design. The Applicant aims to provide a toothless stator design in which the windings can be located and/or supported, and the larger airgap is, at least partially, compensated for.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

Accordingly, the invention discloses a generator which includes:

a central rotor with at least one pair of magnetic poles configured to generate a magnetic field; and

a toothless stator provided around the rotor, the rotor being configured to rotate within, and relative to, the toothless stator, wherein the toothless stator comprises:

a stator body;

windings coupled to the stator body, the windings configured to have an electric current induced therein by the magnetic field; and

a magnetite material comprising at least magnetite and provided around the windings, such that the windings are embedded in, or surrounded by, the magnetite material.

The magnetite may be in the form of magnetite powder. The magnetite material may comprise the magnetite (e.g., magnetite powder) and a binder. The binder may be resin. The magnetite material may be in solid form when dried or cured. When being installed around the windings, the magnetite material may be in a more workable form, e.g., a liquid or gel or paste.

The magnetite material may be configured to locate or support the windings. The magnetite material may be solid or rigid and thus hold the windings fixedly in place.

The magnetite material may be configured to enhance a magnetic flux linkage between the rotor and the stator body. The magnetite in the magnetite material may have magnetic or ferrous properties.

The windings may cover a majority of, or all of, an inner surface of the stator body. Unlike PRIOR ART generators with teeth, where the magnetic flux is channelled primarily through the teeth and bypasses the windings themselves, in this present generator, the windings are embedded in, or surrounded by, the magnetite material and thus the magnetic flux between the rotor and the stator body is channelled through the windings. It is thus an objective, and may be a result, of the present invention that the magnetic flux or magnetic fields through the stator windings for enhanced current generation in the windings.

The magnetite material may have a radially-constant concentration of magnetite. Instead, the magnetite material may have a radially-varying concentration of magnetite (e.g., a concentration gradient).

The windings may be electrically insulated. The windings may be covered with fine magnetite mixed with resin from half the distance between the magnet and the furthest windings. The covering of the winding may be done with increasing intensity progressively the further away you move from the magnet. That is that the closest winding to the magnet has less magnetite covering and the magnetite covering increases with the increases with distance from the magnetic field source. The windings maybe covered with finely ground magnetite only on the surfaces that are diagonally facing magnetic field sources or maybe the surface that faces the other so that attracted magnetic field goes through the whole winding. The application of the magnetite mixed with resin may be done by applying the magnetite in the form of a liquid as a thin layer to the stator windings. This application process of the liquid magnetite may be done during the winding process to avoid losses of magnetite and may also be applied before the winding process for easy of monitoring the application process.

Without teeth, there may be more space to put more windings that covers the whole surface area of the stator and thereby improve the performance of the generator. The stator can be made entirely of the sintered magnetite as a means to attract the magnetic field as an embodiment, as another embodiment the sintered magnetite is made with thin laminations pieces that are put together with a strong resin and are electrically insulated. The insulated sintered laminated magnetite must be put together while the magnetite is still wet with resin. The use of magnetic field attracting material like sintered magnetite within the structure of the toothless stator, the air-gap and the different combinations of the magnetic guiding means to optimise the use of the magnetic flux may achieve this objective.

A magnetic material like ground sintered magnetite with resin or electric steel may be put at the base of what was the slot and in middle distance between the two toothless surfaces and also at the teeth base or at the back iron to attract and enhance the magnetic field flow by linkage of the magnetic field. The magnetic material can protrude compared to a shorter teeth design and the magnetic material is put uniformly at the back iron facing the electromagnet pole for a two layered electric power Generator to attract and improve the flow of the magnetic field. The magnetic material can be located in the middle of the stator material, so that it does not consume space that can be used for winding. When there are no teeth on the magnetic steel stator, the rate of change of the magnetic flux across the face of the toothless stator increases substantially. The embodiment of the invention can be realised by having the stator in the power generator to have toothless surfaces on both sides, one facing the electromagnet pole and the other facing the return path and both surfaces having windings. The stator two sides facing the poles must be toothless, that is the side of the stator that produces electric power may be toothless. Because of the removal of the teeth on the stator, the utilisation of the stator surface is higher and can reach up to 100%.

The other embodiment can result with a stator that has a toothless surface on one side and have toothed surface on the other side with electrically non-conductive and non-magnetisable material making the stator. The other advantages of a toothless stator and teeth made with electrically non-conductive and non-magnetisable material is that the waveform is very smooth and does not need a lot of work to fine tune it, the cogging torque is highly reduced in the above-mentioned stator, the iron losses are also reduced. For the same flux density in the air-gap the toothless stator and the one made with electrically non-conductive and non-magnetisable material design generates a higher voltage compared to a teethed design, the reason for this is because of the higher rate of change of the magnetic flux.

