WO2019165121A1

WO2019165121A1 - Methods for activation and expansion of natural killer cells and uses therof

Info

Publication number: WO2019165121A1
Application number: PCT/US2019/019019
Authority: WO
Inventors: Lucila Nassif KERBAUY; Elizabeth SHPALL; Katy REZVANI
Original assignee: Board Of Regents, The University Of Texas System
Priority date: 2018-02-21
Filing date: 2019-02-21
Publication date: 2019-08-29
Also published as: JP7273421B2; WO2019165121A9; US20200390816A1; CN111918661A; EP3755349A1; JP2021513859A; EP3755349A4; US20220118013A1

Abstract

Provided herein are methods for pre-activating and expanding an isolated population of NK cells. Further provided herein are methods for the treatment of cancer by administering the pre-activated and expanded NK cells.

Description

DESCRIPTION

METHODS FOR ACTIVATION AND EXPANSION OF NATURAL KILLER CELLS

AND USES THEROF

[0001] This application claims the benefit of United States Provisional Patent Application No. 62/633,592, filed February 21, 2018, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

1. Field

[0002] The present invention relates generally to the fields of medicine and immunology. More particularly, it concerns methods of activating and expanding natural killer (NK) cells and uses thereof.

2. Description of Related Art

[0003] Natural killer (NK) cells have been studied as potential anti-tumor effectors, yet a number of barriers limit their therapeutic exploitation, mainly related to their small numbers, requiring ex vivo expansion for adoptive immunotherapy. Cytokine stimulation constitutes an important signal to enhance the functional competency of NK cells to respond to tumor target cells. Furthermore, pre-activation of NK cells overnight with the combination of IL-18, IL-15, and IL-12 has been shown to generates long-lived, memory-like NK cells with enhanced cytokine production upon re-stimulation (Leong et ah, 2014). However, studies characterizing the activity of IL-18, IL-15, and IL-12 pre-activated NK cells have used NK cells directly isolated from peripheral blood (PB) without ex vivo expansion, requiring complicated and costly procedures such as leukapheresis to generate adequate numbers for clinical use. Thus, there is an unmet need for an improved strategy to produce highly functional pre-activated NK cells in sufficient number for therapeutic applications. SUMMARY

[0004] Accordingly, certain embodiments of the present disclosure provide methods and compositions concerning the activation and expansion of natural killer (NK) cells and the use thereof for cell therapies.

[0005] In a first embodiment, there is provided an in vitro method for expanding NK cells comprising obtaining a population of NK cells; pre-activating the population of NK cells in a pre-activation culture comprising an effective concentration of IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18 to obtain pre-activated NK cells; and expanding the pre-activated NK cells in an expansion culture comprising artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPCs) expressing CD137 ligand, thereby producing expanded NK cells.

[0006] In some aspects, the population of NK cells is obtained from cord blood (CB), peripheral blood (PB), stem cells, or bone marrow. In particular aspects, the stem cells are induced pluripotent stem cells. In specific aspects, the isolated population of NK cells is obtained from CB, such as pooled CB. In some aspects, the CB is pooled from 2 or more ( e.g 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or more) individual cord blood units. In certain aspects, the isolated population of NK cells are CB mononuclear cells (CBMCs). In some aspects, the isolated population of NK cells are further defined as CD56⁺ NK cells.

[0007] In certain aspects, the aAPCs further express a membrane-bound cytokine. In some aspects, the membrane-bound cytokine is membrane-bound IL-21 (mIL-2l) or membrane- bound IL-15 (mIL-l5). In some aspects, the membrane-bound cytokine is mIL-2l. In some aspects, the aAPCs have essentially no expression of endogenous HLA class I, II, or CDld molecules. In certain aspects, the aAPCs express ICAM-l (CD54) and LFA-3 (CD58). In some aspects, the aAPCs are further defined as leukemia cell-derived aAPCs. In certain aspects, the leukemia-cell derived aAPCs are further defined as K562 cells engineered to express CD137 ligand and/or mIL-2l . In some aspects, the K562 cells are engineered to express CD137 ligand and mIL-2l. In certain aspects, engineered is further defined as retroviral transduction. In particular aspects, the aAPCs are irradiated. [0008] In some aspects, the pre-activating step is for 10-20 hours, such as 14-18 hours (e.g., about 14, 15, 16, 17, or 18 hours), particularly about 16 hours. In certain aspects, the pre activation culture comprises IL-18 and/or IL-15 at a concentration of 10-100 ng/mL, such as 40- 60 ng/mL, particularly about 50 ng/mL. In some aspects, the pre-activation culture comprises IL- 12 at a concentration of 0.1-150 ng/mL, such as 1-20 ng/mL, particularly about 10 ng/mL.

[0009] In certain aspects, the method further comprises washing the pre-activated NK cells prior to expanding. In some aspects, washing is performed multiple times, such as 2, 3, or 4 times.

[0010] In some aspects, expanding is for 5-20 days, such as 12-16 days ( e.g ., 12, 13, 14, 15, or 16 days), particularly about 14 days. In certain aspects, the pre-activated NK cells and aAPCs are present in the expansion culture at a ratio of 3: 1 to 1 :3. In specific aspects, the pre activated NK cells and aAPCs are present in the expansion culture at a ratio of about 1 :2.

[0011] In additional aspects, the expansion culture further comprises IL-2. In some aspects, the IL-2 is present at a concentration of 10-500 U/mL, such as 100-300 U/mL, particularly about 200 U/mL. In some aspects, the IL-12, IL-18, IL-15, and/or IL-2 is recombinant human IL-2. In some aspects, the IL-2 is replenished in the expansion culture every 2-3 days. In some aspects, the aAPCs are added to the expansion culture at least a second time. In some aspects, the method is performed in serum-free media.

[0012] In further aspects, the NK cells are engineered to express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR). In some aspects, the CAR comprises a CD19, CD123, mesothelin, CD5, CD47, CLL-l, CD33, CD99, U5snRNP200, CD200, CS1, BAFF-R, ROR-l, or BCMA antigen-binding domain. In some aspects, the CAR comprises a humanized antigen-binding domain. In some aspects, the CAR comprises IL-15. In some aspects, the CAR comprises a suicide gene. In specific aspects, the suicide gene is CD20, CD 52, EGFRv3, or inducible caspase 9.

[0013] Further embodiments provide populations of expanded NK cells produced according to the embodiments (e.g., obtaining an isolated population of NK cells; pre-activating the isolated population of NK cells in a pre-activation culture comprising an effective concentration of IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18 to obtain pre-activated NK cells; and expanding the pre-activated NK cells in an expansion culture comprising artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPCs) expressing CD137 ligand, thereby producing expanded NK cells). Also provided herein is a pharmaceutical composition comprising the population of expanded NK cells of the embodiments and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. [0014] In another embodiment, there is provided a composition comprising an effective amount of the expanded NK cells of the embodiments ( e.g obtaining an isolated population of NK cells; pre-activating the isolated population of NK cells in a pre-activation culture comprising an effective concentration of IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18 to obtain pre-activated NK cells; and expanding the pre-activated NK cells in an expansion culture comprising artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPCs) expressing CD137 ligand, thereby producing expanded NK cells) for use in the treatment of a disease or disorder in a subject.

[0015] Further provided herein is method of treating a disease or disorder in a subject comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of the expanded NK cells of the embodiments to the subject. [0016] In some aspects of the above embodiments, the disease or disorder is cancer, inflammation, graft versus host disease, transplant rejection, an autoimmune disorder, an immunodeficiency disease, a B cell malignancy, or an infection. In some aspects, the cancer is a leukemia. In certain aspects, the leukemia is an acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), or a chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML).

[0017] In some aspects, the NK cells are allogeneic. In other aspects, the NK cells are autologous. In certain aspects, the subject is a human.

[0018] In certain aspects, the disorder is graft versus host disease (GVHD). In some aspects, the disorder is multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, type I diabetes, systemic lupus erythrematosus, contact hypersensitivity, asthma or Sjogren's syndrome.

[0019] In some aspects, the method further comprises administering at least a second therapeutic agent. In certain aspects, the at least a second therapeutic agent is a therapeutically effective amount of an anti-cancer agent, immunomodulatory agent, or an immunosuppressive agent. In some aspects, the anti-cancer agent is chemotherapy, radiotherapy, gene therapy, surgery, hormonal therapy, anti-angiogenic therapy or immunotherapy. In specific aspects, the immunosuppressive agent is a calcineurin inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, an antibody, a chemotherapeutic agent irradiation, a chemokine, an interleukins or an inhibitor of a chemokine or an interleukin.

[0020] In certain aspects, the NK cells and/or the at least a second therapeutic agent are administered intravenously, intraperitoneally, intratracheally, intratumorally, intramuscularly, endoscopically, intralesionally, percutaneously, subcutaneously, regionally, or by direct injection or perfusion.

