WO2018165329A1

WO2018165329A1 - Electroplating apparatus and methods utilizing independent control of impinging electrolyte

Info

Publication number: WO2018165329A1
Application number: PCT/US2018/021387
Authority: WO
Inventors: Gabriel Hay Graham; Bryan L. Buckalew; Lee Peng Chua; Robert Rash; James Isaac Fortner; Aaron Berke
Original assignee: Lam Research Corporation
Priority date: 2017-03-09
Filing date: 2018-03-07
Publication date: 2018-09-13
Also published as: US20180258546A1; TW201843358A

Abstract

Methods and apparatus for electroplating substrates are described herein. In some cases, an ionically resistive element is positioned near the substrate, creating a cross flow manifold between the ionically resistive element and the substrate. During plating, fluid may enter the cross flow manifold upward through the channels in the ionically resistive element, and (optionally) laterally through a cross flow side inlet. The flow paths combine in the cross flow manifold and exit at the cross flow outlet, which may be positioned opposite the cross flow inlet. In some embodiments, the ionically resistive element may include two or more flow regions, where the flow through each flow region is independently controllable. In these or other embodiments, an electrolyte jet may be included to flow additional electrolyte toward the substrate at a particular radial location or locations during plating. In some embodiments, the ionically resistive element may be omitted.

Description

ELECTROPLATING APPARATUS AND METHODS UTILIZING INDEPENDENT CONTROL OF IMPINGING ELECTROLYTE

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Patent Application No. 15/455,011, filed March 9, 2017, and titled "ELECTROPLATING APPARATUS AND METHODS UTILIZING INDEPENDENT CONTROL OF IMPINGING ELECTROLYTE," which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

[0002] The disclosed embodiments relate to methods and apparatus for controlling electrolyte hydrodynamics during electroplating. More particularly, methods and apparatus described herein are particularly useful for plating metals onto semiconductor wafer substrates, such as through resist plating of small microbumping features (e.g., copper, nickel, tin and tin alloy solders) having widths less than, e.g., about 50 μπι, and copper through silicon via (TSV) features. [0003] Electrochemical deposition processes are well-established in modern integrated circuit fabrication. The transition from aluminum to copper metal line interconnections in the early years of the twenty-first century drove a need for increasingly sophisticated electrodeposition processes and plating tools. Much of the sophistication evolved in response to the need for ever smaller current carrying lines in device metallization layers. These copper lines are formed by electroplating the metal into very thin, high-aspect ratio trenches and vias in a methodology commonly referred to as "damascene" processing (pre-passivation metalization).

[0004] Electrochemical deposition is now poised to fill a commercial need for sophisticated packaging and multichip interconnection technologies known generally and colloquially as wafer level packaging (WLP) and through silicon via (TSV) electrical connection technology. These technologies present their own very significant challenges due in part to the generally larger feature sizes (compared to Front End of Line (FEOL) interconnects) and high aspect ratios. [0005] Depending on the type and application of the packaging features (e.g., through chip connecting TSV, interconnection redistribution wiring, or chip to board or chip bonding, such as flip-chip pillars), plated features are usually, in current technology, greater than about 2 micrometers and are typically about 5-100 micrometers in their principal dimension (for example, copper pillars may be about 50 micrometers). For some on-chip structures such as power busses, the feature to be plated may be larger than 100 micrometers. The aspect ratios of the WLP features are typically about 1 : 1 (height to width) or lower, though they can range as high as perhaps about 2: 1 or so, while TSV structures can have very high aspect ratios (e.g., in the neighborhood of about 20: 1).

[0006] With the shrinking of WLP structure sizes from 100-200 um to less than 50 um comes a unique set of problems because at this scale, the hydrodynamic and mass transfer boundary layers are nearly equivalent. For prior generations with larger features, the transport of fluid and mass into a feature was carried by the general penetration of the flow fields into the features, but with smaller features, the formation of flow eddies and stagnation can inhibit both the rate and uniformity of mass transport within the growing feature. Therefore, new methods of creating uniform mass transfer within smaller "microbump" and TSV features are required.

[0007] Further, the time constant r (the ID diffusion equilibration time constant) for a purely diffusion process scales with feature depth L and the diffusion constant D as

[0008] Assuming an average-reasonable value for the diffusion coefficient of a metal ion (e.g., 5 x 10^"6 cm²/sec), a relatively large FEOL 0.3 um deep damascene feature would have a time constant of only about 0.1 msec, but a 50 um deep TSV of WLP bump would have a time constant of several seconds.

[0009] Not only feature size, but also plating speed differentiates WLP and TSV applications from damascene applications. For many WLP applications, depending on the metal being plated (e.g., copper, nickel, gold, silver solders, etc.), there is a balance between the manufacturing and cost requirements on the one hand and the technical requirements and technical difficulty on the other hand (e.g., goals of capital productivity with wafer pattern variability and on wafer requirements like within die and within feature targets). For copper, this balance is usually achieved at a rate of at least about 2 micrometers/minute, and typically at least about 3-4 micrometers/minute or more. For tin plating, a plating rate of greater than about 3 um/min, and for some applications at least about 7 micrometers/minute may be required. For nickel and strike gold (e.g., low concentration gold flash film layers), the plating rates may be between about 0.1 to 1 um/min. At these metal-relative higher plating rate regimes, efficient mass transfer of metal ions in the electrolyte to the plating surface is important.

[0010] In certain embodiments, plating must be conducted in a highly uniform manner over the entire face of a wafer to achieve good plating uniformity Within a Wafer (WIW), Within and among all the features of a particular Die (WID), and also Within the individual Features themselves (WIF). The high plating rates of WLP and TSV applications present challenges with respect to uniformity of the electrodeposited layer. For various WLP applications, plating must exhibit at most about 5% half range variation radially along the wafer surface (referred to as WIW non-uniformity, measured on a single feature type in a die at multiple locations across the wafer's diameter). A similar equally challenging requirement is the uniform deposition (thickness and shape) of various features of either different sizes (e.g. feature diameters) or feature density (e.g. an isolated or embedded feature in the middle of an array of the chip die). This performance specification is generally referred to as the WID non-uniformity. WID non-uniformity is measured as the local variability (e.g. <5% half range) of the various features types as described above versus the average feature height or other dimension within a given wafer die at that particular die location on the wafer (e.g. at the mid radius, center or edge).

[0011] A final challenging requirement is the general control of the within feature shape. Without proper flow and mass transfer convection control, after plating a line or pillar can end up being sloped in either a convex, flat or concave fashion in two or three dimensions (e.g. a saddle or a domed shape), with a flat profile generally, though not always, preferred. While meeting these challenges, WLP applications must compete with conventional, potentially less expensive pick and place serial routing operations. Still further, electrochemical deposition for WLP applications may involve plating various non-copper metals such as solders like lead, tin, tin- silver, and other underbump metallization materials, such as nickel, gold, palladium, and various alloys of these, some of which include copper. Plating of tin-silver near eutectic alloys is an example of a plating technique for an alloy that is plated as a lead free solder alternative to lead-tin eutectic solder.

SUMMARY

[0012] Certain embodiments herein relate to methods and apparatus for electroplating one or more materials onto a substrate. In many cases the material is a metal and the substrate is a semiconductor wafer, though the embodiments are no so limited. Typically, the embodiments herein utilize an ionically resistive element (sometimes also referred to as a channeled ionically resistive plate (CIRP), a channeled ionically resistive element, an ionically resistive plate, a high resistance virtual anode, or similar name) positioned near the substrate, creating a cross flow manifold defined on the bottom by the ionically resistive element, and on the top by the substrate. In various embodiments, during plating, fluid enters the cross flow manifold both upward through the channels in the ionically resistive element, and laterally through a cross flow side inlet positioned proximate one side of the substrate. The flow paths combine in the cross flow manifold and exit at the cross flow exit, which is positioned opposite the cross flow inlet.

[0013] In a number of embodiments, the ionically resistive element may include a plurality of flow regions, where the channels in each flow region are supplied with electrolyte from separate sources referred to as electrolyte source regions. These electrolyte source regions may be used to independently control delivery of electrolyte through the channels in each of the flow regions of the ionically resistive element. In these or other embodiments, an electrolyte jet may be provided to deliver additional electrolyte toward the substrate at a particular location. The electrolyte jet may be fed from a separate jet manifold in some cases, which may allow the flow through the jets to be independently controlled from other flow rates. [0014] In one aspect of the disclosed embodiments, an electroplating apparatus is provided, the apparatus including: an electroplating chamber configured to contain an electrolyte and an anode while electroplating metal onto a substrate, the substrate being substantially planar; an inlet for introducing electrolyte to the electroplating chamber; an outlet for removing electrolyte from the electroplating chamber; a substrate holder configured to hold the substrate such that a plating face of the substrate is separated from the anode during electroplating; and an electrolyte jet configured to deliver electrolyte toward the plating face of the substrate in a nonuniform manner, where a flow rate through the electrolyte jet and a total flow rate through the electroplating chamber are independently controllable.

[0015] In certain embodiments, the electrolyte jet may be an edge jet configured to deliver the electrolyte such that it preferentially impinges upon a peripheral region of the substrate. In other embodiments, the electrolyte jet may be an inner jet configured to deliver electrolyte such that it preferentially impinges upon a non- peripheral region of the substrate. In various cases, the electrolyte jet may include a plurality of individual jets. In some such cases, at least two of the plurality of individual jets of the electrolyte jet may be positioned to deliver electrolyte at different radial locations. For instance, a first individual jet of the plurality of electrolyte jets may be configured to deliver electrolyte at a peripheral region of the substrate, and a second individual jet of the plurality of electrolyte jets may be configured to deliver electrolyte at a non-peripheral region of the substrate. The electrolyte jet may be divided into at least a first region and a second region, each of the first and second regions of the electrolyte jet being supplied electrolyte from a distinct electrolyte source, and each of the first and second regions of the electrolyte jet including at least one of the plurality of individual jets, where a first flow rate through the first region of the electrolyte jet is independently controllable from a second flow rate through the second region of the electrolyte jet. In some cases, the electrolyte jet may be provided at a particular azimuthal location or locations such that as the substrate rotates, an area on the plating face of the substrate is cyclically exposed to (i) regions where the electrolyte jet is present and (ii) regions where the electrolyte jet is absent. Within regions where the electrolyte jet is present, the electrolyte jet may deliver electrolyte at different radial locations, where the flow rate of electrolyte through the electrolyte jet is non-uniform at the different radial locations.