This design may be more suitable for both two-layer electric power generator where the toothless stator and the stator with electrically non-conductive and non- magnetisable material is and the toothless surface is facing the magnetic field and it is even more suitable for electric power generator of a multi- layer design where the two toothless surfaces of the stator are sandwiched between two attracting magnetic poles. The non-conductive and non-magnetisable material may be or may include a polymer, e.g., a robust industrial polymer suitable for use in a generator.

The reason for this suitability of multi-layer design with multiple electromagnets rotor is because the magnetic field flow is between two attracting polarities facing each other cutting the windings at 90-degree angle. It can also be used for two toothless stators and three magnetic field sources comprising, electromagnets where the two stators are sandwiched between the electromagnets and or magnetic field sources. This is more suitable as long as the toothless stator is between two magnetic field sources. The N letter stand for the number of rotors and Stators. In this case there can be N stators for N+ 1 rotors (magnetic field sources). The other embodiment of this invention is that the rotor can be sandwiched between two stators to take advantage of the stator surface area. This invention can have an embodiment of N rotor for N stators. The magnetic field sources comprise the electromagnets, permanent magnets etc. The toothless stator surface may always face the magnetic poles. In the toothless stator design, the windings are brought closer to the magnetic poles by having the winding laid in an axial or radial position to utilise the magnetic field better and so that most of the surface is brought closer to the electromagnet rotor. To increase magnetic field flow towards the windings, the length of the pole arc can be reduced, and the cross-sectional area of the pole arc material can be reduced. To direct the magnetic field uniformly in the air-gap the material to make the stator must be electrically non-conductive and non-magnetisable.

When using an electrically non-conductive material and non-magnetisable material, the stator can have teeth and slots that do not alter and change the direction and strength of the magnetic field. The stator in this case can have toothless surfaces which will give an advantage of more space to put more windings and it can also have toothed surface which will not disturb the magnetic field flow direction. When there are no teeth on the Stator, this fact reduces the potential losses from the stator and the magnetic flux in the air-gap can be higher than the industry standard and conventional value of 1 .2 Tesla. When the material used for the Stator is electrically non-conductive and non-magnetisable, the loss creating iron through eddy currents and cogging is removed as a result the much higher magnetic flux of +1.2 Tesla can be used. The other advantage is that with the reduction of the eddy currents and cogging effect, less cooling will be required.

The invention extends to a method of making an electric generator as defined above, the method including: applying the magnetite material in a liquid or malleable form to the windings; and hardening the magnetite material to a solid form. The liquid or malleable form may include a liquid, a paste, a gel, a tacky or sticky powder or granules, etc.

The applying may include painting, injecting, spraying, sintering, etc.

The hardening may include drying, heating, curing, sintering, etc.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

The invention will now be further described, by way of example, with reference to the accompanying diagrammatic drawings.

In the drawings:

FIG. 1 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of a first embodiment of an electric generator, in accordance with the invention;

FIG. 2 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of a second embodiment of an electric generator, in accordance with the invention;

FIG. 3 shows a cross-sectional view of a simulated configuration of a PRIOR ART generator (that is, having a toothed stator);

FIG. 4 shows a cross-sectional view of a simulated configuration of a generator in accordance with the invention (e.g., a developed generator of FIG. 1 );

FIG. 5 shows a cross-sectional heatmap view of magnetic flux density of the

PRIOR ART generator of FIG. 3;

FIG. 6 shows a cross-sectional heatmap view of magnetic flux density of the inventive generator of FIG. 4;

FIG. 7 shows a graphical view of an electrical output of the PRIOR ART generator of FIG. 3; and FIG. 8 shows a graphical view of an electrical output of the inventive generator of

FIG. 4.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENT The following description of an example embodiment of the invention is provided as an enabling teaching of the invention. Those skilled in the relevant art will recognise that changes can be made to the example embodiment described, while still attaining the beneficial results of the present invention. It will also be apparent that some of the desired benefits of the present invention can be attained by selecting some of the features of the example embodiment without utilising other features. Accordingly, those skilled in the art will recognise that modifications and adaptations to the example embodiment are possible and can even be desirable in certain circumstances and are a part of the present invention. Thus, the following description of the example embodiment is provided as illustrative of the principles of the present invention and not a limitation thereof.

FIG. 1 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an example embodiment of an electric generator 100 in accordance with the invention. Not illustrated are several components germane to generators, e.g., bearings, a housing, mechanical input and electrical output, etc. FIG. 1 shows the salient features of the invention.