[0021] In some aspects, the second therapeutic agent is an antibody. In particular aspects, the antibody if a monoclonal, bispecific, or trispecific antibody. In some aspects, the antibody is a monoclonal antibody. In one specific aspect, the antibody is rituximab.

[0022] Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0023] The following drawings form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the present disclosure. The present disclosure may be better understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein. [0024] FIGS. 1A-1F: CB-NK cells that were pre-activated for 16 hrs (with IL-2, IL-18 and IL-15) and expanded for 7 days (FIG. 1A), 14 days (FIG. IB) or 21 days (FIG. 1C) produced more IFNy and TNF-a in response to stimulation with K562 targets compared to CB- NK cells that were expanded (but not pre-activated) for 7, 14 or 21 days, respectively. (FIG. ID) Histograms summarize data from multiple independent experiments. CB-NK cells that were pre activated for 16 hrs (with IL-2, IL-18 and IL-15) and expanded for 7 days (7 different CB units) or 14 days (6 different CB units) express more IFNy and TNF-a in response to K562 targets compared to NK cells that were expanded but not pre-activated. (FIG. IE) CB-NK cells that were pre-activated and expanded express more CD 107a, IFNy and TNF-a in response to stimulation with Raji targets compared to CB-NK cells that were expanded (but not pre activated). (FIG. IF) Histogram summarizes data from multiple independent experiments. CB- NK cells that were pre-activated for 16 hrs (with IL-2, IL-18 and IL-15) and expanded for 14 days (4 different CB units) express significantly more IFNy in response to Raji targets compared to NK cells that were expanded but not pre-activated.

[0025] FIGS. 2A-2C: (FIG. 2A) ⁵¹Chromium release assay with CB-NK cells against K562 cells at Day 7 post-expansion. CB-NK cells that were pre-activated for 16 hrs (with IL-2, IL-18 and IL-15) and expanded for 7 days (7 different CB units) kill K562 targets significantly more efficiently compared to NK cells that were expanded but not pre-activated. (FIG. 2B) ⁵¹Chromium release assay with expanded CB-NK cells against Raji cells. CB-NK cells that were pre-activated for 16 hrs (with IL-2, IL-18 and IL-15) and expanded for 7 days (5 different CB units) or 14 days (3 different CB units) kill Raji targets more efficiently than NK cells that were expanded but not pre-activated. (FIG. 2C) ⁵ 'Chromium release assays of expanded CB-NK cells against acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cell lines including MOLM14, MOLM13, and THP-l. CB-NK cells that were pre-activated for 16 hrs (with IL-2, IL-18 and IL-15) and expanded kill AML targets more efficiently than NK cells that were expanded but not pre-activated.

[0026] FIG. 3: Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) experiments with rituximab and Raji target cells show that CB-NK cells that were pre-activated for 16 hrs (with IL-2, IL-18 and IL-15) and expanded kill rituximab-coated Raji lymphoma targets more efficiently when compared with controls. Pre-activated + expanded (no rituximab), expanded NK with or without rituximab at all effector-to-target ratios, as assessed by ⁵ 'Chromium release assay.

[0027] FIGS. 4A-4C: (FIG. 4A) Pre-activated + expanded CB-NK cells transduced to express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) against CD 19 (CB-NK CAR 19) kill Raji targets more efficiently at all effector-to-target ratios when compared with controls. Expanded CB-NK CAR CD 19, pre-activated + expanded non-transduced NK cells or expanded non- transduced NK cells. (FIGS. 4B-C) Similarly, pre-activated + expanded CB-NK cells transduced to express a chimeric antigen receptor against CD 123 (CB-NK CAR. CD 123) kill AML targets (MOLM14) more efficiently when compared with expanded CB-NK CAR. CD 123 cells as assessed by ⁵¹Cr release assay (FIG. 4B) and their ability to express CDl07a, IFNy and TNF-a in response to MOLM14 targets (FIG. 4C).

[0028] FIG. 5 : Fold expansion of CB-NK cells after 14 days in culture. The pre activation step did not negatively influence the ability of NK cells to undergo expansion. Indeed, after 14 days of culture, the median fold expansion for pre-activated + expanded NK CB-NK cells was 1520-fold (range 1080-1922) and equivalent to that of control expanded CB-NK cells.

[0029] FIG. 6: Comparison of cytotoxicity by ⁵¹Cr release assay in response to K562 targets for CB-NK cells that were either pre-activated but not expanded, or expanded but not pre activated, or both pre-activated and expanded. The two-step approach of pre-activation and expansion results in superior cytotoxicity in response to K562 targets.

[0030] FIG. 7: Comparison of effector cytokine production (IFNy and TNF-a expression) in response to K562 targets for CB-NK cells that were either pre-activated but not expanded, or expanded but not pre-activated, or both pre-activated and expanded. The two-step approach of pre-activation and expansion results in superior cytokine production in response to K562 targets.

[0031] FIG. 8: Comparison of sequence of NK pre-activation followed by expansion vs NK expansion followed by pre-activation on NK cell cytotoxicity. The approach of pre activation first followed by expansion resulted in superior cytotoxicity against tumor targets (as assessed by ⁵¹Cr release assay). [0032] FIG. 9: Quantification of NK cells numbers following 13 days of expansion alone, pre-activation followed by expansion, or expansion followed by pre-activation. The approach of pre-activation first followed by expansion resulted in superior numeric expansion of NK cells. DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

[0033] NK cells are emerging as an exciting source of cellular immunotherapy for patients with malignant hematologic disease as well as solid tumors; however, most studies using adoptively transferred NK cells have been limited by inadequate persistence, poor in vivo expansion and disappointing anti-tumor activity of the infused cells. Thus, a barrier to overcome in the field of NK immunotherapy is the need for biology-driven approaches to increase NK cell antitumor functionality before adoptive therapy.

[0034] Accordingly, in certain embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods for the large-scale“off-the-shelf’ production of NK cells, such as from cord blood (CB-NK), peripheral blood (PB-NK), or bone marrow. In an exemplary method, the isolated NK cells may be subjected to a brief period, such as about 16 hours, of pre-activation with a combination of cytokines, such as interleukin- 12 (IL-12), IL-15, and/or IL-18, followed by expansion using artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPCs), such as K562 feeder cells expressing membrane- bound IL-21 and CD 137 ligand. The expansion may be performed in the presence of exogenous IL-2.

[0035] The present studies showed that the pre-activated and expanded NK cells produced by the present methods exhibited enhanced anti-tumor functionality against leukemia and lymphoma cell lines. Pre-activated and expanded NK cells also displayed enhanced antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). [0036] The NK cells may be genetically modified with a chimeric antigen receptor

(CAR) against tumor targets, resulting in superior killing and cytokine production when compared with expanded CAR-NK without pre-stimulation.

[0037] The NK cells pre-activated with IL-12, IL15, and IL-18 followed by expansion with aAPCs, such as K562 cells expressing mIL-2l and CD137 ligand, can provide a highly potent cellular product. Thus, methods are provided using the present NK cells for the treatment of various diseases, such as immunotherapy of patients with cancer. The methods of treatment may comprise additional therapeutic agents, such as monoclonal, bispecific and trispecific antibodies. The antibodies may bind CD 16 or other receptors on NK cells and redirect cells to a target, thus increasing the response against different tumors.

I. Definitions

[0038] As used herein,“essentially free,” in terms of a specified component, is used herein to mean that none of the specified component has been purposefully formulated into a composition and/or is present only as a contaminant or in trace amounts. The total amount of the specified component resulting from any unintended contamination of a composition is therefore well below 0.05%, preferably below 0.01%. Most preferred is a composition in which no amount of the specified component can be detected with standard analytical methods.

[0039] As used herein the specification,“a” or“an” may mean one or more. As used herein in the claim(s), when used in conjunction with the word“comprising,” the words“a” or “an” may mean one or more than one.

[0040] The use of the term“or” in the claims is used to mean“and/or” unless explicitly indicated to refer to alternatives only or the alternatives are mutually exclusive, although the disclosure supports a definition that refers to only alternatives and“and/or.” As used herein “another” may mean at least a second or more. The terms “about”, “substantially” and “approximately” mean, in general, the stated value plus or minus 5%.

[0041] The term“antigen presenting cells (APCs)” refers to a class of cells capable of presenting one or more antigens in the form of a peptide-MHC complex recognizable by specific effector cells of the immune system, and thereby inducing an effective cellular immune response against the antigen or antigens being presented. The term“APC” encompasses intact whole cells such as macrophages, B-cells, endothelial cells, activated T-cells, and dendritic cells, or molecules, naturally occurring or synthetic capable of presenting antigen, such as purified MHC Class I molecules complexed to y2-microglobulin.

[0042] An “immune disorder,” “immune-related disorder,” or “immune-mediated disorder” refers to a disorder in which the immune response plays a key role in the development or progression of the disease. Immune-mediated disorders include autoimmune disorders, allograft rejection, graft versus host disease and inflammatory and allergic conditions. [0043] An“immune response” is a response of a cell of the immune system, such as a B cell, or a T cell, or innate immune cell to a stimulus. In one embodiment, the response is specific for a particular antigen (an“antigen-specific response”).