[0016] In some implementations, the electrolyte jet may be configured to direct electrolyte toward the substrate at a normal angle with respect to the plating face of the substrate. In these or other cases, the electrolyte jet may be configured to direct electrolyte toward the substrate at a non-normal angle with respect to the plating face of the substrate. In various embodiments, the electrolyte jet may include at least one individual jet that is angled radially inwards. In some cases, the apparatus may further include a jet manifold that supplies electrolyte to the electrolyte jet. In a particular embodiment, the apparatus further includes an ionically resistive element including a substrate-facing surface that is separated from the plating face of the substrate by a gap, the gap forming a cross flow manifold, where the ionically resistive element is at least coextensive with the plating face of the substrate during electroplating, the ionically resistive element adapted to provide electrolyte transport and ionic transport through the ionically resistive element during electroplating; a side outlet to the cross flow manifold for receiving electrolyte flowing in the cross flow manifold; and an ionically resistive element manifold that supplies electrolyte below the ionically resistive element, where the ionically resistive element manifold and the jet manifold are separated from one another. In another embodiment, the apparatus further includes an ionically resistive element including a substrate-facing surface that is separated from the plating face of the substrate by a gap, the gap forming a cross flow manifold, where the ionically resistive element is at least coextensive with the plating face of the substrate during electroplating, the ionically resistive element adapted to provide electrolyte transport and ionic transport through the ionically resistive element during electroplating; a side inlet to the cross flow manifold for introducing electrolyte to the cross flow manifold; a side outlet to the cross flow manifold for receiving electrolyte flowing in the cross flow manifold; and a cross flow injection manifold, where the side inlet and the side outlet are positioned proximate azimuthally opposing perimeter locations on the plating face of the substrate during electroplating, where the cross flow injection manifold supplies electrolyte to the side inlet, and where the jet manifold and the cross flow injection manifold are separated from one another. In these or other embodiments, the apparatus may further include an edge flow element positioned proximate a periphery of the substrate and at least partially radially inside of a corner formed at an interface between the substrate and the substrate holder, where the edge flow element is configured to direct electrolyte into the corner formed at the interface between the substrate and the substrate holder, the edge flow element being ring-shaped or arc- shaped. In another particular embodiment, the apparatus may further include an ionically resistive element including a substrate-facing surface that is separated from the plating face of the substrate by a gap, the gap forming a cross flow manifold, where the ionically resistive element is at least coextensive with the plating face of the substrate during electroplating, the ionically resistive element adapted to provide electrolyte transport and ionic transport through the ionically resistive element during electroplating, where the electrolyte jet includes a channel that extends from a first location to a second location, the first location being positioned below a plane formed by the substrate-facing surface of the ionically resistive element, and the second location being positioned at or above the plane formed by the substrate-facing surface of the ionically resistive element.

[0017] In another aspect of the disclosed embodiments, an electroplating apparatus is provided, the apparatus including: (a) an electroplating chamber configured to contain an electrolyte and an anode while electroplating metal onto a substrate, the substrate being substantially planar; (b) a substrate holder configured to hold the substrate such that a plating face of the substrate is separated from the anode during electroplating; (c) an ionically resistive element including: (i) a substrate- facing surface that is separated from the plating face of the substrate by a gap, the gap forming a cross flow manifold, (ii) a first flow region and a second flow region, where each of the first and second flow regions allow for transport of an electrolyte through the ionically resistive element during electroplating, where the ionically resistive element is at least coextensive with the plating face of the substrate during electroplating, the ionically resistive element adapted to provide ionic transport through the ionically resistive element during electroplating; (d) an ionically resistive element manifold positioned below the ionically resistive element, the ionically resistive element manifold including a first electrolyte source region and a second electrolyte source region, the first and second electrolyte source regions being separated from one another, where the first electrolyte source region supplies electrolyte to the first flow region of the ionically resistive element and the second electrolyte source region supplies electrolyte to the second flow region of the ionically resistive element, and where a flow of electrolyte through the first flow region is independently controllable from a flow of electrolyte through the second flow region; and (e) a side outlet to the cross flow manifold for receiving electrolyte flowing in the cross flow manifold.

[0018] In some embodiments, the apparatus may further include a controller including executable instructions for flowing electrolyte through the first flow region at a first average linear velocity and for flowing electrolyte through the second flow region at a second average linear velocity, the first and second average linear velocities being different from one another. For instance, in some cases the first flow region may be positioned at a peripheral region of the ionically resistive element, and the second flow region may be positioned at a non-peripheral region of the ionically resistive element, and the first average linear velocity of electrolyte through the first flow region may be higher than the second average linear velocity of electrolyte through the second flow region. In another example, the first flow region may be positioned at a peripheral region of the ionically resistive element, the second flow region may be positioned at a non-peripheral region of the ionically resistive element, and the first average linear velocity of electrolyte through the first flow region may be lower than the second average linear velocity of electrolyte through the second flow region. In various implementations, the ionically resistive element may include a third flow region that allows for transport of electrolyte through the ionically resistive element during electroplating, the ionically resistive element manifold may include a third electrolyte source region that is separated from the first and second electrolyte source regions, and the third electrolyte source region may supply electrolyte to the third flow region of the ionically resistive element.

[0019] The first and second flow regions may differ from one another in some respect. In some cases, the first and second flow regions of the ionically resistive element may have different average porosities. In these or other cases, the first and second flow regions of the ionically resistive element may each include channels through the ionically resistive element, where the channels in the first flow region have an average diameter that is different from an average diameter of the channels in the second flow region. In these or other cases, the first and second flow regions of the ionically resistive element may each include channels through the ionically resistive element, where the channels in the first flow region are positioned in a different pattern compared to the channels in the second flow region. In various embodiments, the apparatus may further include an edge flow element positioned proximate a periphery of the substrate and at least partially radially inside of a corner formed at an interface between the substrate and the substrate holder, where the edge flow element is configured to direct electrolyte into the corner formed at the interface between the substrate and the substrate holder, the edge flow element being ring- shaped or arc-shaped. In these or other embodiments, the apparatus may further include an electrolyte jet in fluidic communication with the cross flow manifold, where the electrolyte jet is configured to deliver electrolyte such that it impinges upon the plating face of the substrate, and where a flow of electrolyte through the electrolyte jet is independently controllable from a flow of electrolyte through the ionically resistive element. In some such cases, the apparatus further includes an edge flow element positioned proximate a periphery of the substrate and at least partially radially inside of a corner formed at an interface between the substrate and the substrate holder, where the edge flow element is configured to direct electrolyte into the corner formed at the interface between the substrate and the substrate holder, the edge flow element being ring-shaped or arc-shaped. In various implementations, the first and second flow regions may be azimuthally separated from one another such that as the substrate rotates, a region on the substrate is cyclically exposed to the first and second flow regions.

[0020] In a further aspect of the disclosed embodiments, an electrolyte jet assembly for use in an electroplating apparatus is provided, the electrolyte jet assembly including: a frame including a portion that is ring-shaped or arc-shaped, the frame being configured to engage with a substrate holder and/or an ionically resistive element of the electroplating apparatus; and a plurality of jets positioned on the frame, each jet including a channel through which electrolyte flows during electroplating, where the jets are configured to deliver impinging electrolyte on a plating face of a substrate supported in the substrate holder during electroplating.

[0021] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the jets may be configured to deliver electrolyte to the substrate at a peripheral region of the substrate. In these or other embodiments, at least a portion of the jets may be configured to deliver electrolyte to the substrate at a non-peripheral region of the substrate. In some implementations, a first set of the plurality of jets may be configured to deliver electrolyte to the substrate at a peripheral region of the substrate, and a second set of the plurality of jets may be configured to deliver electrolyte to the substrate at a non- peripheral region of the substrate. The electrolyte jet may include a first region and a second region, each of the first and second regions including at least one of the plurality of jets, where a flow of electrolyte through the jet(s) in the first region is independently controllable from a flow of electrolyte through the jet(s) in the second region.

[0022] In some cases, the frame may be ring-shaped, and the electrolyte jet may a first region, a second region, a third region, and a fourth region, the first and third regions of the electrolyte jet being azimuthally opposite one another, the second and fourth regions of the electrolyte jet being azimuthally opposite one another, where the first and third regions may each include at least one of the plurality of jets, where the second region may not include any jets, and where the fourth region may optionally include at least one of the plurality of jets. The jets may be provided along a particular portion of the frame. For example, in some cases the jets may be provided along one or more arcs spanning a total of at least about 90°. In some such cases, the jets may be provided along one or more arcs spanning a total of at least about 180°. In various implementations, the frame may include an edge flow element configured to passively and preferentially direct electrolyte toward a corner formed by an interface between the substrate and the substrate holder.

[0023] In a further aspect of the disclosed embodiments, a method of electroplating material onto a substrate is provided, the method including electroplating the substrate in any of the electroplating apparatus described herein. In a further aspect of the disclosed embodiments, a method of electroplating material onto a substrate is provided, the method including flowing electrolyte through the plurality of jets of any of the electrolyte jet assemblies described herein. [0024] In a further aspect of the disclosed embodiments, a method of electroplating material onto a substrate is provided, the method including: (a) immersing the substrate in electrolyte in an electroplating apparatus; (b) flowing electrolyte through an electrolyte jet onto a plating face of the substrate, where the electrolyte jet preferentially delivers electrolyte to the plating face of the substrate in a radially and/or azimuthally non-uniform manner, where a flow rate of electrolyte through the electrolyte jet is independently controllable from a total flow rate of electrolyte through the electroplating apparatus; and (c) electroplating the material onto the substrate while flowing the electrolyte as in (b).

[0025] In some embodiments, the electroplating apparatus may include an ionically resistive element that is separated from a plating face of the substrate by a gap, the gap forming a cross flow manifold, where the ionically resistive element is adapted to provide ionic transport through the ionically resistive element during electroplating, where (b) further includes flowing electrolyte through the ionically resistive element, and where the flow rate of electrolyte through the electrolyte jet is independently controllable from a flow rate of electrolyte through the ionically resistive element. In some such cases, (b) may further include flowing electrolyte from a cross flow injection manifold, into the cross flow manifold, and out a side outlet. The flow rate of electrolyte through the electrolyte jet may be independently controllable from a flow rate of electrolyte through the cross flow injection manifold.

[0026] In various embodiments, the electrolyte jet may include a plurality of jets. The electrolyte jet may preferentially deliver electrolyte to a particular region. For example, the electrolyte jet may preferentially deliver electrolyte to a peripheral region of the plating face of the substrate. In other cases, the electrolyte jet may preferentially deliver electrolyte to a non-peripheral region of the plating face of the substrate. In these or other embodiments, the method may further include rotating the substrate, and the electrolyte jet may deliver electrolyte to the plating face of the substrate in an azimuthally non-uniform way such that as the substrate rotates, an area on the plating face of the substrate is cyclically exposed to (i) regions where the electrolyte jet is present and delivers electrolyte to the substrate, and to (ii) regions where the electrolyte jet is not present.

[0027] In a further aspect of the disclosed embodiments, a method of electroplating material onto a substrate is provided, the method including: (a) immersing the substrate in electrolyte in an electroplating apparatus, the electroplating apparatus including: a substrate holder, an anode, an ionically resistive element that is separated from a plating face of the substrate by a gap, the gap forming a cross flow manifold, where the ionically resistive element includes a plurality of flow regions, each flow region being adapted to provide ionic transport through the ionically resistive element during electroplating, an ionically resistive element manifold positioned under the ionically resistive element, the ionically resistive element manifold including a plurality of electrolyte source regions that are separated from one another, each electrolyte source region configured to supply electrolyte to one of the plurality of flow regions of the ionically resistive element, and a side outlet configured to receive electrolyte flowing in the cross flow manifold; (b) flowing electrolyte:(i) from a first electrolyte source region of the plurality of electrolyte source regions, through a first flow region of the plurality of flow regions of the ionically resistive element, and into the cross flow manifold, and (ii) from a second electrolyte source region of the plurality of electrolyte source regions, through a second flow region of the plurality of flow regions of the ionically resistive element, and into the cross flow manifold, where a flow of electrolyte in (i) is independently controllable from a flow of electrolyte in (ii); and (c) electroplating the material onto the substrate while flowing electrolyte as in (b).