The generator 100 has a central rotor 102 which may be fairly conventional or may be configured for higher-than-normal magnetic field generation (see below). The illustrated rotor 102 only has two magnetic poles (N and S) but other pole configurations, e.g., 4 poles, 6 poles, etc. may be practicable. The rotor 102 has at least one magnet having the magnetic poles to generate the magnetic field; the magnet may be a permanent magnet and/or an electromagnet. The generator 100 has a stator 104 provided concentrically around the rotor 102. The rotor 102 is configured to be driven to rotate coaxially within the stator 104. The rotor 102 and stator 104 are separated via an airgap 106.

Importantly, the stator 104 is toothless. More specifically, the stator 104 comprises a stator body 108 which is toothless. The stator body 108 is tubular and in cross-sectional view it is annular. It may be composed of solid material, laminated layers, sintered material, etc. The stator body 108 is of a ferrous material (e.g., iron or steel) and may act as a back-iron of the generator 100.

The stator 104 comprises windings 1 10 provided radially inside the stator body 108 and embedded within, or surrounded by, a magnetite material 1 12. The magnetite material 1 12 comprises powdered magnetite and a binder in the form of resin, to create a solid material. Accordingly, the windings 1 10 are effectively embedded in, or coated or covered with, or surrounded by, the magnetite material 1 12. The performance and characteristics of the toothless stator 104 will be further described below with reference to simulations and FIGS 3-8.

By way of clarification, the airgap 106 may actually be considered the distance between a radially outer surface of the rotor 102 and a radially inner surface of the stator body 108 (and not a radially inner surface of the windings 1 10 or magnetite material 1 12). Accordingly, the airgap (and other parts) in FIG.1 may not be to scale.

FIG. 2 illustrates another embodiment of an electric generator 200 in accordance with the invention. The generator 200 is similar to the generator 100 but includes an additional rotor 202 provided around the stator 104. Accordingly, the generator 200 includes the central rotor (that is, the inner rotor 102) as well as an outer rotor 202. The rotors 102, 202 may be connected or different layers of a common rotary units, or may be entirely independent, even counter-rotating. FIG. 2 merely indicates that the generator 100, 200 may lend itself to scalability. FIGS 3-8 illustrate various aspects of simulations which will illustrate the characteristics and advantages of the generator 100 with the toothless stator 104. Odd numbered FIGS (i.e. , 3, 5, 7) illustrate simulations relating to a PRIOR ART generator 300 while even numbered FIGS (i.e., 4, 6, 8) illustrate simulations relating to a generator 400 in accordance with the invention, e.g., a developed version of the generator 100 with more rotor poles. Salient pole generators have been considered for the simulation.

FIGS 3-4 illustrate the structural layout of the generators. FIG. 3 illustrates a layout of a conventional toothed stator generator 300. It will be noted that the stator has teeth which define slots there-between, and windings are accommodated within the slots. An airgap is very small (almost imperceptible in FIG. 3) and is defined as a distance between a radially outer surface of the rotor and a radially inner surface of the teeth of the stator.

A uniform airgap has been considered for the generator 300, although salient pole generators may be built with variable airgaps. At pole centre, the airgap is minimum and at pole end the airgap is 2 to 2.5 times the airgap at centre. It is important to achieve a proper sinewave shape.

FIG. 4 illustrates the generator 400 and it will be noted that the stator has no teeth. Those labels used in FIGS 1 -2 will also be used to describe features in FIGS 4, 6, and 8. The windings are provided in an annular ring between the annular stator body and the rotor. The airgap, which is the distance between the rotor and the stator body, excluding the windings, is larger than in the PRIOR ART generator 300 of FIG.

4.

FIGS 5-6 illustrate heatmaps showing magnetic flux (or magnetic field) strength distribution respectively in the generators 300, 400 of FIGS 3-4. Overall, the magnetic flux distribution is similar but, as the Applicant had expected, and indeed it is the case, the magnetic flux strength in the stator of the PRIOR ART generator is slightly higher, likely owing to the smaller airgap. However, interestingly, the magnetic flux strength in the inventive generator 400 is significantly more uniformly distributed. Also, magnetic forces acting on the PRIOR ART generator 300 are very heavy compared with the generator 400.