[0044] An “autoimmune disease” refers to a disease in which the immune system produces an immune response (for example, a B cell or a T cell response) against an antigen that is part of the normal host (that is, an autoantigen), with consequent injury to tissues. An autoantigen may be derived from a host cell, or may be derived from a commensal organism such as the micro-organisms (known as commensal organisms) that normally colonize mucosal surfaces. [0045] “Treating” or treatment of a disease or condition refers to executing a protocol, which may include administering one or more drugs to a patient, in an effort to alleviate signs or symptoms of the disease. Desirable effects of treatment include decreasing the rate of disease progression, ameliorating or palliating the disease state, and remission or improved prognosis. Alleviation can occur prior to signs or symptoms of the disease or condition appearing, as well as after their appearance. Thus,“treating” or“treatment” may include“preventing” or“prevention” of disease or undesirable condition. In addition, “treating” or“treatment” does not require complete alleviation of signs or symptoms, does not require a cure, and specifically includes protocols that have only a marginal effect on the patient.

[0046] The term“therapeutic benefit” or“therapeutically effective” as used throughout this application refers to anything that promotes or enhances the well-being of the subject with respect to the medical treatment of this condition. This includes, but is not limited to, a reduction in the frequency or severity of the signs or symptoms of a disease. For example, treatment of cancer may involve, for example, a reduction in the size of a tumor, a reduction in the invasiveness of a tumor, reduction in the growth rate of the cancer, or prevention of metastasis. Treatment of cancer may also refer to prolonging survival of a subject with cancer.

[0047]“Subject” and“patient” refer to either a human or non-human, such as primates, mammals, and vertebrates. In particular embodiments, the subject is a human. [0048] The phrases“pharmaceutical or pharmacologically acceptable” refers to molecular entities and compositions that do not produce an adverse, allergic, or other untoward reaction when administered to an animal, such as a human, as appropriate. The preparation of a pharmaceutical composition comprising an antibody or additional active ingredient will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. Moreover, for animal ( e.g ., human) administration, it will be understood that preparations should meet sterility, pyrogenicity, general safety, and purity standards as required by FDA Office of Biological Standards.

[0049] As used herein,“pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes any and all aqueous solvents (e.g., water, alcoholic/aqueous solutions, saline solutions, parenteral vehicles, such as sodium chloride, Ringer's dextrose, etc.), non-aqueous solvents (e.g., propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oil, and injectable organic esters, such as ethyloleate), dispersion media, coatings, surfactants, antioxidants, preservatives (e.g., antibacterial or antifungal agents, anti-oxidants, chelating agents, and inert gases), isotonic agents, absorption delaying agents, salts, drugs, drug stabilizers, gels, binders, excipients, disintegration agents, lubricants, sweetening agents, flavoring agents, dyes, fluid and nutrient replenishers, such like materials and combinations thereof, as would be known to one of ordinary skill in the art. The pH and exact concentration of the various components in a pharmaceutical composition are adjusted according to well-known parameters.

[0050] The term“haplotyping or tissue typing” refers to a method used to identify the haplotype or tissue types of a subject, for example by determining which HLA locus (or loci) is expressed on the lymphocytes of a particular subject. The HLA genes are located in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), a region on the short arm of chromosome 6, and are involved in cell-cell interaction, immune response, organ transplantation, development of cancer, and susceptibility to disease. There are six genetic loci important in transplantation, designated HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C, and HLA-DR, HLA-DP and HLA-DQ. At each locus, there can be any of several different alleles.

[0051] A widely used method for haplotyping uses the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to compare the DNA of the subject, with known segments of the genes encoding MHC antigens. The variability of these regions of the genes determines the tissue type or haplotype of the subject. Serologic methods are also used to detect serologically defined antigens on the surfaces of cells. HLA-A, -B, and -C determinants can be measured by known serologic techniques. Briefly, lymphocytes from the subject (isolated from fresh peripheral blood) are incubated with antisera that recognize all known HLA antigens. The cells are spread in a tray with microscopic wells containing various kinds of antisera. The cells are incubated for 30 minutes, followed by an additional 60-minute complement incubation. If the lymphocytes have on their surfaces antigens recognized by the antibodies in the antiserum, the lymphocytes are lysed. A dye can be added to show changes in the permeability of the cell membrane and cell death. The pattern of cells destroyed by lysis indicates the degree of histologic incompatibility. If, for example, the lymphocytes from a person being tested for HLA- A3 are destroyed in a well containing antisera for HLA- A3, the test is positive for this antigen group.

II. Natural Killer (NK) Cells

[0052] Some embodiments of the present disclosure concern the isolation, activation, and expansion of NK cells, such as for cancer immunotherapy. [0053] In certain embodiments, NK cells are derived from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), unstimulated leukapheresis products (PBSC), human embryonic stem cells (hESCs), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), bone marrow, or umbilical cord blood by methods well known in the art. Specifically, the NK cells may be isolated from cord blood (CB), peripheral blood (PB), bone marrow, or stem cells. In particular embodiments, the NK cells are isolated from pooled CB. The CB may be pooled from 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more units. The NK cells may be autologous or allogeneic. The isolated NK cells may be haplotype matched for the subject to be administered the cell therapy. NK cells can be detected by specific surface markers, such as CD 16, CD56, and CD8 in humans.

[0054] In certain aspects, the NK cells are isolated by the previously described method of ex vivo expansion of NK cells (Spanholtz et ah, 2011; Shah el al., 2013). In this method, CB mononuclear cells are isolated by ficoll density gradient centrifugation. The cell culture may be depleted of any cells expressing CD3 and may be characterized to determine the percentage of CD56⁺/CD3 cells or NK cells. In other methods, umbilical CB is used to derive NK cells by the isolation of CD34⁺ cells. [0055] Pre-activation of the NK cells may comprise culturing the isolated NK cells in the presence of one or more cytokines. The NK cells may be stimulated with IL-2, or other cytokines that bind the common gamma-chain ( e.g ., IL-7, IL-12, IL-15, IL-21, and others). In particular embodiments, the pre-activation cytokines may be IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18. One or more additional cytokines may be used for the pre-activation step. The pre-activation may be for a short period of time such as 5-72 hours, such as 10-50 hours, particularly 10-20 hours, such as 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 hours, specifically about 16 hours. The pre-activation culture may comprise IL-18 and/or IL-15 at a concentration of 10-100 ng/mL, such as 40-60 ng/mL, particular 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, or 55 ng/mL, specifically about 50 ng/mL. The pre-activation culture may comprise IL-12 at a concentration of 0.1-150 ng/mL, such as 0.5-50 ng/mL, particularly 1-20 ng/mL, such as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15 ng/mL, specifically about 10 ng/mL.

[0056] The pre-activated NK cells may then be expanded in the presence of artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPCs). The pre-activated NK cells may be washed prior to expansion, such as 2, 3, 4, or 5 times, specifically 3 times. The aAPCs may be engineered to express CD137 ligand and/or a membrane-bound cytokine. The membrane-bound cytokine may be membrane- bound IL-21 (mIL-2l) or membrane-bound IL-15 (mIL-l5). In particular embodiments, the aAPCs are engineered to express CD137 ligand and mIL-2l. The aAPCs may be derived from cancer cells, such as leukemia cells. The aAPCs may not express endogenous HLA class I, II, or CDld molecules. They may express ICAM-l (CD54) and LFA-3 (CD58). In particular, the aAPCs may be K562 cells, such as K562 cells engineered to express CD137 ligand and mIL-2l . The aAPCs may be irradiated. The engineering may be by any method known in the art, such as retroviral transduction. The expansion may be for about 2-30 days, such as 3-20 days, particularly 12-16 days, such as 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, or 19 days, specifically about 14 days. The pre-activated NK cells and aAPCs may be present at a ratio of about 3: 1-1 :3, such as 2: 1, 1 : 1, 1 :2, specifically about 1 :2. The expansion culture may further comprise cytokines to promote expansion, such as IL-2. The IL-2 may be present at a concentration of about 10-500 U/mL, such as 100-300 U/mL, particularly about 200 U/mL. The IL-2 may be replenished in the expansion culture, such as every 2-3 days. The aAPCs may be added to the culture at least a second time, such as at about 7 days of expansion. [0057] The cytokine used in the pre-activation and/or expansion steps may be recombinant human cytokines.

[0058] Following expansion, the NK cells may be immediately infused or may be stored, such as by cryopreservation. In certain aspects, the cells may be propagated for days, weeks, or months ex vivo as a bulk population within about 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 days.

[0059] Activated and/or expanded NK cells can secrete type I cytokines, such as interferon-g, tumor necrosis factor-a and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), which activate both innate and adaptive immune cells as well as other cytokines and chemokines. The measurement of these cytokines can be used to determine the activation status of NK cells. In addition, other methods known in the art for determination of NK cell activation may be used for characterization of the NK cells of the present disclosure.