[0028] In some embodiments, the first flow region of the ionically resistive element may be configured to deliver electrolyte to a peripheral region of the substrate, the second flow region of the ionically resistive element may be configured to deliver electrolyte to a non-peripheral region of the substrate, and the flow of electrolyte passing through the first flow region of the ionically resistive element may have a higher linear velocity than the flow of electrolyte passing through the second flow region of the ionically resistive element. In these or other cases, the method may further include rotating the substrate, the first and second electrolyte source regions may be provided at different azimuthal positions, the first and second flow regions of the ionically resistive element may be provided at different azimuthal positions, and as the substrate rotates, an area on the plating face of the substrate may be cyclically positioned proximate the first and second flow regions of the ionically resistive element.

[0029] These and other features will be described below with reference to the associated drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0030] FIG. 1 A shows a perspective view of a substrate holding and positioning apparatus for electrochemically treating semiconductor wafers.

[0031] FIG. IB depicts a cross-sectional view of a portion of a substrate holding assembly including a cone and cup.

[0032] FIG. 1C depicts a simplified view of an electroplating cell that may be used in practicing the embodiments herein.

[0033] FIG. 1D-1G illustrate various electroplating apparatus embodiments that may be used to enhance cross flow across the face of a substrate, along with top views of the flow dynamics achieved when practicing these embodiments.

[0034] FIG. 2 illustrates an exploded view of various parts of an electroplating apparatus typically present in the cathode chamber in accordance with certain embodiments disclosed herein.

[0035] FIG. 3 A shows a close-up view of a cross flow side inlet and surrounding hardware in accordance with certain embodiments herein.

[0036] FIG. 3B shows a close-up view of a cross flow outlet, an inlet to the ionically resistive element manifold, and surrounding hardware in accordance with various disclosed embodiments.

[0037] FIG. 4 depicts a cross-sectional view of various parts of the electroplating apparatus shown in FIGS. 3A-3B.

[0038] FIG. 5 shows a cross flow injection manifold and showerhead split into 6 individual segments according to certain embodiments.

[0039] FIG. 6 shows a top view of an ionically resistive element and associated hardware according to an embodiment herein, focusing especially on the inlet side of the cross flow. [0040] FIG. 7 illustrates a simplified top view of an ionically resistive element and associated hardware showing both the inlet and outlet sides of the cross flow manifold according to various disclosed embodiments.

[0041] FIGS. 8A-8B depict an initial (8A) and revised (8B) design of a cross flow inlet region according to certain embodiments.

[0042] FIG. 9 shows an embodiment of an ionically resistive element partially covered by a flow confinement ring and supported by a frame.

[0043] FIG. 10A shows a simplified top view of an ionically resistive element and flow confinement ring where no side inlet is used.

[0044] FIG. 10B shows a simplified top view of an ionically resistive element, flow confinement ring, and cross flow side inlet according to various embodiments disclosed herein.

[0045] FIGS. 11 A-l IB illustrate the cross flow through the cross flow manifold for the apparatus shown in FIGS. 10A-10B, respectively.

[0046] FIGS. 12A-12B are graphs showing the horizontal cross flow velocity during plating vs. wafer position for the apparatus shown in FIGS. 10A-10B, respectively.

[0047] FIGS. 13 A and 13B present experimental results showing bump height vs. radial position on the substrate, illustrating problems related to a low plating rate near the periphery of the substrate.

[0048] FIG. 14A depicts a cross-sectional view of a portion of an electroplating apparatus.

[0049] FIG. 14B shows modeling results related to the flow through the apparatus depicted in FIG. 14 A.

[0050] FIG. 15 depicts modeling results related to shear flow velocity vs. radial position on the substrate and experimental results related to bump height vs. radial position on the substrate, showing a lower degree of plating near the periphery of the substrate. [0051] FIGS. 16A and 16B show experimental results related to within-die thickness non-uniformity (FIG. 16A) and photoresist thickness (FIG. 16B) at different radial positions on the substrate.

[0052] FIGS. 17A and 17B depicts a cross-sectional view of an electroplating apparatus according to one embodiment where an edge flow element is used.

[0053] FIGS. 18A-18C illustrates three types of attachment configurations for installing an edge flow element in an electroplating apparatus according to various embodiments.

[0054] FIG. 18D presents a table describing certain features of the edge flow elements shown in FIGS. 18A-18C.

[0055] FIGS. 19A-19E illustrate methods for adjusting an edge flow element in an electroplating apparatus.

[0056] FIGS. 20A-20C illustrate several types of edge flow elements that may be used according to various embodiments, some of which are azimuthally asymmetric. [0057] FIG. 21 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an electroplating cell according to certain embodiments where an edge flow element and top flow insert are used.

[0058] FIGS. 22A and 22B depicts an ionically resistive element having a groove therein, into which an edge flow element is installed. [0059] FIGS. 22C and 22D depict modeling results describing the flow velocity near the edge of the substrate for various shim thicknesses.

[0060] FIGS. 23 A and 23B present modeling results related to an electroplating apparatus having an edge flow element that has a ramp shape, according to certain embodiments. [0061] FIGS. 24A, 24B, and 25 present modeling results related to electroplating apparatus having edge flow elements that include different types of flow bypass passages according to certain embodiments. [0062] FIGS. 26A-26D illustrates several examples of an edge flow element, each having flow bypass passages therein.

[0063] FIGS. 27A-27C describe an experimental setup used to generate the results shown in FIGS. 28-30. [0064] FIGS. 28-30 present experimental results related to plated bump height (FIGS. 28 and 30) or within-die thickness non-uniformity (FIG. 29) vs. radial position on the substrate, for the experimental setups described in relation to FIGS. 27A-27C.

[0065] FIGS. 31 A- 31L depict ionically resistive elements having multiple flow regions. FIGS. 31 A- 3 lLmay also be considered to show the electrolyte source regions of the ionically resistive element manifold that feed corresponding flow regions in an ionically resistive element. FIGS. 31G-L may also be considered to show example shapes/positions for electrolyte jets in certain embodiments.

[0066] FIGS. 32A and 32B depict cross sectional views of alternate embodiments of electroplating apparatus that include edge jets. [0067] FIGS. 33A-33D depict close-up cross-sectional views (FIGS. 33A-33C) and a top-down view (FIG. 33D) of a portion of an electroplating apparatus where a topside insert is used to form an edge jet as well as an edge flow element.

[0068] FIG. 33E depicts a top-down view of another embodiment of an electroplating apparatus that includes a topside insert that forms an edge jet as well as an edge flow element.

[0069] FIG. 34A illustrates photoresist thickness at different radial positions according to certain embodiments.

[0070] FIG. 34B illustrates the magnitude of convection at different radial positions, where the magnitude of convection at different radial positions is tailored to match the photoresist thickness as shown in FIG. 34A.

[0071] FIGS. 35A-35E depict flow emanating from various openings (which may be formed in electrolyte jets or ionically resistive element jets) according to different embodiments. [0072] FIG. 35F shows an embodiment in which an edge jet is provided proximate a periphery of a substrate, where the substrate moves relative to the edge jet during electroplating.

[0073] FIG. 35G depicts top, front, and side views of an electrolyte jet having a slit-shaped opening.

[0074] FIGS. 36A-36B illustrate an embodiment where a plurality of electrolyte jets are provided at different radial locations over the substrate, where the flow through each electrolyte jet is independently controllable.

[0075] FIG. 37A depicts an ionically portion of an resistive element that is configured to include ionically resistive element jets.

[0076] FIGS. 37B-37D show examples of electrolyte jets, which may be implemented as ionically resistive element jets in some embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0077] In this application, the terms "semiconductor wafer," "wafer," "substrate," "wafer substrate," and "partially fabricated integrated circuit" are used

interchangeably. One of ordinary skill in the art would understand that the term "partially fabricated integrated circuit" can refer to a silicon wafer during any of many stages of integrated circuit fabrication thereon. The following detailed description assumes the disclosed embodiments are implemented on a wafer. Oftentimes, semiconductor wafers have a diameter of 200, 300 or 450 mm. However, the embodiments are not so limited. The work piece may be of various shapes, sizes, and materials. In addition to semiconductor wafers, other work pieces that may take advantage of the disclosed embodiments include various articles such as printed circuit boards and the like.

[0078] In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the presented embodiments. The disclosed embodiments may be practiced without some or all of these specific details. In other instances, well-known process operations have not been described in detail to not unnecessarily obscure the disclosed embodiments. While the disclosed embodiments will be described in conjunction with the specific embodiments, it will be understood that it is not intended to limit the disclosed embodiments.

[0079] Described herein are apparatus and methods for electroplating one or more metals onto a substrate. Embodiments are described generally where the substrate is a semiconductor wafer; however the embodiments are not so limited.

[0080] Disclosed embodiments include electroplating apparatus configured for, and methods including, control of electrolyte hydrodynamics during plating so that highly uniform plating layers are obtained. In specific implementations, the disclosed embodiments employ methods and apparatus that create combinations of impinging flow (flow directed at or perpendicular to the work piece surface) and shear flow (sometimes referred to as "cross flow" or flow with velocity parallel to the work piece surface).

[0081] In various embodiments, an ionically resistive element is positioned below a substrate, creating a cross flow manifold between the ionically resistive element and the substrate. Electrolyte flows upward through channels in the ionically resistive element, and optionally, laterally from a side inlet to a side outlet, the side inlet and side outlet each positioned above the ionically resistive element and azimuthally opposed to one another to accommodate cross flowing electrolyte in the cross flow manifold.

[0082] In a number of embodiments, the ionically resistive element may include a plurality of flow regions. In some such embodiments, the flow through each flow region can be independently controlled. Example embodiments of ionically resistive elements having a plurality of flow regions are shown in FIGS. 31 A- 3 IF, which are further described below. In some other embodiments, the ionically resistive element includes only a single flow region that is fed by a single manifold (often referred to as the ionically resistive element manifold, the channeled ionically resistive plate manifold, CIRP manifold, or a similar name). In these or other cases, an electrolyte jet may be included to provide additional electrolyte at a particular location of the substrate, e.g., near the periphery of the substrate in some embodiments. An example embodiment having an electrolyte jet is shown in FIG. 32, which is further described below. In some cases, the electrolyte jet may be fed by a jet manifold, which may be separate from the ionically resistive element manifold and the cross flow injection manifold. Because these manifolds are separate, the flow through the jets can be controlled independently of the flow through the other listed manifolds. In another embodiment, the electrolyte jet may be fed by another manifold such as the ionically resistive element manifold, but an additional pump, valve, fluidic adjustment rod, and/or other flow control mechanism may be provided in the fluid path from the ionically resistive element manifold to the electrolyte jet such that the flow through the jets can be controlled separately from the flow through the ionically resistive element.

[0083] One embodiment is an electroplating apparatus including the following features: (a) a plating chamber configured to contain an electrolyte and an anode while electroplating metal onto a substrate, the substrate being substantially planar; (b) a substrate holder configured to hold the substrate such that a plating face of the substrate is separated from the anode during electroplating; (c) an ionically resistive element including (i) a substrate-facing surface that may be substantially parallel to and separated from the plating face of the substrate, (ii) a plurality of flow regions, each flow region including a plurality of channels (which may or may not

communicate with one another), where the channels allow for transport of an electrolyte through the ionically resistive element during electroplating; and (d) a plurality of electrolyte source regions, each electrolyte source region positioned at least partially below the ionically resistive element, and each electrolyte source region being configured to deliver electrolyte to one of the plurality of flow regions of the ionically resistive element. In various embodiments, the electrolyte flows through two or more of the flow regions of the ionically resistive element are independently controllable. This independent control permits tailoring the hydrodynamic conditions near the substrate to create uniform electroplated features.