FIGS 7-8 are telling. FIG. 7 shows an output voltage waveform of the PRIOR ART generator 300. It will be noted how jagged and irregular the waveform is. FIG. 8 shows an output voltage waveform of the inventive generator 400. It is far smoother than that of FIG. 7. This may be as a result of reduced cogging torque, where such cogging torque is often a by-product of the interaction between the stator teeth and the rotor. Admittedly, the PRIOR ART generator 300 achieves a higher peak output voltage, again likely due to the smaller airgap.

The Applicant speculates that the voltage waveform of the PRIOR ART generator 300 has disturbances mainly because of presence of the teeth/slots on the stator. Areas below the teeth will have higher flux density concentration than the slot. This influences the voltage wave form. Practically, this is sometimes addressed in PRIOR ART generators by adjusting the pole coverage and operating in variable airgap. However, the inventive generator 400 produces a similar voltage amplitude (a little less but not significantly) by a more uniform arrangement of the stator windings. A better sine wave is produced without any waveform correction.

The Applicant notes that the present invention may have many advantages, but also some disadvantages, compared to PRIOR ART generators with toothed stators. The teeth of the stator provide the following advantages:

• Guide or channel the magnetic field or flux between the rotor and the stator back-iron which can increase the magnetic field concentration and voltage.

• Provide support for stator coils.

• Possible better efficiency due to smaller airgap. The removal of teeth from the stator may negate some of these advantages. However, the addition of the magnetite material in the generators 100, 200, 400 in accordance with the invention may compensate, either partially or fully, for this:

• The magnetite material has ferromagnetic properties (usually somewhere between those of steel and those of a non-ferrous material) and thus may assist in guiding or channelling the magnetic flux better than had there just been an airgap. Further, because the magnetic flux is channelled via the magnetite material, and the windings are embedded in the magnetite material, the magnetic flux is also channelled through the windings, as opposed to the PRIOR ART generator 300, where the magnetic flux is channelled through the teeth which usually do not have windings therein.

• The solid magnetite provides support (and even protection) for the windings. If desired, additional support members (e.g., non-magnetic frames or support structures like those of EP223612) could also be provided, but this may be in addition to, not instead of, the magnetite material.

• The presence of the magnetite material, with its ferromagnetic properties, reduces the field-inhibiting effect of a normal airgap, thus enhancing the magnetic flux linkage between the rotor and the stator body, bringing the flux distribution closer to that of the PRIOR ART toothed stator generator 300.

Further, the generator 100, 200, 400 in accordance with the invention may overcome the following disadvantages associated with PRIOR toothed stator generators. This may be achieved as a result of the toothless design, the inclusion of the magnetite material, or a combination thereof.

• Minimum Teeth width to be maintained: To avoid the core saturation minimum teeth width to be maintained. Hence to accommodate the stator coil deeper slot width is required and it leads to more material.

• Bigger Overall dimension: Once the slots are become deeper it will increase the overall size of the generator.

• Higher Magnetic attraction forces: Magnetic stator teeth will increase attraction force between stator and rotor. Hence rotor / stator holding structures are to be stiff enough to maintain the airgap. Additional stiffness will increase cost of the product.

• Cogging torque: Magnetic stator teeth and magnetic rotor will produce the cogging torque.

• Increase core losses: Magnetic stator teeth will produce eddy current and hysteresis losses. It will drag the efficiency of the generator.

• Disturbed wave form shape: Teeth and slots will produce the uneven airgap magnetic field and cause disturbance in the wave form shape.

• Inefficient cooling: Stator coils seems to be the major heat source in the generator because of more losses. Removing the heat directly from the coil is not possible with steel stator teeth.

• Huge capital investment: Stator teeth is constructed with electrical grade lamination sheet of 0.5/0.65mm thickness. To produce the lamination sheet a punching tool is required and capital investment of tool is very high.

• Material cost: Generally in generators electrical grade lamination sheet has been used. It seems two times costlier than the normal structural steel.

• Assembly time of Generator: Assembly of stator lamination is hectic. Two lamination sheets to be assembled once because of burr issue it has to be assembled flip flop and it is time consuming.

• Accurate slot dimension: Its difficult to achieve the required slot dimension accurately in case of higher core length above 0.5meter. Lamination misalignment and straightness of the slot is depends upon the workman and precious tools.

• Additional Insulation materials: Ground wall insulation is must, to prevent the damage of coil insulation. Slot fillers are must to pack the stator coil tightly/rigidly in the stator slot.

• Increase process time: Preheating / VPI / Curing time will increase because mass of stator core will increase with magnetic teeth. CLAUSES

1. An electric power generator whereby the stator is toothless and whereby the windings are covered with fine magnetite mixed with resin where the toothless stator surface faces the magnetic poles and where the stator material is electrically non- conductive and non-magnetisable and acts as means to support the windings.