A. Chimeric Antigen Receptors

[0060] In certain embodiments, the present NK cells are genetically modified to express a chimeric antigen receptor. In some embodiments, the chimeric antigen receptor comprises: a) an intracellular signaling domain, b) a transmembrane domain, and c) an extracellular domain comprising an antigen binding region.

[0061] A CAR recognizes cell-surface tumor-associated antigen independent of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and employs one or more signaling molecules to activate genetically modified NK cells for killing, proliferation, and cytokine production (Jena et ah, 2010). In certain embodiments, the platform technologies disclosed herein to genetically modify NK cells comprise (i) non-viral gene transfer using an electroporation device ( e.g ., a nucleofector), (ii) CARs that signal through endodomains (e.g., CD28/CD3^, CDl37/CD3^, or other combinations), (iii) CARs with variable lengths of extracellular domains connecting the antigen- recognition domain to the cell surface, and, in some cases, (iv) artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPC) derived from K562 to be able to robustly and numerically expand CAR⁺ NK cells (Singh et al, 2008; Singh et al, 2011).

[0062] Embodiments of the present disclosure concern the use of nucleic acids, including nucleic acids encoding an antigen-specific chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) polypeptide, including a CAR that has been humanized to reduce immunogenicity (hCAR), comprising an intracellular signaling domain, a transmembrane domain, and an extracellular domain comprising one or more signaling motifs. In certain embodiments, the CAR may recognize an epitope comprising the shared space between one or more antigens. In certain embodiments, the binding region can comprise complementary determining regions of a monoclonal antibody, variable regions of a monoclonal antibody, and/or antigen binding fragments thereof. In another embodiment, that specificity is derived from a peptide ( e.g ., cytokine) that binds to a receptor.

[0063] It is contemplated that the human CAR nucleic acids may be human genes used to enhance cellular immunotherapy for human patients. In a specific embodiment, the present disclosure provides a full-length CAR cDNA or coding region. The antigen binding regions or domain can comprise a fragment of the VH and VL chains of a single-chain variable fragment (scFv) derived from a particular human monoclonal antibody, such as those described in U.S. Patent 7,109,304, incorporated herein by reference. The fragment can also be any number of different antigen binding domains of a human antigen-specific antibody. In a more specific embodiment, the fragment is an antigen-specific scFv encoded by a sequence that is optimized for human codon usage for expression in human cells.

[0064] The arrangement could be multimeric, such as a diabody or multimers. The multimers are most likely formed by cross pairing of the variable portion of the light and heavy chains into a diabody. The hinge portion of the construct can have multiple alternatives from being totally deleted, to having the first cysteine maintained, to a proline rather than a serine substitution, to being truncated up to the first cysteine. The Fc portion can be deleted. Any protein that is stable and/or dimerizes can serve this purpose. One of the Fc domains, e.g., either the CH2 or CH3 domain from human immunoglobulin may be used. The hinge, CH2 and CH3 region of a human immunoglobulin that has been modified to improve dimerization may be used. In other aspects, just the hinge portion of an immunoglobulin or portions of CD8a may be used.

[0065] In some embodiments, the CAR nucleic acid comprises a sequence encoding other costimulatory receptors, such as a transmembrane domain and a modified CD28 intracellular signaling domain. Other costimulatory receptors include, but are not limited to one or more of CD28, CD27, OX-40 (CD134), DAP 10, and 4-1BB (CD137). In addition to a primary signal initiated by CD3 z, an additional signal provided by a human costimulatory receptor inserted in a human CAR is important for full activation of NK cells and could help improve in vivo persistence and the therapeutic success of the adoptive immunotherapy.

[0066] The intracellular signaling domain of a chimeric antigen receptor is responsible for activation of at least one of the normal effector functions of the immune cell in which the chimeric antigen receptor has been placed. The term“effector function” refers to a specialized function of a differentiated cell, such as a NK cell. In specific embodiments, intracellular receptor signaling domains in the CAR include those of the T-cell antigen receptor complex, such as the zeta chain of CD3, also Fey RIII costimulatory signaling domains, CD28, CD27, DAP 10, CD 137, 0X40, CD2, alone or in a series with CD3zeta, for example. In specific embodiments, the intracellular domain (which may be referred to as the cytoplasmic domain) comprises part or all of one or more of TCR zeta chain, CD28, CD27, OX40/CD134, 4- 1BB/CD137, FcaRIy, ICOS/CD278, IL-2Rbeta/CDl22, IL-2Ralpha/CDl32, DAP10, DAP12, and CD40. In some embodiments, one employs any part of the endogenous T-cell receptor complex in the intracellular domain. One or multiple cytoplasmic domains may be employed, as so-called third generation CARs have at least two or three signaling domains fused together for additive or synergistic effect, for example.

[0067] In certain embodiments of the chimeric antigen receptor, the antigen-specific portion of the receptor (which may be referred to as an extracellular domain comprising an antigen binding region) comprises a tumor associated antigen or a pathogen-specific antigen binding domain. Antigens include carbohydrate antigens recognized by pattern-recognition receptors, such as Dectin-l . A tumor associated antigen may be of any kind so long as it is expressed on the cell surface of tumor cells. Exemplary embodiments of tumor associated antigens include CD 19, CD20, carcinoembryonic antigen, alphafetoprotein, CA-125, MUC-l, CD56, EGFR, c-Met, AKT, Her2, Her3, epithelial tumor antigen, melanoma-associated antigen, mutated p53, and mutated ras. Additional exemplary antigens include CD99, CLL-l, CD47, CD33, CS1, and BCMA. [0068] In certain embodiments, the CAR may be co-expressed with a cytokine to improve persistence when there is a low amount of tumor-associated antigen. For example, CAR may be co-expressed with IL-15.

[0069] The sequence of the open reading frame encoding the chimeric receptor can be obtained from a genomic DNA source, a cDNA source, or can be synthesized ( e.g ., via PCR), or combinations thereof. Depending upon the size of the genomic DNA and the number of introns, it may be desirable to use cDNA or a combination thereof as it is found that introns stabilize the mRNA. Also, it may be further advantageous to use endogenous or exogenous non-coding regions to stabilize the mRNA. [0070] It is contemplated that the chimeric construct can be introduced into NK cells as naked DNA or in a suitable vector. Methods of stably transfecting cells by electroporation using naked DNA are known in the art. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,410,319. Naked DNA generally refers to the DNA encoding a chimeric receptor contained in a plasmid expression vector in proper orientation for expression. [0071] Alternatively, a viral vector (e.g., a retroviral vector, adenoviral vector, adeno- associated viral vector, or lentiviral vector) can be used to introduce the chimeric construct into NK cells. Suitable vectors for use in accordance with the method of the present invention are non-replicating in the NK cells. A large number of vectors are known that are based on viruses, where the copy number of the virus maintained in the cell is low enough to maintain the viability of the cell, such as, for example, vectors based on HIV, SV40, EBV, HSV, or BPV.

[0072] The CAR may express a suicide gene, such as CD20, CD52, EGFRv3, or inducible caspase 9.

[0073] The CAR may comprise a tumor antigen-binding domain. The tumor antigen binding domain may be, but is not limited to, CD 19, CD20, carcinoembryonic antigen, alphafetoprotein, CA-125, MUC-l, epithelial tumor antigen, melanoma-associated antigen, mutated p53, mutated ras, HER2/Neu, ERBB2, folate binding protein, HIV-l envelope glycoprotein gpl20, HIV-l envelope glycoprotein gp4l, GD2, CD123, CD23, CD30, CD56, c- Met, mesothelin, GD3, HERV-K, IL-l lRalpha, kappa chain, lambda chain, CSPG4, ERBB2, EGFRvIII, or VEGFR2. The CAR may comprise a humanized scFv, such as humanized CD 19 or CD123. Exemplary tumor antigens may comprise CD99, CLL-l, CD47, CD33, CS1, or BCMA.

B. Antigen Presenting Cells

[0074] Antigen-presenting cells, which include macrophages, B lymphocytes, and dendritic cells, are distinguished by their expression of a particular major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule. APCs internalize antigen and re-express a part of that antigen, together with the MHC molecule on their outer cell membrane. The MHC is a large genetic complex with multiple loci. The MHC loci encode two major classes of MHC membrane molecules, referred to as class I and class II MHCs. T helper lymphocytes generally recognize antigen associated with MHC class II molecules, and T cytotoxic lymphocytes recognize antigen associated with MHC class I molecules. In humans, the MHC is referred to as the HLA complex and in mice the H-2 complex.

[0075] In some cases, aAPCs are useful in preparing therapeutic compositions and cell therapy products of the embodiments. For general guidance regarding the preparation and use of antigen-presenting systems, see, e.g., ET.S. Patent Nos. 6,225,042, 6,355,479, 6,362,001 and 6,790,662; ET.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2009/0017000 and 2009/0004142; and International Publication No. W02007/103009.