[0084] Another embodiment is an electroplating apparatus that includes the following features: (a) a plating chamber configured to contain an electrolyte and an anode while electroplating metal onto a substrate, the substrate being substantially planar; (b) a substrate holder configured to hold the substrate such that a plating face of the substrate is separated from the anode during electroplating; (c) an ionically resistive element including a substrate-facing surface that may be substantially parallel to and separated from the plating face of the substrate, the ionically resistive element including a plurality of channels that allow for transport of an electrolyte through the ionically resistive element during electroplating; (d) an electrolyte jet configured to deliver electrolyte toward the substrate proximate a periphery of the substrate; (e) a jet manifold that delivers electrolyte to the electrolyte jet during electroplating; and (f) an ionically resistive element manifold that delivers electrolyte to the channels in the ionically resistive plate. In various embodiments, the flow through the electrolyte jet is independently controllable with respect to the flow through the ionically resistive element.

[0085] Another embodiment is an electroplating apparatus including the following features: (a) a plating chamber configured to contain an electrolyte and an anode while electroplating metal onto a substantially planar substrate; (b) a substrate holder configured to hold the substantially planar substrate such that a plating face of the substrate is separated from the anode during electroplating, where when the substrate is positioned in the substrate holder, a corner forms at the interface between the substrate and substrate holder, the corner defined on top by the plating face of the substrate and on the side by the substrate holder; (c) an ionically resistive element including a substrate-facing surface that is substantially parallel to and separated from a plating face of the substrate during electroplating, the ionically resistive element including a plurality of flow regions, each flow region including a plurality of channels (which may or may not communicate with one another), where the channels allow for transport of the electrolyte through the element during electroplating; (d) a plurality of electrolyte source regions, each electrolyte source region positioned at least partially below the ionically resistive element, and each electrolyte source region being configured to deliver electrolyte to one of the plurality of flow regions of the ionically resistive element; (e) a mechanism for creating and/or applying a shearing force (cross flow) to the electrolyte flowing at the plating face of the substrate; and (f) a mechanism for promoting shear flow near the periphery of the substrate, proximate a substrate/substrate holder interface. Though the wafer is substantially planar, it also typically has one or more microscopic trenches and may have one or more portions of the surface masked from electrolyte exposure. In various embodiments, the apparatus also includes a mechanism for rotating the substrate and/or the ionically resistive element while flowing electrolyte in the electroplating cell in the direction of the substrate plating face.

[0086] In certain implementations, the mechanism for applying cross flow is an inlet with, for example, appropriate flow directing and distributing means on or proximate to the periphery of the ionically resistive element. The inlet directs cross flowing catholyte along the substrate-facing surface of the ionically resistive element. The inlet is azimuthally asymmetric, partially following the circumference of the ionically resistive element, and having one or more gaps, and defining a cross flow injection manifold between the ionically resistive element and the substantially planar substrate during electroplating. Other elements are optionally provided for working in concert with the cross flow injection manifold. These may include a cross flow injection flow distribution showerhead and a cross flow confinement ring, which are further described below in conjunction with the figures.

[0087] In certain implementations, the mechanism for promoting shear flow near the periphery of the substrate is an edge flow element. The edge flow element may be an integral part of an ionically resistive element or substrate holder in some cases. In other cases, the edge flow element may be a separate piece that interfaces with the ionically resistive element or with the substrate holder. In some cases where the edge flow element is a separate piece, a variety of differently shaped edge flow elements may be separately provided to allow the flow distribution near the edge of a substrate to be tuned for a given application. In various cases the edge flow element may be azimuthally asymmetric. Further details regarding the edge flow element are presented below.

[0088] In certain embodiments, the apparatus is configured to enable flow of electrolyte in the direction towards or perpendicular to a substrate plating face to produce an average flow velocity of at least about 3 cm/s (e.g., at least about 5 cm/s or at least about 10 cm/s) exiting the holes of the ionically resistive element during electroplating. In certain embodiments, the apparatus is configured to operate under conditions that produce an average transverse electrolyte velocity of about 3 cm/sec or greater (e.g., about 5 cm/s or greater, about 10 cm/s or greater, about 15 cm/s or greater, or about 20 cm/s or greater) across the center point of the plating face of the substrate. These flow rates (i.e., the flow rate exiting the holes of the ionically resistive element and the flow rate across the plating face of the substrate) are in certain embodiments appropriate in an electroplating cell employing an overall electrolyte flow rate of about 20 L/min and an approximately 12 inch diameter substrate. The embodiments herein may be practiced with various substrate sizes. In some cases, the substrate has a diameter of about 200 mm, about 300 mm, or about 450 mm. Further, the embodiments herein may be practiced at a wide variety of overall flow rates. In certain implementations, the overall electrolyte flow rate is between about 1-60 L/min, between about 6-60 L/min, between about 5-25 L/min, or between about 15-25 L/min. The flow rates achieved during plating may be limited by certain hardware constraints, such as the size and capacity of the pump being used. One of skill in the art would understand that the flow rates cited herein may be higher when the disclosed techniques are practiced with larger pumps.

[0089] In some embodiments, the electroplating apparatus contains separated anode and cathode chambers in which there are different electrolyte compositions, electrolyte circulation loops, and/or hydrodynamics in each of two chambers. An ionically permeable membrane may be employed to inhibit direct convective transport (movement of mass by flow) of one or more components between the chambers and maintain a desired separation between the chambers. The membrane may block bulk electrolyte flow and exclude transport of certain species such as organic additives while permitting transport of ions such as cations. In some embodiments, the membrane contains DuPont' s NAFION™ or a related ionically selective polymer. In other cases, the membrane does not include an ion exchange material, and instead includes a micro-porous material. Conventionally, the electrolyte in the cathode chamber is referred to as "catholyte" and the electrolyte in the anode chamber is referred to as "anolyte." Frequently, the anolyte and catholyte have different compositions, with the anolyte containing little or no plating additives (e.g., accelerator, suppressor, and/or leveler) and the catholyte containing significant concentrations of such additives. The concentration of metal ions and acids also often differs between the two chambers. An example of an electroplating apparatus containing a separated anode chamber is described in US Patent Nos. 6,527,920, filed November 3, 2000 [attorney docket NO VLP007]; 6,821,407, filed August 27, 2002 [attorney docket NO VLP048], and 8,262,871, filed December 17, 2009 [attorney docket NOVLP308] each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. [0090] In some embodiments, the anode membrane need not include an ion exchange material. In some examples, the membrane is made from a micro-porous material such as polyethersulfone manufactured by Koch Membrane of Wilmington, Massachusetts. This membrane type is most notably applicable for inert anode applications such as tin-silver plating and gold plating, but may also be used for soluble anode applications such as nickel plating.

[0091] In certain embodiments, and as described more fully elsewhere herein, catholyte is injected into a manifold region, referred to hereafter as the "ionically resistive element manifold region", in which electrolyte is fed, accumulates, and then is distributed and passes substantially uniformly through the various noncommunication channels of the ionically resistive element directly towards the wafer surface. In some embodiments where the ionically resistive element includes a plurality of flow regions, the ionically resistive element manifold region may be implemented as a plurality of electrolyte source regions instead of a single electrolyte source region. The electrolyte source regions are physically separated from one another. Each of the plurality of electrolyte source regions may deliver electrolyte to one of the plurality of flow regions on the ionically resistive element. Various pumps, valves, controllers, etc. may be used to control the flow of electrolyte through each electrolyte source region and through each flow region. In this way, flow through the different flow regions of the ionically resistive element can be independently controlled. In these or other embodiments, independent control of electrolyte delivery in two or more regions of the apparatus may be achieved by using an electrolyte jet that delivers electrolyte from a jet manifold toward the substrate at a particular location on the substrate. Control over the flow through the electrolyte jet may be independent from control over the flow through other regions or components of the apparatus, e.g., through the channels in the ionically resistive element or through the side inlet to the cross flow manifold. In another similar embodiment, an electrolyte jet is provided, but it is fed from another manifold in the apparatus such as the cross flow injection manifold (as shown in FIG. 32) or the ionically resistive element manifold. In these cases, the electrolyte jet flow will be dependent on the flow through the manifold that feeds the electrolyte jet. [0092] In the following discussion, when referring to top and bottom features (or similar terms such as upper and lower features, etc.) or elements of the disclosed embodiments, the terms top and bottom are simply used for convenience and represent only a single frame of reference or implementation of the disclosed embodiments. Other configurations are possible, such as those in which the top and bottom components are reversed with respect to gravity and/or the top and bottom components become the left and right or right and left components.

[0093] While some aspects described herein may be employed in various types of plating apparatus, for simplicity and clarity, most of the examples will concern wafer- face-down, "fountain" plating apparatus. In such apparatus, the work piece to plated (typically a semiconductor wafer in the examples presented herein) generally has a substantially horizontal orientation (which may in some cases vary by a few degrees from true horizontal for some part of, or during the entire plating process) and may be powered to rotate during plating, yielding a generally vertically upward electrolyte convection pattern. Integration of the impinging flow mass from the center to the edge of the wafer, as well as the inherent higher angular velocity of a rotating wafer at its edge relative to its center, creates a radially increasing sheering (wafer parallel) flow velocity. One example of a member of the fountain plating class of cells/apparatus is the Sabre® Electroplating System produced by and available from Novellus Systems, Inc. of San Jose, CA. Additionally, fountain electroplating systems are described in, e.g., US Patent Nos. 6,800, 187, filed August 10, 2001 [attorney docket NO VLP020] and 8,308,931, filed November 7, 2008 [attorney docket NOVLP299], which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0094] The substrate to be plated is generally planar or substantially planar. As used herein, a substrate having features such as trenches, vias, photoresist patterns and the like is considered to be substantially planar. Often these features are on the microscopic scale, though this is not necessarily always the case. In many

embodiments, one or more portions of the surface of the substrate may be masked from exposure to the electrolyte. [0095] The following description of FIGS. 1A and IB provides a general non- limiting context to assist in understanding the apparatus and methods described herein. FIG. 1 A provides a perspective view of a wafer holding and positioning apparatus 100 for electrochemically treating semiconductor wafers. Apparatus 100 includes wafer engaging components (sometimes referred to herein as "clamshell" components). The actual clamshell includes a cup 102 and a cone 103 that enables pressure to be applied between the wafer and the seal, thereby securing the wafer in the cup.

[0096] Cup 102 is supported by struts 104, which are connected to a top plate 105. This assembly (102-105), collectively assembly 101, is driven by a motor 107, via a spindle 106. Motor 107 is attached to a mounting bracket 109. Spindle 106 transmits torque to a wafer (not shown in this figure) to allow rotation during plating. An air cylinder (not shown) within spindle 106 also provides vertical force between the cup and cone 103 to create a seal between the wafer and a sealing member (lipseal) housed within the cup. For the purposes of this discussion, the assembly including components 102-109 is collectively referred to as a wafer holder 111. Note however, that the concept of a "wafer holder" extends generally to various combinations and sub-combinations of components that engage a wafer and allow its movement and positioning.

[0097] A tilting assembly including a first plate 115, that is slidably connected to a second plate 117, is connected to mounting bracket 109. A drive cylinder 113 is connected both to plate 115 and plate 117 at pivot joints 119 and 121, respectively. Thus, drive cylinder 113 provides force for sliding plate 115 (and thus wafer holder 111) across plate 117. The distal end of wafer holder 111 (i.e. mounting bracket 109) is moved along an arced path (not shown) which defines the contact region between plates 115 and 117, and thus the proximal end of wafer holder 111 (i.e. cup and cone assembly) is tilted upon a virtual pivot. This allows for angled entry of a wafer into a plating bath.