2. A multi-layer electric power generator according to clause 1 with a toothless stator on both surfaces situated between two electromagnets.

3. A multi-layer electric power generator according to clause 1 with two toothless stators on both surfaces situated between three electromagnet rotors.

4. A multi-layer electric power generator according to clause 1 where the windings are put axially along the surface of the electromagnet rotor.

5. An electric power generator with slotted stator with the teeth that are 5% the length of a prior art tooth of a stator.

6. An electric power generator with slotted stator with the teeth that are 5% the length of a prior art tooth of a stator on both sides of the surface of the stator.

7. An electric power generator with toothed slots where the stator material is made of electrically non-conductive and non-magnetisable material.

8. An electric power generator with toothed slots where the stator material is made of electric steel and the teeth are made of electrically non-conductive and non- magnetisable material. 9. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where the magnetic flux in the air-gap is 1.2 Tesla or more.

10. An electric power generator with toothed slots where the stator and the teeth is made of material that is electrically non-conductive and non-magnetisable material and the magnetic flux in the air-gap is +1.2 Tesla.

11. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where the support material for winding is made of electrically non-conductive and non- magnetisable material and the magnetic flux in the air -gap is more than 1.2 Tesla.

12. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where the windings cover 100% of the stator surface area.

13. A multi-layer electric power generator according to clause 1 where there are N+1 rotors for N stators.

14. A multi-layer electric power generator according to clause 1 where there are N rotors for N stators.

15. A multi-layer electric power generator according to clause 1 whereby there are N rotors located between N +1 stators.

16. A multi-layer electric power generator according to clause 1 with a rotor between two toothless stators with the toothless stator surfaces facing the electromagnet rotor poles.

17. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where the stator is made entirely of material comprising magnetite mixed with resin. 18. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where the stator is made entirely of laminated sintered magnetite mixed with resin put together while still wet with a strong resin.

19. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where the stator is made of electrically non-conductive and non-magnetisable material and the windings are covered with grounded magnetite mixed with resin.

20. An electric power generator according to clause 1 where the tooth on stator are 5% in length and the windings are covered with grounded magnetite mixed with resin.

21. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where the length of the teeth is 50% or less than that of prior art.

22. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where air- gap is less than 3mm.

23. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where the windings on the stator are progressively with distance covered with fine magnetite mixed with resin.

24. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where the windings on the stator are progressively with distance covered with thin layer of fine magnetite mixed with resin on the surfaces facing the magnetic field direction.

25. An electric power generator with toothless stator according to clause 1 where the liquid magnetite is applied on the stator windings. 26. The windings for an electric machine where the liquid magnetite is applied to the windings before or during the winding process.

27. A multi-layer electric power generator whereby the stator is toothless whereby the magnetite is painted on the furthest windings from the magnetic field source.

28. An electric power generator whereby the stator is made of fine (powder) magnetite and the windings are embedded within the stator.

Claims

1. A generator which includes:

a stator body;

2. The generator as claimed in claim 1 , in which the magnetite material comprises magnetite powder and a binder.

3. The generator as claimed in claim 1 , in which the magnetite material is rigid and is configured to locate and/or support the windings.

4. The generator as claimed in claim 1 , in which the windings cover a majority of, or all of, an inner surface of the stator body.

5. The generator as claimed in claim 1 , in which the magnetite material has a radially-varying concentration of magnetite.

6. The generator as claimed in claim 5, in which the concentration of magnetite increases with radially distance from the rotor.

7. The generator as claimed in claim 1 , in which the windings cover an entire circumferential area around the rotor.

8. The generator as claimed in claim 1 , which comprises a plurality of rotors, wherein the central rotor is an inner rotor and an outer rotor is provided concentrically around the toothless stator.

9. The generator as claimed in claim 1 , in which the stator body is also made of the magnetite material.

10. The generator as claimed in claim 9, in which the windings are embedded in the stator body.

11. The generator as claimed in claim 1 , in which the stator body is made of an electrically non-conductive and non-magnetisable material.

12. A method of making an electric generator as claimed in claim 1 , the method including:

applying the magnetite material in a liquid or malleable form to the windings; and

hardening the magnetite material to a solid form.

13. The method as claimed in claim 12, in which the liquid or malleable form includes one or more of a liquid, a paste, a gel, and/or a tacky or sticky powder or granules.

14. The method as claimed in claim 12, in which the applying includes one or more of painting, injecting, spraying, and/or sintering.

15. The method as claimed in claim 12, in which the hardening includes one or more of drying, heating, curing, and/or sintering.