[0076] aAPC systems may comprise at least one exogenous assisting molecule. Any suitable number and combination of assisting molecules may be employed. The assisting molecule may be selected from assisting molecules such as co-stimulatory molecules and adhesion molecules. Exemplary co-stimulatory molecules include CD86, CD64 (FcyRI), 41BB ligand (CD137 ligand), and IL-21. Adhesion molecules may include carbohydrate-binding glycoproteins such as selectins, transmembrane binding glycoproteins such as integrins, calcium- dependent proteins such as cadherins, and single-pass transmembrane immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily proteins, such as intercellular adhesion molecules (ICAMs), which promote, for example, cell-to-cell or cell-to-matrix contact. Exemplary adhesion molecules include LFA-3 and ICAMs, such as ICAM-l. Techniques, methods, and reagents useful for selection, cloning, preparation, and expression of exemplary assisting molecules, including co-stimulatory molecules and adhesion molecules, are exemplified in, e.g., U.S. Patent Nos. 6,225,042, 6,355,479, and 6,362,001.

[0077] In particular embodiments, the aAPCs have been engineered to express CD137 ligand, such as by retroviral vectors. The aAPCs may further express membrane-bound cytokines, such as membrane-bound IL-21 (mIL-2l) or membrane-bound IL-15 (mIL-l5). In particular aspects, the aAPCs express CD137 ligand and mIL-2l. The aAPCs may be K562 leukemia cells engineered to express CD137 and mIL-2l. The aAPCs may be developed to express a desired antigen, such as CD 19. As needed, additional stimulation cycles can be undertaken to generate larger numbers of NK cells.

III. Methods of Use

[0078] Embodiments of the present disclosure concern methods for the use of the NK cells provided herein for treating or preventing a medical disease or disorder by transfer of a NK cell population that elicits an immune response. The method includes administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of the pre-activated and expanded NK cells, thereby treating or preventing the disorder in the subject. In certain embodiments of the present disclosure, cancer or infection is treated by transfer of a NK cell population that elicits an immune response. Due to their release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, NK cells may reverse the anti-inflammatory tumor microenvironment and increase adaptive immune responses by promoting differentiation, activation, and/or recruitment of accessory immune cell to sites of malignancy.

[0079] Tumors for which the present treatment methods are useful include any malignant cell type, such as those found in a solid tumor or a hematological tumor. Exemplary solid tumors can include, but are not limited to, a tumor of an organ selected from the group consisting of pancreas, colon, cecum, stomach, brain, head, neck, ovary, kidney, larynx, sarcoma, lung, bladder, melanoma, prostate, and breast. Exemplary hematological tumors include tumors of the bone marrow, T or B cell malignancies, leukemias, lymphomas, blastomas, myelomas, and the like. Further examples of cancers that may be treated using the methods provided herein include, but are not limited to, lung cancer (including small-cell lung cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, adenocarcinoma of the lung, and squamous carcinoma of the lung), cancer of the peritoneum, gastric or stomach cancer (including gastrointestinal cancer and gastrointestinal stromal cancer), pancreatic cancer, cervical cancer, ovarian cancer, liver cancer, bladder cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, colorectal cancer, endometrial or uterine carcinoma, salivary gland carcinoma, kidney or renal cancer, prostate cancer, vulval cancer, thyroid cancer, various types of head and neck cancer, and melanoma.

[0080] The cancer may specifically be of the following histological type, though it is not limited to these: neoplasm, malignant; carcinoma; carcinoma, undifferentiated; giant and spindle cell carcinoma; small cell carcinoma; papillary carcinoma; squamous cell carcinoma; lymphoepithelial carcinoma; basal cell carcinoma; pilomatrix carcinoma; transitional cell carcinoma; papillary transitional cell carcinoma; adenocarcinoma; gastrinoma, malignant; cholangiocarcinoma; hepatocellular carcinoma; combined hepatocellular carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma; trabecular adenocarcinoma; adenoid cystic carcinoma; adenocarcinoma in adenomatous polyp; adenocarcinoma, familial polyposis coli; solid carcinoma; carcinoid tumor, malignant; branchiolo-alveolar adenocarcinoma; papillary adenocarcinoma; chromophobe carcinoma; acidophil carcinoma; oxyphilic adenocarcinoma; basophil carcinoma; clear cell adenocarcinoma; granular cell carcinoma; follicular adenocarcinoma; papillary and follicular adenocarcinoma; nonencapsulating sclerosing carcinoma; adrenal cortical carcinoma; endometroid carcinoma; skin appendage carcinoma; apocrine adenocarcinoma; sebaceous adenocarcinoma; ceruminous adenocarcinoma; mucoepidermoid carcinoma; cystadenocarcinoma; papillary cystadenocarcinoma; papillary serous cystadenocarcinoma; mucinous cystadenocarcinoma; mucinous adenocarcinoma; signet ring cell carcinoma; infiltrating duct carcinoma; medullary carcinoma; lobular carcinoma; inflammatory carcinoma; paget's disease, mammary; acinar cell carcinoma; adenosquamous carcinoma; adenocarcinoma w/squamous metaplasia; thymoma, malignant; ovarian stromal tumor, malignant; thecoma, malignant; granulosa cell tumor, malignant; androblastoma, malignant; sertoli cell carcinoma; leydig cell tumor, malignant; lipid cell tumor, malignant; paraganglioma, malignant; extra mammary paraganglioma, malignant; pheochromocytoma; glomangiosarcoma; malignant melanoma; amelanotic melanoma; superficial spreading melanoma; lentigo malignant melanoma; acral lentiginous melanomas; nodular melanomas; malignant melanoma in giant pigmented nevus; epithelioid cell melanoma; blue nevus, malignant; sarcoma; fibrosarcoma; fibrous histiocytoma, malignant; myxosarcoma; liposarcoma; leiomyosarcoma; rhabdomyosarcoma; embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma; alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma; stromal sarcoma; mixed tumor, malignant; mullerian mixed tumor; nephroblastoma; hepatoblastoma; carcinosarcoma; mesenchymoma, malignant; brenner tumor, malignant; phyllodes tumor, malignant; synovial sarcoma; mesothelioma, malignant; dysgerminoma; embryonal carcinoma; teratoma, malignant; struma ovarii, malignant; choriocarcinoma; mesonephroma, malignant; hemangiosarcoma; hemangioendothelioma, malignant; kaposi's sarcoma; hemangiopericytoma, malignant; lymphangiosarcoma; osteosarcoma; juxtacortical osteosarcoma; chondrosarcoma; chondroblastoma, malignant; mesenchymal chondrosarcoma; giant cell tumor of bone; ewing's sarcoma; odontogenic tumor, malignant; ameloblastic odontosarcoma; ameloblastoma, malignant; ameloblastic fibrosarcoma; pinealoma, malignant; chordoma; glioma, malignant; ependymoma; astrocytoma; protoplasmic astrocytoma; fibrillary astrocytoma; astroblastoma; glioblastoma; oligodendroglioma; oligodendroblastoma; primitive neuroectodermal; cerebellar sarcoma; gangboneuroblastoma; neuroblastoma; retinoblastoma; olfactory neurogenic tumor; meningioma, malignant; neurofibrosarcoma; neurilemmoma, malignant; granular cell tumor, malignant; malignant lymphoma; hodgkin's disease; hodgkin's; paragranuloma; malignant lymphoma, small lymphocytic; malignant lymphoma, large cell, diffuse; malignant lymphoma, follicular; mycosis fungoides; other specified non-hodgkin's lymphomas; B-cell lymphoma; low grade/follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL); small lymphocytic (SL) NHL; intermediate grade/follicular NHL; intermediate grade diffuse NHL; high grade immunoblastic NHL; high grade lymphoblastic NHL; high grade small non-cleaved cell NHL; bulky disease NHL; mantle cell lymphoma; AIDS-related lymphoma; Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia; malignant histiocytosis; multiple myeloma; mast cell sarcoma; immunoproliferative small intestinal disease; leukemia; lymphoid leukemia; plasma cell leukemia; erythroleukemia; lymphosarcoma cell leukemia; myeloid leukemia; basophilic leukemia; eosinophilic leukemia; monocytic leukemia; mast cell leukemia; megakaryoblastic leukemia; myeloid sarcoma; hairy cell leukemia; chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL); acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL); acute myeloid leukemia (AML); and chronic myeloblastic leukemia.

[0081] Particular embodiments concern methods of treatment of leukemia. Leukemia is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow and is characterized by an abnormal proliferation (production by multiplication) of blood cells, usually white blood cells (leukocytes). It is part of the broad group of diseases called hematological neoplasms. Leukemia is a broad term covering a spectrum of diseases. Leukemia is clinically and pathologically split into its acute and chronic forms.