[0098] The entire apparatus 100 is lifted vertically either up or down to immerse the proximal end of wafer holder 111 into a plating solution via another actuator (not shown). Thus, a two-component positioning mechanism provides both vertical movement along a trajectory perpendicular to an electrolyte and a tilting movement allowing deviation from a horizontal orientation (parallel to electrolyte surface) for the wafer (angled-wafer immersion capability). A more detailed description of the movement capabilities and associated hardware of apparatus 100 is described in US Patent 6,551,487 filed May 31, 2001 and issued April 22, 2003 [attorney docket NOVLP022], which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

[0099] Note that apparatus 100 is typically used with a particular plating cell having a plating chamber which houses an anode (e.g., a copper anode or a non-metal inert anode) and electrolyte. The plating cell may also include plumbing or plumbing connections for circulating electrolyte through the plating cell - and against the work piece being plated. It may also include membranes or other separators designed to maintain different electrolyte chemistries in an anode compartment and a cathode compartment. In one embodiment, one membrane is employed to define an anode chamber, which contains electrolyte that is substantially free of suppressors, accelerators, or other organic plating additives, or in another embodiment, where the inorganic plating composition of the anolyte and catholyte are substantially different. Means of transferring anolyte to the catholyte or to the main plating bath by physical means (e.g. direct pumping including values, or an overflow trough) may optionally also be supplied.

[0100] The following description provides more detail of the cup and cone assembly of the clamshell. FIG. IB depicts a portion, 101, of assembly 100, including cone 103 and cup 102 in cross-section format. Note that this figure is not meant to be a true depiction of a cup and cone product assembly, but rather a stylized depiction for discussion purposes. Cup 102 is supported by top plate 105 via struts 104, which are attached via screws 108. Generally, cup 102 provides a support upon which wafer 145 rests. It includes an opening through which electrolyte from a plating cell can contact the wafer. Note that wafer 145 has a front side 142, which is where plating occurs. The periphery of wafer 145 rests on the cup 102. The cone 103 presses down on the back side of the wafer to hold it in place during plating.

[0101] To load a wafer into 101, cone 103 is lifted from its depicted position via spindle 106 until cone 103 touches top plate 105. From this position, a gap is created between the cup and the cone into which wafer 145 can be inserted, and thus loaded into the cup. Then cone 103 is lowered to engage the wafer against the periphery of cup 102 as depicted, and mate to a set of electrical contacts (not shown in IB) radially beyond the lip seal 143 along the wafer's outer periphery. [0102] Spindle 106 transmits both vertical force for causing cone 103 to engage a wafer 145 and torque for rotating assembly 101. These transmitted forces are indicated by the arrows in FIG. IB. Note that wafer plating typically occurs while the wafer is rotating (as indicated by the dashed arrows at the top of FIG. IB). [0103] Cup 102 has a compressible lip seal 143, which forms a fluid-tight seal when cone 103 engages wafer 145. The vertical force from the cone and wafer compresses lip seal 143 to form the fluid tight seal. The lip seal prevents electrolyte from contacting the backside of wafer 145 (where it could introduce contaminating species such as copper or tin ions directly into silicon) and from contacting sensitive components of apparatus 101. There may also be seals located between the interface of the cup and the wafer which form fluid-tight seals to further protect the backside of wafer 145 (not shown).

[0104] Cone 103 also includes a seal 149. As shown, seal 149 is located near the edge of cone 103 and an upper region of the cup when engaged. This also protects the backside of wafer 145 from any electrolyte that might enter the clamshell from above the cup. Seal 149 may be affixed to the cone or the cup, and may be a single seal or a multi-component seal.

[0105] Upon initiation of plating, cone 103 is raised above cup 102 and wafer 145 is introduced to assembly 102. When the wafer is initially introduced into cup 102 - typically by a robot arm - its front side, 142, rests lightly on lip seal 143. During plating the assembly 101 rotates in order to aid in achieving uniform plating. In subsequent figures, assembly 101 is depicted in a more simplistic format and in relation to components for controlling the hydrodynamics of electrolyte at the wafer plating surface 142 during plating. Thus, an overview of mass transfer and fluid shear at the work piece follows.

[0106] As depicted in FIG. 1C, a plating apparatus 150 includes a plating cell 155 which houses anode 160. In this example, electrolyte 175 is flowed into cell 155 centrally through an opening in anode 160, and the electrolyte passes through an ionically resistive element 170 having vertically oriented (non-intersecting) through holes through which electrolyte flows and then impinges on wafer 145, which is held in, positioned and moved by, wafer holder 101. Channeled ionically resistive elements such as 170 provide uniform impinging flow upon the wafer plating surface. In accordance with certain embodiments described herein, apparatus utilizing such ionically resistive elements are configured and/or operated in a manner that facilitates high rate and high uniformity plating across the face of the wafer, including plating under high deposition rate regimes such as for WLP and TSV applications. Any or all of the various embodiments described can be implemented in the context of

Damascene as well as TSV and WLP applications.

[0107] FIGS. 1D-1G relate to certain techniques that may be used to encourage cross flow across the face of a substrate being plated. Various techniques described in relation to these figures present alternative strategies for encouraging cross flow. As such, certain elements described in these figures are optional, and are not present in all embodiments.

[0108] In some embodiments, electrolyte flow ports are configured to aid transverse flow, alone or in combination with a flow shaping plate and a flow diverter as described herein. Various embodiments are described below in relation to a combination with a flow shaping plate and a flow diverter, but the embodiments are not so limited. Note that in certain embodiments it is believed that the magnitude of the electrolyte flow vectors across the wafer surface are larger proximate the vent or gap and progressively smaller across the wafer surface, being smallest at the interior of the pseudo chamber furthest from the vent or gap. As depicted in FIG. ID, by using appropriately configured electrolyte flow ports, the magnitude of these transverse flow vectors is more uniform across the wafer surface.

[0109] Some embodiments include electrolyte inlet flow ports configured for transverse flow enhancement in conjunction with flow shaping plate and flow diverter assemblies. FIG. IE depicts a cross-section of components of a plating apparatus, 725, for plating copper onto a wafer, 145, which is held, positioned and rotated by wafer holder 101. Apparatus 725 includes a plating cell, 155, which is dual chamber cell, having an anode chamber with a copper anode, 160, and anolyte. The anode chamber and cathode chamber are separated by a cationic membrane 740 which is supported by a support member 735. Plating apparatus 725 includes a flow shaping plate, 410, as described herein. A flow diverter, 325, is on top of flow shaping plate 410, and aides in creating transverse shear flow as described herein. Catholyte is introduced into the cathode chamber (above membrane 740) via flow ports 710. From flow ports 710, catholyte passes through flow plate 410 as described herein and produces impinging flow onto the plating surface of wafer 145. In addition to catholyte flow ports 710, an additional flow port, 710a, introduces catholyte at its exit at a position distal to the vent or gap of flow diverter 325. In this example, flow port 710a's exit is formed as a channel in flow shaping plate 410. The functional result is that catholyte flow is introduced directly into the pseudo chamber formed between the flow plate and the wafer plating surface in order to enhance transverse flow across the wafer surface and thereby normalize the flow vectors across the wafer (and flow plate 410).

[0110] FIG. IF depicts a flow diagram depicting the flow port 710a (from FIG. IE). As seen in FIG. IF, flow port 710a's exit spans 90 degrees of the inner circumference of flow diverter 750. One of ordinary skill in the art would appreciate that the dimensions, configuration and location of port 710a may vary without escaping the scope of the disclosed embodiments. One of skill in the art would also appreciate that equivalent configurations would include having the catholyte exit from a port or channel in flow diverter 325 and/or in combination with a channel such as depicted in FIG. IE (in flow plate 410). Other embodiments include one or more ports in the (lower) side wall of a flow diverter, i.e. that side wall nearest the flow shaping plate top surface, where the one or more ports are located in a portion of the flow diverter opposite the vent or gap. FIG. 1G depicts a flow diverter, 750, assembled with a flow shaping plate 410, where flow diverter 750 has catholyte flow ports, 710b, that supply electrolyte from the flow diverter opposite the gap of the flow diverter. Flow ports such as 710a and 710b may supply electrolyte at any angle relative to the wafer plating surface or the flow shaping plate top surface. The one or more flow ports can deliver impinging flow to the wafer surface and/or transverse (shear) flow.

[0111] In one embodiment, for example as described in relation to FIGS. 1E-1G, a flow shaping plate as described herein is used in conjunction with a flow diverter, where a flow port configured for enhanced transverse flow (as described herein) is also used with the flow plate/flow diverter assembly. In one embodiment the flow shaping plate has non-uniform hole distribution, in one embodiment, a spiral hole pattern.

Terminology and Flow Paths [0112] Numerous figures are provided to further illustrate and explain the embodiments disclosed herein. The figures include, among other things, various drawings of the structural elements and flow paths associated with a disclosed electroplating apparatus. These elements are given certain names/reference numbers, which are used consistently in describing FIGS. 2 through 22A-22B. [0113] The following embodiments assume, for the most part, that electroplating apparatus includes a separate anode chamber. The described features are contained in a cathode chamber, which includes a membrane frame 274 and membrane 202 that separate the anode chamber from the cathode chamber. Any number of possible anode and anode chamber configurations may be employed. In the following embodiments, the catholyte contained in the cathode chamber is largely located either in a cross flow manifold 226 or in the ionically resistive element manifold 208 or in channels 258 and 262 for delivering catholyte to these two separate manifolds.

[0114] While many of the figures herein illustrate the ionically resistive element manifold 208 as a single electrolyte source region, it is understood that in various embodiments the ionically resistive element manifold 208 is implemented as a plurality of electrolyte source regions. In cases where the ionically resistive element includes a plurality of flow regions, each of the electrolyte source regions delivers electrolyte to one of the plurality of flow regions on the ionically resistive element. This configuration allows for independent control of the electrolyte delivery to each flow region, which allows the hydrodynamic conditions within the plating cell to be closely tailored for a particular application. Embodiments where a plurality of flow regions and electrolyte source regions are used are further discussed below, for example in relation to FIGS. 31 A-L. Alternatively or in addition, control over the hydrodynamic conditions can be improved by including one or more electrolyte jet as described herein. The electrolyte jet delivers electrolyte toward the substrate (at a normal or non-normal angle) near the periphery of the substrate and/or at another radial location on the substrate to enhance mass transfer as desired. FIGS. 35A-35E depict the flow out of various electrolyte jets according to certain embodiments. In some embodiments, the electrolyte jet may be implemented as part of across flow confinement ring, a topside insert, or another component that is positioned, at least partially, below the substrate holder. In some cases, the ionically resistive element may be configured to include ionically resistive element jets. Various configurations are possible.