[0082] Acute leukemia is characterized by the rapid proliferation of immature blood cells. This crowding makes the bone marrow unable to produce healthy blood cells. Acute forms of leukemia can occur in children and young adults. In fact, it is a more common cause of death for children in the U.S. than any other type of malignant disease. Immediate treatment is required in acute leukemia due to the rapid progression and accumulation of the malignant cells, which then spill over into the bloodstream and spread to other organs of the body. Central nervous system (CNS) involvement is uncommon, although the disease can occasionally cause cranial nerve palsies. Chronic leukemia is distinguished by the excessive build up of relatively mature, but still abnormal, blood cells. Typically taking months to years to progress, the cells are produced at a much higher rate than normal cells, resulting in many abnormal white blood cells in the blood. Chronic leukemia mostly occurs in older people, but can theoretically occur in any age group. Whereas acute leukemia must be treated immediately, chronic forms are sometimes monitored for some time before treatment to ensure maximum effectiveness of therapy.

[0083] Furthermore, the diseases are classified into lymphocytic or lymphoblastic, which indicate that the cancerous change took place in a type of marrow cell that normally goes on to form lymphocytes, and myelogenous or myeloid, which indicate that the cancerous change took place in a type of marrow cell that normally goes on to form red cells, some types of white cells, and platelets (see lymphoid cells vs. myeloid cells).

[0084] Acute lymphocytic leukemia (also known as acute lymphoblastic leukemia, or ALL) is the most common type of leukemia in young children. This disease also affects adults, especially those aged 65 and older. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) most often affects adults over the age of 55. It sometimes occurs in younger adults, but it almost never affects children. Acute myelogenous leukemia (also known as acute myeloid leukemia, or AML) occurs more commonly in adults than in children. This type of leukemia was previously called“acute nonlymphocytic leukemia.” Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) occurs mainly in adults. A very small number of children also develop this disease. [0085] Lymphoma is a type of cancer that originates in lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell in the vertebrate immune system). There are many types of lymphoma. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health, lymphomas account for about five percent of all cases of cancer in the United States, and Hodgkin's lymphoma in particular accounts for less than one percent of all cases of cancer in the United States. Because the lymphatic system is part of the body's immune system, patients with a weakened immune system, such as from HIV infection or from certain drugs or medication, also have a higher incidence of lymphoma.

[0086] In certain embodiments of the invention, NK cells are delivered to an individual in need thereof, such as an individual that has cancer or an infection. The cells then enhance the individual’s immune system to attack the respective cancer or pathogenic cells. In some cases, the individual is provided with one or more doses of the NK cells. In cases where the individual is provided with two or more doses of the NK cells, the duration between the administrations should be sufficient to allow time for propagation in the individual, and in specific embodiments the duration between doses is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or more days. [0087] The source of NK cells that are pre-activated and expanded may be of any kind, but in specific embodiments the cells are obtained from a bank of umbilical cord blood, peripheral blood, human embryonic stem cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells, for example. Suitable doses for a therapeutic effect would be at least 10⁵ or between about 10⁵ and about 10¹⁰ cells per dose, for example, preferably in a series of dosing cycles. An exemplary dosing regimen consists of four one- week dosing cycles of escalating doses, starting at least at about 10⁵ cells on Day 0, for example increasing incrementally up to a target dose of about 10¹⁰ cells within several weeks of initiating an intra-patient dose escalation scheme. Suitable modes of administration include intravenous, subcutaneous, intracavitary (for example by reservoir-access device), intraperitoneal, and direct injection into a tumor mass. [0088] The NK cells generated according to the present methods have many potential uses, including experimental and therapeutic uses. In particular, it is envisaged that such cell populations will be extremely useful in suppressing undesirable or inappropriate immune responses. In such methods, a small number of NK cells are removed from a patient and then manipulated and expanded ex vivo before reinfusing them into the patient. Examples of diseases which may be treated in this way are autoimmune diseases and conditions in which suppressed immune activity is desirable, e.g., for allo-transplantation tolerance. A therapeutic method could comprise providing a mammal, obtaining NK cells from the mammal; expanding the NK cells ex vivo in accordance with the methods of the present methods as described above; and administering the expanded NK cells to the mammal to be treated.

[0089] A pharmaceutical composition of the present disclosure can be used alone or in combination with other well-established agents useful for treating cancer. Whether delivered alone or in combination with other agents, the pharmaceutical composition of the present disclosure can be delivered via various routes and to various sites in a mammalian, particularly human, body to achieve a particular effect. One skilled in the art will recognize that, although more than one route can be used for administration, a particular route can provide a more immediate and more effective reaction than another route. For example, intradermal delivery may be advantageously used over inhalation for the treatment of melanoma. Local or systemic delivery can be accomplished by administration comprising application or instillation of the formulation into body cavities, inhalation or insufflation of an aerosol, or by parenteral introduction, comprising intramuscular, intravenous, intraportal, intrahepatic, peritoneal, subcutaneous, or intradermal administration.

[0090] In one embodiment, the subject has an autoimmune disease. Non-limiting examples of autoimmune diseases include: alopecia areata, ankylosing spondylitis, antiphospholipid syndrome, autoimmune Addison's disease, autoimmune diseases of the adrenal gland, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, autoimmune hepatitis, autoimmune oophoritis and orchitis, autoimmune thrombocytopenia, Behcet's disease, bullous pemphigoid, cardiomyopathy, celiac spate- dermatitis, chronic fatigue immune dysfunction syndrome (CFIDS), chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Churg- Strauss syndrome, cicatrical pemphigoid, CREST syndrome, cold agglutinin disease, Crohn's disease, discoid lupus, essential mixed cryoglobulinemia, fibromyalgia-fibromyositis, glomerulonephritis, Graves' disease, Guillain- Barre, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura (ITP), IgA neuropathy, juvenile arthritis, lichen planus, lupus erthematosus, Meniere's disease, mixed connective tissue disease, multiple sclerosis, type 1 or immune-mediated diabetes mellitus, myasthenia gravis, nephrotic syndrome (such as minimal change disease, focal glomerulosclerosis, or mebranous nephropathy), pemphigus vulgaris, pernicious anemia, polyarteritis nodosa, polychondritis, polyglandular syndromes, polymyalgia rheumatica, polymyositis and dermatomyositis, primary agammaglobulinemia, primary biliary cirrhosis, psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, Raynaud's phenomenon, Reiter's syndrome, Rheumatoid arthritis, sarcoidosis, scleroderma, Sjogren's syndrome, stiff-man syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, lupus erythematosus, ulcerative colitis, uveitis, vasculitides (such as polyarteritis nodosa, takayasu arteritis, temporal arteritis/giant cell arteritis, or dermatitis herpetiformis vasculitis), vitiligo, and Wegener's granulomatosis. Thus, some examples of an autoimmune disease that can be treated using the methods disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosis, type I diabetes mellitus, Crohn's disease; ulcerative colitis, myasthenia gravis, glomerulonephritis, ankylosing spondylitis, vasculitis, or psoriasis. The subject can also have an allergic disorder such as Asthma.

[0091] In yet another embodiment, the subject is the recipient of a transplanted organ or stem cells and expanded NK cells are used to prevent and/or treat rejection. In particular embodiments, the subject has or is at risk of developing graft versus host disease. GVHD is a possible complication of any transplant that uses or contains stem cells from either a related or an unrelated donor. There are two kinds of GVHD, acute and chronic. Acute GVHD appears within the first three months following transplantation. Signs of acute GVHD include a reddish skin rash on the hands and feet that may spread and become more severe, with peeling or blistering skin. Acute GVHD can also affect the stomach and intestines, in which case cramping, nausea, and diarrhea are present. Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice) indicates that acute GVHD has affected the liver. Chronic GVHD is ranked based on its severity: stage/grade 1 is mild; stage/grade 4 is severe. Chronic GVHD develops three months or later following transplantation. The symptoms of chronic GVHD are similar to those of acute GVHD, but in addition, chronic GVHD may also affect the mucous glands in the eyes, salivary glands in the mouth, and glands that lubricate the stomach lining and intestines. Any of the populations of NK cells disclosed herein can be utilized. Examples of a transplanted organ include a solid organ transplant, such as kidney, liver, skin, pancreas, lung and/or heart, or a cellular transplant such as islets, hepatocytes, myoblasts, bone marrow, or hematopoietic or other stem cells. The transplant can be a composite transplant, such as tissues of the face. NK cells, such as immunosuppressive CDl9⁺ cells, can be administered prior to transplantation, concurrently with transplantation, or following transplantation. In some embodiments, the NK cells are administered prior to the transplant, such as at least 1 hour, at least 12 hours, at least 1 day, at least 2 days, at least 3 days, at least 4 days, at least 5 days, at least 6 days, at least 1 week, at least 2 weeks, at least 3 weeks, at least 4 weeks, or at least 1 month prior to the transplant. In one specific, non-limiting example, administration of the therapeutically effective amount of NK cells occurs 3-5 days prior to transplantation.

[0092] NK cells administered to a patient that is receiving a transplant can be sensitized with antigens specific to the transplanted material prior to administration. According to this embodiment, the transplant recipient will have a decreased immune/inflammatory response to the transplanted material and, as such, the likelihood of rejection of the transplanted tissue is minimized. Similarly, with regard to the treatment of graft versus host disease, the NK cells can be sensitized with antigens specific to the host. According to this embodiment, the recipient will have a decreased immune/inflammatory response to self-antigens.