[0115] Much of the focus in the following description is on controlling the catholyte in the cross flow manifold 226. The catholyte enters the cross flow manifold 226 through two separate entry points: (1) the channels in the ionically resistive element 206 and (2) cross flow initiating structure 250. The catholyte arriving in the cross flow manifold 226 via the channels in the ionically resistive element 206 is directed toward the face of the work piece, typically in a substantially perpendicular direction. Such channel delivered catholyte may form small jets that impinge on the face of the work piece, which is typically rotating slowly (e.g., between about 1 to 30 rpm) with respect to the ionically resistive element. In cases where the ionically resistive element 206 includes a plurality of flow regions fed by a plurality of electrolyte source regions below the ionically resistive element 206, the impinging flow from the jets can be controlled in a non-uniform manner, as described below. The non-uniformity may be radial and/or azimuthal. Where the flow is delivered in a radially non-uniform manner, different flow rates are established through the ionically resistive element at different radial positions. In such cases, the average flow conditions at the edge of the substrate can be different from the average flow conditions near the center of the substrate, for instance. Various examples are described in relation to FIGS. 31 A- 3 ID, for instance. Where the flow is delivered in an azimuthally non-uniform manner, different flow rates are established through the ionically resistive element at different azimuthal positions. Rotation of the substrate in such embodiments results in exposure of each portion of the substrate to differing hydrodynamic conditions (e.g., higher flow and lower flow) over time. Such embodiments are further discussed below, for example in relation to FIGS. 31G-31L, for instance. [0116] In cases where an edge jet is included, an additional impinging flow (or at least partially impinging flow) can be provided to establish jets near the periphery of the substrate, as described below. Similarly, in cases where an inner jet is included, an additional impinging flow (or at least partially impinging flow) can be provided to establish jets at a non-peripheral region of the substrate, as described below. The catholyte arriving in the cross flow manifold 226 via the cross flow initiating structure 250 is, in contrast, directed substantially parallel to the face of the work piece.

[0117] As indicated in the discussion above, an "ionically resistive element" 206 (also referred to as a "channeled ionically resistive element' or "CIRP" or similar name) is positioned between the working electrode (the wafer or substrate) and the counter electrode (the anode) during plating, in order to shape the electric field and control electrolyte flow characteristics. Various figures herein show the relative position of the ionically resistive element 206 with respect to other structural features of the disclosed apparatus. One example of such an ionically resistive element 206 is described in US Patent No. 8,308,931, filed November 7, 2008 [attorney docket

NOVLP299], which was previously incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The ionically resistive element described therein is suitable to improve radial plating uniformity on wafer surfaces such as those containing relatively low conductivity or those containing very thin resistive seed layers. Further aspects of certain

embodiments of the channeled element are described below.

[0118] A "membrane frame" 274 (sometimes referred to as an anode membrane frame in other documents) is a structural element employed in some embodiments to support a membrane 202 that separates an anode chamber from a cathode chamber. It may have other features relevant to certain embodiments disclosed herein.

Particularly, with reference to the embodiments of the figures, it may include flow channels 258 and 262 for delivering catholyte toward a cross flow manifold 226 and showerhead 242 configured to deliver cross flowing catholyte to the cross flow manifold 226. The membrane frame 274 may also contain a cell weir wall 282, which is useful in determining and regulating the uppermost level of the catholyte. Various figures herein depict the membrane frame 274 in the context of other structural features associated with the disclosed cross flow apparatus. [0119] Turning to FIG. 2, the membrane frame 274 is a rigid structural member for holding a membrane 202 that is typically an ion exchange membrane responsible for separating an anode chamber from a cathode chamber. As explained, the anode chamber may contain electrolyte of a first composition while the cathode chamber contains electrolyte of a second composition. Relatedly, the catholyte can be provided at two or more different temperatures and/or compositions in cases where (a) the ionically resistive element includes a plurality of flow regions fed by a plurality of electrolyte source regions, and/or (b) an electrolyte jet delivers electrolyte from a jet manifold. Each electrolyte source region or electrolyte jet can be provided with a particular temperature and/or composition of catholyte. The result is that different regions of the substrate can be exposed to different instantaneous and/or average temperatures and/or compositions of electrolyte during plating (though it is understood that these compositions mix with one another to a degree after combining in the cross flow manifold 226). Higher temperature electrolyte has greater diffusivity and promotes higher surface kinetics compared to lower temperature electrolyte. As such, in some embodiments higher temperature electrolyte may be delivered to enhance the hydrodynamic conditions in certain areas relative to other areas where lower temperature electrolyte is used.

[0120] In certain cases where the ionically resistive element includes a plurality of flow regions (not shown), the membrane frame may be used to define, at least partially, the plurality of electrolyte source regions that feed the different flow regions. For instance, the membrane frame may include walls that project upward (e.g., toward the substrate) to separate adjacent electrolyte source regions from one another. In these or other cases, the ionically resistive element itself may include walls that project downward (e.g., away from the substrate) to define, at least partially, the various electrolyte source regions that feed the different flow regions. In some cases, a separate element (not shown, but separate from ionically resistive element 206 and membrane frame 274) may be provided directly below the ionically resistive element to separate adjacent electrolyte source regions. Generally, any elements that are upstream of the substrate may be used to separate the catholyte flow into separate flows that feed the individual electrolyte source regions. [0121] Returning to FIG. 2, the membrane frame 274 may also include a plurality of fluidic adjustment rods 270 (sometimes referred to as flow constricting elements) which may be used to help control fluid delivery to the ionically resistive element 206, or to any other portion of the apparatus (e.g., in one example, such fluidic adjustment rods may be provided in the flow paths feeding the electrolyte source regions and/or in the flow paths feeding the electrolyte jets (if any)). The membrane frame 274 defines the bottom-most portion of the cathode chamber and the uppermost portion of the anode chamber. The described components are all located on the work piece side of an electrochemical plating cell above the anode chamber and the anode chamber membrane 202. They can all be viewed as being part of a cathode chamber. It should be understood, however, that certain implementations of a cross flow injection apparatus do not employ a separated anode chamber, and hence a membrane frame 274 is not essential.

[0122] Located generally between the work piece and the membrane frame 274 is the ionically resistive element 206, as well as a cross flow ring gasket 238 and wafer cross flow confinement ring 210, which may each be affixed to the ionically resistive element 206. More specifically, the cross flow ring gasket 238 may be positioned directly atop the ionically resistive element 206, and the wafer cross flow confinement ring 210 may be positioned over the cross flow ring gasket 238 and affixed to a top surface of the ionically resistive element 206, effectively sandwiching the gasket 238. Various figures herein show the cross flow confinement ring 210 arranged with respect to the ionically resistive element 206.

[0123] The upper most relevant structural feature of the present disclosure, as shown in FIG. 2, is a work piece or wafer holder. In certain embodiments, the work piece holder may be a cup 254, which is commonly used in cone and cup clamshell type designs such as the design embodied in Novellus Systems' Sabre® electroplating tool mentioned above. FIGS. 2 and 8A-8B, for example, show the relative orientation of the cup 254 with respect to other elements of the apparatus.

[0124] In various embodiments, an edge flow element (not shown in FIG. 2) may be provided. The edge flow element may be provided at a location that is generally above and/or within an ionically resistive element 206, and under the cup 254. The edge flow element is further described below, and may be omitted in various implementations.

[0125] In certain embodiments, an electrolyte jet (not shown in FIG. 2) may be provided. The electrolyte jet delivers electrolyte toward the substrate (e.g., at a normal or non-normal angle) at a particular location on the substrate. For instance, in cases where the electrolyte jet delivers electrolyte near the periphery of the substrate (e.g., as shown in FIGS. 32A, 32B, 33A-33E, and 35F ) , it may be referred to as an edge jet. Similarly, in cases where the electrolyte jet delivers electrolyte at a non- peripheral region of the substrate, it may be referred to as an inner jet. The electrolyte jet may also be configured to deliver electrolyte at both peripheral and non-peripheral regions of the substrate, for example as shown in FIGS. 35G, 36A, and 36B. The electrolyte jet is separate/distinct from any jets that are formed by channels in the ionically resistive element, though both of these elements may deliver electrolyte within the cross flow manifold. In some cases an ionically resistive element may itself be configured to include ionically resistive element jets (which are distinct from the channels in the ionically resistive element), as described in relation to FIGS. 37A- 37D. In various implementations, the electrolyte jet may be fed electrolyte from a jet manifold (e.g., an edge jet manifold, inner jet manifold, a combination of individual jet manifolds, etc.), or from a cross flow manifold, or from an ionically resistive element manifold.

[0126] FIG. 3 A shows a close-up cross sectional view of a cross flow inlet side according to an embodiment disclosed herein. FIG. 3B shows a close-up cross sectional view of the cross flow outlet side according to an embodiment herein. FIG. 4 shows a cross-sectional view of a plating apparatus showing both the inlet and outlet sides, in accordance with certain embodiments herein. During a plating process, catholyte fills and occupies the region between the top of the membrane 202 on the membrane frame 274 and the membrane frame weir wall 282. This catholyte region can be subdivided into three sub-regions: 1) an ionically resistive element manifold region 208 below the ionically resistive element 206 and (for designs employing an anode chamber cationic membrane) above the separated-anode-chambers cationic- membrane 202 (the ionically resistive element manifold is also sometimes referred to as a lower manifold region 208, and it may be implemented as a single electrolyte source region or as a series of separate electrolyte source regions as described below with reference to FIGS. 31 A-F), 2) the cross flow manifold region 226, between the wafer and the upper surface of the ionically resistive element 206, and 3) an upper cell region or "electrolyte containment region", outside of the clamshell/cup 254 and inside the cell weir wall 282 (which is a physical part of the membrane frame 274). When the wafer is not immersed and the clamshell/cup 254 is not in the down position, the second region and third region are combined into one region.

[0127] Region (2) above, between the top of the ionically resistive element 206 and the bottom of the workpiece when installed in the workpiece holder 254 contains catholyte and is referred to as the "cross flow manifold" 226. In some embodiments, catholyte enters the cathode chamber via a single inlet port. In other embodiments, catholyte enters the cathode chamber through one or more ports located elsewhere in the plating cell. In some cases, there is a single inlet for the bath of the cell, peripheral to the anode chamber and cut out of the anode chamber cell walls. This inlet connects to a central catholyte inlet manifold at the base of the cell and anode chamber. In certain disclosed embodiments, that main catholyte manifold chamber feeds a plurality of catholyte chamber inlet holes (e.g., 12 catholyte chamber inlet holes). In various cases, these catholyte chamber inlet holes are divided into two groups: one group which feeds catholyte to a cross flow injection manifold 222, and a second group which feeds catholyte to the ionically resistive element manifold 208. FIG. 3B shows a cross section of a single inlet hole feeding the ionically resistive element manifold 208 through channel 262. The dotted line indicates the path of fluid flow.

[0128] The separation of catholyte into two or more different flow paths or streams occurs at the base of the cell in the central catholyte inlet manifold (not shown). That manifold may be fed by a single pipe connected to the base of the cell. In one example, from the main catholyte manifold, the flow of catholyte separates into two streams: 6 of the 12 feeder holes, located on one side of the cell, lead to source the ionically resistive element manifold 208 and eventually supply the impinging catholyte flow through the ionically resistive element's various

microchannels. The other 6 holes also feed from the central catholyte inlet manifold, but then lead to the cross flow injection manifold 222, which then feeds the cross flow shower head's 242 distribution holes 246 (which may number more than 100). In cases where (a) the ionically resistive element includes a plurality of flow regions and the ionically resistive element manifold is implemented as a plurality of electrolyte source regions, and/or (b) an electrolyte jet is provided, the main catholyte manifold may be separated into more than two streams. For instance, a first stream may lead to a first electrolyte source region under the ionically resistive element, a second stream may lead to a second electrolyte source region under the ionically resistive element, and a third stream may lead to the cross flow injection manifold. In another example, a first stream leads to the ionically resistive element manifold, a second stream leads to the cross flow manifold, and a third stream leads to a jet manifold. In another example, two or more main catholyte manifolds may be provided, for example where it is desired to provide catholytes having different temperatures and/or compositions at different regions of the apparatus (e.g., (1) catholyte of a first temperature and/or first composition being provided to the cross flow manifold and catholyte of a second temperature and/or second composition being provided to the ionically resistive element manifold, or (2) catholyte of a first temperature and/or first composition being provided to a first electrolyte source region below the ionically resistive element and catholyte of a second temperature and/or second composition being provided to a second electrolyte source region below the ionically resistive element, or (3) catholyte of a first temperature and/or first composition provided to the cross flow manifold/ionically resistive element manifold and catholyte of a second temperature and/or second composition provided to a jet manifold, etc.). In a similar example, a single main catholyte manifold may be provided, but a dosing system, heater, or cooler may be provided to alter the composition and/or temperature of one or more of the electrolyte streams after the streams leave the main catholyte manifold.

[0129] After leaving the cross flow shower head holes 246, the catholyte' s flow direction changes from (a) normal to the wafer to (b) parallel to the wafer. This change in flow occurs as the flow impinges upon and is confined by a surface in the inlet cavity 250 formed (at least partially) by the cross flow confinement ring 210. Finally, upon entering the cross flow manifold region 226, the two catholyte flows, initially separated at the base of the cell in the central catholyte inlet manifold, are rejoined. [0130] In various embodiments shown in the figures, a fraction of the catholyte entering the cathode chamber is provided directly to the ionically resistive element manifold 208 (which may be implemented as a plurality of electrolyte source regions, the flow through which may be independently controllable) and a portion is provided directly to the cross flow injection manifold 222. At least some, and often but not always all of the catholyte delivered to the ionically resistive element manifold 208 and then to the ionically resistive element lower surface passes through the various microchannels in the plate 206 and reaches the cross flow manifold 226. The catholyte entering the cross flow manifold 226 through the channels in the ionically resistive element 206 enters the cross flow manifold as substantially vertically directed jets (in some embodiments the channels are made at an angle, so they are not perfectly normal to the surface of the wafer, e.g., the angle of the jet may be up to about 45 degrees with respect to the wafer surface normal).

[0131] In cases where the ionically resistive element includes a plurality of flow regions that are fed by a plurality of electrolyte source regions (e.g., as described in relation to FIGS. 31 A- 3 IF), the impinging flow through each flow region of the ionically resistive element can be independently controlled. For instance, the flow through a first flow region of the ionically resistive element may differ from the flow through a second region of the ionically resistive element in terms of the volumetric flow rate through individual channels, the linear flow rate through individual channels, the length and/or diameter of the channels, the tilt/angle of the channels, the composition of electrolyte, the temperature of electrolyte, etc. Similarly, in cases where an electrolyte jet is provided, the flow through the electrolyte jet may differ from the flow through the ionically resistive element in terms of any of the listed characteristics.

[0132] The portion of the catholyte that enters the cross flow injection manifold 222 is delivered directly to the cross flow manifold 226 where it enters as a horizontally oriented cross flow below the wafer. On its way to the cross flow manifold 226, the cross flowing catholyte passes through the cross flow injection manifold 222 and the cross flow shower head plate 242 (which, e.g., contains about 139 distributed holes 246 having a diameter of about 0.048"), and is then redirected from a vertically upwards flow to a flow parallel to the wafer surface by the actions/geometry of the cross-flow-confinement-ring's 210 entrance cavity 250.

[0133] The absolute angles of the cross flow and the channels/jets need not be exactly horizontal or exactly vertical or even oriented at exactly 90° with one another. In general, however, the cross flow of catholyte in the cross flow manifold 226 is generally along the direction of the work piece surface and the direction of the jets of catholyte emanating from the top surface of the ionically resistive element 206 generally flow towards/perpendicular to the surface of the work piece. In one embodiment where the ionically resistive element includes a plurality of flow regions that are fed by a plurality of electrolyte source regions (e.g., as described in relation to FIGS. 31 A-3 IF), the angle of the channels/jets varies between the different flow regions of the ionically resistive element. For instance, the channels/jets in a first flow region may be substantially vertical while the channels/jets in a second flow region may be tilted from vertical (e.g., in some cases toward the center of the substrate or away from the center of the substrate).

[0134] In some embodiments, the angle, diameter, and/or intensity of flow through a channel in a given flow region of the ionically resistive element may be non-uniform. For instance, as shown in FIG. 31H, a first flow region 3128 of the ionically resistive element may span from the center of the substrate to the periphery of the substrate. A second flow region 3129 may also be provided. A first electrolyte source region may feed electrolyte to the first flow region 3128, while a second electrolyte source region may feed the second flow region 3129. Within the first flow region 3128 (or any other flow region described herein), the channels may be relatively larger near the center of the ionically resistive element compared to the edge of the ionically resistive element (or vice versa). Such radially-based differences in channel size/orientation may be provided to accommodate a particular center-to- edge photoresist thickness profile, as described in relation to FIGS. 34A and 34B. In another embodiment where an electrolyte jet is provided, the channels forming the jets in the electrolyte jet may differ from the channels forming the jets in the ionically resistive element. In one example, the channels/jets in the ionically resistive element may be substantially vertical while the channels/jets in the electrolyte jet are tilted. [0135] As mentioned, the catholyte entering the cathode chamber is divided between (i) catholyte that flows from the ionically resistive element manifold 208 (which may be implemented as a plurality of separated electrolyte source regions), through the channels in the ionically resistive element 206 and then into the cross flow manifold 226 and (ii) catholyte that flows into the cross flow injection manifold 222, through the holes 246 in the showerhead 242, and then into the cross flow manifold 226. In addition, in certain implementations additional catholyte is provided to the substrate via an electrolyte jet (e.g., an edge jet and/or inner jet) that delivers catholyte toward the substrate at a particular location on the substrate. The flow directly entering from the cross flow injection manifold region 222 may enter via the cross flow confinement ring entrance ports, sometimes referred to as cross flow side inlets 250, and emanate parallel to the wafer and from one side of the cell. In contrast, the jets of fluid entering the cross flow manifold region 226 via the microchannels of the ionically resistive element 206 enter from below the wafer and below the cross flow manifold 226, and the jetting fluid is diverted (redirected) within the cross flow manifold 226 to flow parallel to the wafer and towards the cross flow confinement ring exit port 234, sometimes also referred to as the cross flow outlet or outlet.

[0136] In some embodiments, the fluid entering the cathode chamber is directed into multiple channels 258 and 262 distributed around the periphery of the cathode chamber portion of the electroplating cell chamber (often a peripheral wall). In a specific embodiment, there are 12 such channels contained in the wall of the cathode chamber.

[0137] The channels in the cathode chamber walls may connect to corresponding "cross flow feed channels" and/or " jet feed channels" in the membrane frame. Some of these feed channels 262 deliver catholyte directly to the ionically resistive element manifold 208 (or to a specific electrolyte source region therein when the ionically resistive element manifold is implemented as a plurality of electrolyte source regions) or to a manifold that feeds an electrolyte jet. As mentioned, the catholyte provided to the ionically resistive element manifold subsequently passes through the small vertically oriented channels of the ionically resistive element 206 and enters the cross flow manifold 226 as jets of catholyte. In cases where the ionically resistive element manifold is implemented as a plurality of electrolyte source regions, each electrolyte source region delivers catholyte to a particular flow region of the ionically resistive element.

[0138] As mentioned, in an embodiment depicted in the figures, catholyte feeds the ionically resistive element manifold 208 through 6 of the 12 catholyte feeder lines/tubes. Those 6 main tubes or lines 262 feeding the ionically resistive element manifold 208 reside below the cross flow confinement ring's exit cavity 234 (where the fluid passes out of the cross flow manifold region 226 below the wafer), and opposite all the cross flow manifold components (cross flow injection manifold 222, showerhead 242, and confinement ring entrance cavity 250).

[0139] As depicted in various figures, some cross flow feed channels 258 in the membrane frame lead directly to the cross flow injection manifold 222 (e.g., 6 of 12). These cross flow feed channels 258 start at the base of the anode chamber of the cell and then pass through matching channels of the membrane frame 274 and then connect with corresponding cross flow feed channels 258 on the lower portion of the ionically resistive element 206. See FIG. 3 A, for example.

[0140] In a specific embodiment, there are six separate feed channels 258 for delivering catholyte directly to the cross flow injection manifold 222 and then to the cross flow manifold 226. In order to effect cross flow in the cross flow manifold 226, these channels 258 exit into the cross flow manifold 226 in an azimuthally nonuniform manner. Specifically, they enter the cross flow manifold 226 at a particular side or azimuthal region of the cross flow manifold 226. In a specific embodiment depicted in FIG. 3A, the fluid paths 258 for directly delivering catholyte to the cross flow injection manifold 222 pass through four separate elements before reaching the cross flow injection manifold 222: (1) dedicated channels in the cell's anode chamber wall, (2) dedicated channels in the membrane frame 274, (3) dedicated channels the ionically resistive element 206 (i.e., not the 1-D channels used for delivering catholyte from the ionically resistive element manifold 208 to the cross flow manifold 226), and finally, (4) fluid paths in the wafer cross flow confinement ring 210. [0141] As mentioned, the portions of the flow paths passing through the membrane frame 274 and feeding the cross flow injection manifold 222 are referred to as cross flow feed channels 258 in the membrane frame. The portions of the flow paths passing through the microchannels in the ionically resistive element 206 and feeding the ionically resistive element manifold are referred to as cross flow feed channels 262 feeding the ionically resistive element manifold 208, or ionically resistive element manifold feed channels 262. In other words, the term "cross flow feed channel" includes both the catholyte feed channels 258 feeding the cross flow injection manifold 222, the catholyte feed channels 262 feeding the ionically resistive element manifold 208, and the catholyte feed channels (not shown) feeding a jet manifold (if any). One difference between the flows 258 and 262 was noted above: the direction of the flow through the ionically resistive element 206 is initially directed at the wafer and is then turned parallel to the wafer due to the presence of the wafer and the cross flow confinement ring 210, whereas the cross flow portion coming from the cross flow injection manifold 222 and out through the cross flow confinement ring entrance ports 250 starts substantially parallel to the wafer. The flow from the electrolyte jets, if present, can be in any direction but is often at least partially impinging on the substrate. While not wishing to be held to any particular model or theory, this combination and mixing of impinging and parallel flow is believed to facilitate substantially improved flow penetration within a

recessed/embedded feature and thereby improve the mass transfer. [0142] The flow path within the ionically resistive element 206 that does not pass through the plate's microchannels (instead entering the cross flow manifold 226 as flow parallel to the face of the wafer) begins in a vertically upward direction as it passes through the cross flow feed channel 258 in the plate 206, and then enters a cross flow injection manifold 222 formed within the body of the ionically resistive element 206. The cross flow injection manifold 222 is an azimuthal cavity which may be a dug out channel within the plate 206 that can distribute the fluid from the various individual feed channels 258 (e.g., from each of the individual 6 cross flow feed channels) to the various multiple flow distribution holes 246 of the cross flow shower head plate 242. This cross flow injection manifold 222 is located along an angular section of the peripheral or edge region of the ionically resistive element 206. See for example FIGS. 3A and 4-6. In certain embodiments, the cross flow injection manifold 222 forms a C-shaped structure over an angle of about 90 to 180° of the plate's perimeter region. In certain embodiments, the angular extent of the cross flow injection manifold 222 is about 120 to about 170°, and in a more specific embodiment is between about 140 and 150°. In these or other embodiments, the angular extent of the cross flow injection manifold 222 is at least about 90°. In many implementations, the showerhead 242 spans approximately the same angular extent as the cross flow injection manifold 222. Further, the overall inlet structure 250 (which in many cases includes one or more of the cross flow injection manifold 222, the showerhead 242, the showerhead holes 246, and an opening in the cross flow confinement ring) may span these same angular extents.