[0093] In a further embodiment, administration of a therapeutically effective amount of NK cells to a subject treats or inhibits inflammation in the subject. Thus, the method includes administering a therapeutically effective amount of NK cells to the subject to inhibit the inflammatory process. Examples of inflammatory disorders include, but are not limited to, asthma, encephalitis, inflammatory bowel disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), allergic disorders, septic shock, pulmonary fibrosis, undifferentiated spondyloarthropathy, undifferentiated arthropathy, arthritis, inflammatory osteolysis, and chronic inflammation resulting from chronic viral or bacterial infections. The methods disclosed herein can also be used to treat allergic disorders.

[0094] Administration of NK cells can be utilized whenever immunosuppression or inhibition of inflammation is desired, for example, at the first sign or symptoms of a disease or inflammation. These may be general, such as pain, edema, elevated temperature, or may be specific signs or symptoms related to dysfunction of affected organ(s). For example, in renal transplant rejection there may be an elevated serum creatinine level, whereas in GVHD, there may be a rash, and in asthma, there may be shortness of breath and wheezing. [0095] Administration of NK cells can also be utilized to prevent immune-mediated disease in a subject of interest. For example, NK cells can be administered to a subject that will be a transplant recipient prior to the transplantation. In another example, NK cells are administered to a subject receiving allogeneic bone marrow transplants without T cell depletion. In a further example, NK cells can be administered to a subject with a family history of diabetes. In other example, NK cells are administered to a subject with asthma in order to prevent an asthma attack. In some embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount of NK cells is administered to the subject in advance of a symptom. The administration of the NK cells results in decreased incidence or severity of subsequent immunological event or symptom (such as an asthma attack), or improved patient survival, compared to patients who received other therapy not including NK cells.

[0096] In certain embodiments, the NK cells are administered in combination with a second therapeutic agent. For example, the second therapeutic agent may comprise T cells, an immunomodulatory agent, a monoclonal antibody, or a chemotherapeutic agent. In non-limiting examples, the immunomodulatory agent is lenalidomide, the monoclonal antibody is rituximab, ofatumumab, or lumiliximab, and the chemotherapeutic agent is fludarabine or cyclophosphamide.

[0097] A composition of the present disclosure can be provided in unit dosage form wherein each dosage unit, e.g., an injection, contains a predetermined amount of the composition, alone or in appropriate combination with other active agents. The term unit dosage form as used herein refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosages for human and animal subjects, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of the composition of the present disclosure, alone or in combination with other active agents, calculated in an amount sufficient to produce the desired effect, in association with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, carrier, or vehicle, where appropriate. The specifications for the unit dosage forms of the present disclosure depend on the particular pharmacodynamics associated with the pharmaceutical composition in the particular subject.

[0098] Desirably an effective amount or sufficient number of the isolated transduced NK cells is present in the composition and introduced into the subject such that long-term, specific, anti-tumor responses are established to reduce the size of a tumor or eliminate tumor growth or regrowth than would otherwise result in the absence of such treatment. Desirably, the amount of NK cells reintroduced into the subject causes a 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 100% decrease in tumor size when compared to otherwise same conditions wherein the NK cells are not present.

[0099] Accordingly, the amount of NK cells administered should take into account the route of administration and should be such that a sufficient number of the NK cells will be introduced so as to achieve the desired therapeutic response. Furthermore, the amounts of each active agent included in the compositions described herein ( e.g ., the amount per each cell to be contacted or the amount per certain body weight) can vary in different applications. In general, the concentration of NK cells desirably should be sufficient to provide in the subject being treated at least from about 1 x 10⁶ to about 1 x 10⁹ NK cells, even more desirably, from about 1 x 10⁷ to about 5 x 10⁸ NK cells, although any suitable amount can be utilized either above, e.g., greater than 5 x 10⁸ cells, or below, e.g., less than 1 x 10⁷ cells. The dosing schedule can be based on well-established cell-based therapies (see, e.g., U.S. Patent No. 4,690,915), or an alternate continuous infusion strategy can be employed.

[00100] These values provide general guidance of the range of NK cells to be utilized by the practitioner upon optimizing the method of the present disclosure for practice of the present methods. The recitation herein of such ranges by no means precludes the use of a higher or lower amount of a component, as might be warranted in a particular application. For example, the actual dose and schedule can vary depending on whether the compositions are administered in combination with other pharmaceutical compositions, or depending on interindividual differences in pharmacokinetics, drug disposition, and metabolism. One skilled in the art readily can make any necessary adjustments in accordance with the exigencies of the particular situation.

IV. Kits

[00101] In some embodiments, a kit that can include, for example, one or more media and components for the production of NK cells is provided. Such formulations may comprise a cocktail of factors, in a form suitable for combining with NK cells. The reagent system may be packaged either in aqueous media or in lyophilized form, where appropriate. The container means of the kits will generally include at least one vial, test tube, flask, bottle, syringe or other container means, into which a component may be placed, and preferably, suitably aliquoted. Where there is more than one component in the kit, the kit also will generally contain a second, third or other additional container into which the additional components may be separately placed. However, various combinations of components may be comprised in a vial. The components of the kit may be provided as dried powder(s). When reagents and/or components are provided as a dry powder, the powder can be reconstituted by the addition of a suitable solvent. It is envisioned that the solvent may also be provided in another container means. The kits also will typically include a means for containing the kit component(s) in close confinement for commercial sale. Such containers may include injection or blow molded plastic containers into which the desired vials are retained. The kit can also include instructions for use, such as in printed or electronic format, such as digital format.

V. Examples [00102] The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventor to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

Example 1 - Pre- activation and Expansion of NK Cells

[00103] Cord blood (CB) mononuclear cells (MNCs) were isolated from fresh CB units by ficoll density gradient centrifugation. CD56⁺ NK cells, purified with an NK isolation kit (Miltenyi Biotec, Inc., San Diego, CA), were pre-activated for 16 hours using rhIL-l2 (10 ng/mL) plus rhIL-l8 (50 ng/mL) and rhIL-l5 (50 ng/mL) and washed 3 times to remove cytokines. The pre-activated NK cells were then stimulated with irradiated (100 Gy) K562-based feeder cells expressing membrane-bound IL-21 and CDl37-ligand (2: 1 feeder celkNK ratio) in the presence of recombinant human IL-2 (Proleukin, 200 U/mL) in complete Serum-free Stem Cell Growth Medium (SCGM). IL-2 was replenished every 2-3 days. Seven days later, NK cells were stimulated again with feeder aAPC cells using the same ratio. As the control, purified NK cells were expanded with irradiated (100 Gy) feeder cells (2: 1 feeder celhNK ratio) and recombinant human IL-2 without the pre-activation step (expanded CB-NK; ExpNK). [00104] Pre-activated and expanded CB-NK cells (P+E NK) produced more IFN-g and TNF-a in response to stimulation with K562 targets (FIG. 1 A-D), AML and lymphoma cells lines (FIGS. 1E-F), as well as greater cytotoxicity by ⁵ 'chromium release assay (FIGS. 2A-C), 7, 14 and 21 days post-stimulation when compared to Exp CB-NK cells, indicating that the enhanced killing property persists after pre-activation. [00105] Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies specific for a tumor-restricted antigen provide a low-affinity protein link between FcyRIIIa (CD 16), and a tumor target. Thus, antibody - dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) experiments were performed with rituximab and Raji target cells and it was observed that P+E NK cells displayed enhanced killing of rituximab- coated Raji lymphoma targets compared with control (Exp NK cells) at all effector-to-target ratios (FIG. 3).

[00106] It was also demonstrated that pre-activation significantly enhances the killing capability of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified NK cells using different constructs. P+E NK CB-NK cells that were transduced with a retroviral vector to express 1C9/CAR.19/IL-15 (FIG. 4A) or iC9/CART23/IL-l5 (FIGS. 4B-C) displayed significantly greater cytotoxicity and cytokine production against CD 19 or CD 123 expressing tumors, compared to iC9/CAR. l9/ IL-15- or iC9/CAR. l23/ IL-15 transduced CB-NK cells, respectively, and that were not pre-activated prior to activation, indicating that the protocol for pre- activation+expansion can also be applied to generate highly potent CAR-NK cells.

[00107] The pre-activation step did not negatively influence the ability of NK cells to undergo expansion. Indeed, after 14 days of culture, the median fold expansion for P+E NK CB-NK cells was 1520-fold (range 1080-1922) and equivalent to that of control Exp CB-NK cells (FIG. 5). [00108] It was further observed that pre-activated and expanded CB-NK cells exerted better cytotoxicity against K562 targets compared to CB-NK cells that were only pre activated or CB-NK cells that were only expanded (FIG. 6). In addition, the pre-activated and expanded CB-NK cells showed increased cytokine production against K562 cells (FIG. 7). [00109] Studies were performed to determine if the order of expansion and activation effected the cytotoxic activity against targets. It was observed that pre-activation followed by expansion showed better cytotoxicity against Raji targets compared to expansion followed by pre-activation (FIG. 8). This was confirmed by analysis of the NK cell expansion. The pre-activation followed by expansion method resulted in better proliferation than the method of expansion followed by pre-activation (FIG. 9). Thus, the present methods of pre-activation followed by expansion provided increased numbers of NK cells with increased cytotoxic activity (FIG. 9).

* * *

[00110] All of the methods disclosed and claimed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

REFERENCES

The following references, to the extent that they provide exemplary procedural or other details supplementary to those set forth herein, are specifically incorporated herein by reference. International Publication No. W02007/103009

Leong et al, Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 20(4):463-73, 2014.

Singh et al, Cancer Research, 71 :3516-3527, 2011.

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U.S. Patent No. 6,790,662

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U.S. Patent Publication No. 2009/0004142

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Claims

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1 An in vitro method for expanding natural killer (NK) cells comprising:

(a) obtaining a population of NK cells;

(b) pre-activating the population of NK cells in a pre-activation culture comprising an effective concentration of IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18 to obtain pre-activated NK cells; and

(c) expanding the pre-activated NK cells in an expansion culture comprising artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPCs) expressing CD 137 ligand, thereby producing expanded NK cells.

2 The method of claim 1 , wherein the population of NK cells is obtained from cord blood (CB), peripheral blood (PB), stem cells, or bone marrow.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the stem cells are induced pluripotent stem cells.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the population of NK cells is obtained from CB.

5. The method of claim 4, wherein the CB is pooled from 2 or more individual cord blood units.

6. The method of claim 4, wherein the CB is pooled from 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 individual cord blood units.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein the population of NK cells are CB mononuclear cells (CBMCs).

8 The method of claim 1, wherein the population of NK cells are further defined as CD56⁺ NK cells.

9. The method of claim 1 , wherein the aAPCs further express a membrane-bound cytokine.

10 The method of claim 9, wherein the membrane-bound cytokine is membrane-bound IL- 21 (mIL-2l) or membrane-bound IL- 15 (mIL-l5).

11. The method of claim 9, wherein the membrane-bound cytokine is mIL-2l .

12. The method of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the aAPCs have essentially no expression of endogenous HLA class I, II, or CD ld molecules.

13. The method of claim 1, wherein the aAPCs express ICAM-l (CD54) and LFA-3 (CD58).

14. The method of claim 1, wherein the aAPCs are further defined as leukemia cell-derived aAPCs.

15. The method of claim 14, wherein the leukemia-cell derived aAPCs are K562 cells engineered to express CD137 ligand and/or mIL-2l.

16. The method of claim 15, wherein the K562 cells are engineered to express CD137 ligand and mIL-2l.

17. The method of claim 15, wherein the aAPCs have been engineered by retroviral transduction.

18. The method of claim 1, wherein the aAPCs are irradiated.

19. The method of claim 1, wherein the pre-activating step is for 10-20 hours.

20. The method of claim 1, wherein the pre-activating step is for 14-18 hours.

21. The method of any one of claims 1-20, wherein the pre-activating step is for 16 hours.

22. The method of claim 1, wherein the pre-activation culture comprises IL-18 and/or IL-15 at a concentration of 10-100 ng/mL.

23. The method of claim 1, wherein the pre-activation culture comprises IL-18 and/or IL-15 at a concentration of 40-60 ng/mL.

24. The method of claim 1, wherein the pre-activation culture comprises IL-18 and/or 11-15 at a concentration of 50 ng/mL.

25. The method of claim 1, wherein the pre-activation culture comprises IL-12 at a concentration of 0.1-150 ng/mL.

26. The method of claim 1, wherein the pre-activation culture comprises IL-12 at a concentration of 1-20 ng/mL.

27. The method of claim 1, wherein the pre-activation culture comprises IL-12 at a concentration of 10 ng/mL.

28. The method of claim 1, further comprising washing the pre-activated NK cells prior to expanding.

29. The method of claim 28, wherein washing is performed multiple times.

30. The method of claim 1, wherein expanding is for 5-20 days.

31. The method of claim 1, wherein the expanding is for 12-16 days.

32. The method of claim 1, wherein the expanding is for 14 days.

33. The method of claim 1 , wherein the pre-activated NK cells and aAPCs are present in the expansion culture at a ratio of 3: 1 to 1 :3.

34. The method of claim 1 , wherein the pre-activated NK cells and aAPCs are present in the expansion culture at a ratio 1 :2.

35. The method of any one of claims 1-34, wherein the expansion culture further comprises IL-2.

36. The method of claim 35, wherein the IL-2 is present at a concentration of 10-500 U/mL.

37. The method of claim 35, wherein the IL-2 is present at a concentration of 100-300 U/mL.

38. The method of claim 35, wherein the IL-2 is present at a concentration of 200 U/mL.

39. The method of claim 35, wherein the IL-12, IL-18, IL-15, and/or IL-2 is recombinant human IL-2.

40. The method of claim 35, wherein the IL-2 is replenished in the expansion culture every 2- 3 days.

41. The method of claim 1, wherein the aAPCs are added to the expansion culture at least a second time.

42. The method of claim 1 , wherein the method is performed in serum-free media.

43. The method of any one of claims 1-42, wherein the NK cells are engineered to express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR).

44. The method of claim 43, wherein the CAR comprises a humanized antigen-binding domain.

45. The method of claim 43, wherein the CAR comprises a CD19, CD123, mesothelin, CD5, CD47, CLL-l, CD33, CD99, U5snRNP200, CD200, CS1, BAFF-R, ROR-l, or BCMA antigen-binding domain.

46. The method of claim 43, wherein the CAR comprises a CD 19 or CD 123 antigen-binding domain.

47. The method of claim 43, wherein the CAR comprises IL-l 5.

48. The method of claim 43, wherein the CAR comprises a suicide gene.

49. The method of claim 43, wherein the suicide gene is CD20, CD52, EGFRv3, or inducible caspase 9.

50. A population of expanded NK cells produced according to the methods of any one of claims 1-49.

51. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the population of expanded NK cells of claim 50 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

52. A composition comprising an effective amount of the expanded NK cells of claim 50 for use in the treatment of a disease or disorder in a subject.

53. The composition of claim 52, wherein the disease or disorder is cancer, inflammation, graft versus host disease, transplant rejection, an autoimmune disorder, an immunodeficiency disease, a B cell malignancy, or an infection.

54. The composition of claim 53, wherein the cancer is a leukemia.

55. The composition of claim 54, wherein the leukemia is an acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), or a chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML).

56. The composition of claim 52, wherein the disorder is graft versus host disease (GVHD).

57. The composition of claim 52, wherein the disorder is multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, type I diabetes, systemic lupus erythrematosus, contact hypersensitivity, asthma or Sjogren's syndrome.

58. A method of treating a disease or disorder in a subject comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of the expanded NK cells of claim 50 to the subject.

59. The method of claim 58, wherein the disease or disorder is cancer, inflammation, graft versus host disease, transplant rejection, an autoimmune disorder, an immunodeficiency disease, a B cell malignancy, or an infection.

60. The method of claim 58, wherein the cancer is a leukemia.

61. The method of claim 60, wherein the leukemia is an acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), or a chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML).

62. The method of claim 58, wherein the NK cells are allogeneic.

63. The method of claim 58, wherein the NK cells are autologous.

64. The method of claim 58, wherein the disorder is graft versus host disease (GVHD).

65. The method of claim 58, wherein the disorder is multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, type I diabetes, systemic lupus erythrematosus, contact hypersensitivity, asthma or Sjogren's syndrome.

66 The method of claim 58, wherein the subject is a human.

67. The method of any one of claims 58-66, further comprising administering at least a second therapeutic agent.

68 The method of claim 67, wherein the at least a second therapeutic agent is a therapeutically effective amount of an anti-cancer agent, immunomodulatory agent, or an immunosuppressive agent.

69. The method of claim 68, wherein the anti-cancer agent is chemotherapy, radiotherapy, gene therapy, surgery, hormonal therapy, anti-angiogenic therapy or immunotherapy.

70. The method of claim 68, wherein the immunosuppressive agent is a calcineurin inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, an antibody, a chemotherapeutic agent irradiation, a chemokine, an interleukins or an inhibitor of a chemokine or an interleukin.

71. The method of claim 67, wherein NK cells and/or the at least a second therapeutic agent are administered intravenously, intraperitoneally, intratracheally, intratumorally, intramuscularly, endoscopically, intralesionally, percutaneously, subcutaneously, regionally, or by direct injection or perfusion.

72. The method of claim 67, wherein the second therapeutic agent is an antibody.

73. The method of claim 72, wherein the antibody if a monoclonal, bispecific, or trispecific antibody.

74. The method of claim 72, wherein the antibody is a monoclonal antibody.

75. The method of claim 72, wherein the antibody is rituximab.