[0143] In some embodiments, the cross flow in the injection manifold 222 forms a continuous fluidically coupled cavity within the ionically resistive element 206. In this case all of the cross flow feed channels 258 feeding the cross flow injection manifold (e.g., all 6) exit into one continuous and connected cross flow injection manifold chamber. In other embodiments, the cross flow injection manifold 222 and/or the cross flow showerhead 242 are divided into two or more angularly distinct and completely or partially separated segments, as shown in FIG. 5 (which shows 6 separated segments). In some embodiments, the number of angularly separated segments is between about 1-12, or between about 4-6. In a specific embodiment, each of these angularly distinct segments is fluidically coupled to a separate cross flow feed channel 258 disposed in the ionically resistive element 206. Thus, for example, there may be six angularly distinct and separated subregions within the cross flow injection manifold 222. In certain embodiments, each of these distinct subregions of the cross flow injection manifold 222 has the same volume and/or the same angular extent.

[0144] In many cases, catholyte exits the cross flow injection manifold 222 and passes through a cross flow showerhead plate 242 having many angularly separated catholyte outlet ports (holes) 246. See for example FIGS. 2, 3A-3B and 6. In certain embodiments, the cross flow showerhead plate 242 is integrated into the ionically resistive element 206, as shown in FIG. 6 for example. In some embodiments the showerhead plate 242 is glued, bolted, or otherwise affixed to the top of the cross flow injection manifold 222 of the ionically resistive element 206. In certain embodiments, the top surface of the cross flow showerhead 242 is flush with or slightly elevated above a plane or top surface of the ionically resistive element 206. In this manner, catholyte flowing through the cross flow injection manifold 222 may initially travel vertically upward through the showerhead holes 246 and then laterally under the cross flow confinement ring 210 and into the cross flow manifold 226 such that the catholyte enters the cross flow manifold 226 in a direction that is substantially parallel with the top face of the ionically resistive element. In other embodiments, the showerhead 242 may be oriented such that catholyte exiting the showerhead holes 246 is already traveling in a wafer-parallel direction.

[0145] In a specific embodiment, the cross flow showerhead 242 has 139 angularly separated catholyte outlet holes 246. More generally, any number of holes that reasonably establish uniform cross flow within the cross flow manifold 226 may be employed. In certain embodiments, there are between about 50 and about 300 such catholyte outlet holes 246 in the cross flow showerhead 242. In certain embodiments, there are between about 100 and 200 such holes. In certain embodiments, there are between about 120 and 160 such holes. Generally, the size of the individual ports or holes 246 can range from about 0.020" to 0.10", more specifically from about 0.03" to 0.06" in diameter.

[0146] In certain embodiments, these holes 246 are disposed along the entire angular extent of the cross flow showerhead 242 in an angularly uniform manner (i.e. the spacing between the holes 246 is determined by a fixed angle between the cell center and two adjacent holes). See for example FIGS. 3A and 7. In other

embodiments, the holes 246 are distributed along the angular extent in an angularly non-uniform manner. In further embodiments, the angularly non-uniform hole distribution is nevertheless a linearly ("x" direction") uniform distribution. Put another way, in this latter case, the hole distribution is such that the holes are spaced equally far apart if projected onto an axis perpendicular to the direction of cross flow (this axis is the "x" direction). Each hole 246 is positioned at the same radial distance from the cell center, and is spaced the same distance in the "x" direction from adjacent holes.. The net effect of having these angularly non-uniform holes 246 is that the overall cross flow pattern is much more uniform. These two types of arrangements for the cross flow shower head holes 246 are examined further in the Experimental section, below. See FIG. 22B and the associated discussion below. [0147] In certain embodiments, the direction of the catholyte exiting the cross flow showerhead 242 is further controlled by a wafer cross flow confinement ring 210. In certain embodiments, this ring 210 extends over the full circumference of the ionically resistive element 206. In certain embodiments, a cross section of the cross flow confinement ring 210 has an L-shape, as shown in FIGS. 3A and 4. In certain embodiments, the wafer cross flow confinement ring 210 contains a series of flow directing elements such as directional fins 266 in fluidic communication with the outlet holes 246 of the cross flow showerhead 242. More specifically, the directional fins 266 define largely segregated fluid passages under an upper surface of the wafer cross flow confinement ring 210 and between adjacent directional fins 266. In some cases, the purpose of the fins 266 is to redirect and confine flow exiting from the cross flow showerhead holes 246 from an otherwise radially inward direction to a "left to right" flow trajectory (left being the inlet side 250 of the cross flow, right being the outlet side 234). This helps to establish a substantially linear cross flow pattern. The catholyte exiting the holes 246 of the cross flow showerhead 242 is directed by the directional fins 266 along a flow streamline caused by the orientation of the directional fins 266. In certain embodiments, all the directional fins 266 of the wafer cross flow confinement ring 210 are parallel to one another. This parallel arrangement helps to establish a uniform cross flow direction within the cross flow manifold 226. In various embodiments, the directional fins 226 of the wafer cross flow confinement ring 210 are disposed both along the inlet 250 and outlet 234 side of the cross flow manifold 226. This is illustrated in the top view of FIG. 7, for example.

[0148] In some implementations, two or more of the apparatus elements listed herein may be modified and/or combined into a single element. For example, in some implementations the cross flow confinement ring 210, the cross flow inlet 250, the cross flow showerhead 242, the outlet holes 246, an edge jet, an inner jet, and an edge flow element (or some subset of these elements) are provided together in a single unit that may be referred to as a topside insert. The topside insert may be positioned at least partially peripherally outside of the ionically resistive element 206, at about the same horizontal location as the ionically resistive element 206 (though the topside insert may extend below and/or above the ionically resistive element). The topside insert may also define, at least partially, the cross flow injection manifold 222. Examples having a topside insert as described in this section are shown in FIGS. 32A and 32B, for instance. These figures are further described below.

[0149] Returning to the embodiment in FIGS. 2-12B, as indicated, catholyte flowing in the cross flow manifold 226 passes from an inlet region 250 of the wafer cross flow confinement ring 210 to an outlet side 234 of the ring 210, as shown in FIGS. 3B and 4. At the outlet side 234, in certain embodiments, there are multiple directional fins 266 that may be parallel to and may align with the directional fins 266 on the inlet side. The cross flow passes through channels created by the directional fins 266 on the outlet side 234 and then ultimately and directly out of the cross flow manifold 226. The flow then passes into another region of the cathode chamber generally radially outwards and beyond the wafer holder 254 and cross flow confinement ring 210, with fluid collected and temporarily retained by the upper weir wall 282 of the membrane frame before flowing over the weir 282 for collection and recirculation. It should therefore be understood that the figures (e.g., FIGS. 3A, 3B and 4) show only a partial path of the entire circuit of catholyte entering and exiting the cross flow manifold. Note that, in the embodiment depicted in FIGS. 3B and 4, for example, fluid exiting from the cross flow manifold 226 does not pass through small holes or back through channels analogous to the feed channels 258 on the inlet side, but rather passes outward in a generally parallel-to-the wafer direction as it is accumulated in the aforementioned accumulation region.

[0150] FIG. 6 shows a top view of the cross flow manifold 226 depicting an embedded cross flow injection manifold 222 within the ionically resistive element 206, along with the showerhead 242 and 139 outlet holes 246. All six fluidic adjustment rods 270 for the cross flow injection manifold flow are also shown. The cross flow confinement ring 210 is not installed in this depiction, but the outline of the cross flow confinement ring sealing gasket 238, which seals between the cross flow confinement ring 210 and the upper surface of the ionically resistive element 206, is shown. Other elements which are shown in FIG. 6 include the cross flow

confinement ring fasteners 218, membrane frame 274, and screw holes 278 on the anode side of the ionically resistive element 206 (which may be used for a cathodic shielding insert, for example). [0151] In some embodiments, the geometry of the cross flow confinement ring outlet 234 may be tuned in order to further optimize the cross flow pattern. For example, a case in which the cross flow pattern diverges to the edge of the

confinement ring 210 may be corrected by reducing the open area in the outer regions of the cross flow confinement ring outlet 234. In certain embodiments, the outlet manifold 234 may include separated sections or ports, much like the cross flow injection manifold 222. In some embodiments, the number of outlet sections is between about 1-12, or between about 4-6. The ports are azimuthally separated, occupying different (usually adjacent) positions along the outlet manifold 234. The relative flow rates through each of the ports may be independently controlled in some cases. This control may be achieved, for example, by using control rods 270 similar to the control rods described in relation to the inlet flow. In another embodiment, the flow through the different sections of the outlet can be controlled by the geometry of the outlet manifold. For example, an outlet manifold that has less open area near each side edge and more open area near the center would result in a solution flow pattern where more flow exits near the center of the outlet and less flow exits near the edges of the outlet. Other methods of controlling the relative flow rates through the ports in the outlet manifold 234 may be used as well (e.g., pumps, etc.). In many

embodiments, the outlet manifold 234 is positioned such that it is centered at a position azimuthally opposite the position of the inlet 250. In some other cases, one or more outlet manifolds may be positioned at a location that is not azimuthally opposite the position of the inlet. Such outlet(s) may be provided alternatively or in addition to an outlet positioned azimuthally opposite the inlet. The outlet(s) may be configured to produce a particular desired flow pattern over the surface of the substrate, for example.

[0152] As mentioned, bulk catholyte entering the catholyte chamber is directed separately into the cross flow injection manifold 222 and the ionically resistive element manifold 208 (which may be implemented as a plurality of electrolyte source regions in certain cases) through multiple channels 258 and 262, e.g., 12 separate channels. In certain embodiments, the flows through these individual channels 258 and 262 are independently controlled from one another by an appropriate mechanism. In some embodiments, this mechanism involves separate pumps for delivering fluid into the individual channels. In other embodiments, a single pump is used to feed a main catholyte manifold, and various flow restriction elements that are adjustable may be provided in one or more of the channels feeding the flow path provided so as to modulate the relative flows between the various channels 258 and 262, and between the cross flow injection manifold 222 and the ionically resistive element manifold 208 (and/or to the electrolyte source region(s) in the ionically resistive element manifold 208) and/or along the angular periphery of the cell. In various embodiments depicted in the figures, one or more fluidic adjustment rods 270 (sometimes also referred to as flow control elements) are deployed in the channels where independent control is provided. In the depicted embodiments, the fluidic adjustment rod 270 provides an annular space in which catholyte is constricted during its flow toward the cross flow injection manifold 222 or the ionically resistive element manifold 208. In a fully retracted state, the fluidic adjustment rod 270 provides essentially no resistance to flow. In a fully engaged state, the fluidic adjustment rod 270 provides maximal resistance to flow, and in some implementations stops all flow through the channel. In intermediate states or positions, the rod 270 allows intermediate levels of constriction of the flow as fluid flows through a restricted annular space between the channel's inner diameter and the fluid adjustment rod's outer diameter.

[0153] In some embodiments, the adjustment of the fluidic adjustment rods 270 allows the operator or controller of the electroplating cell to favor flow to either the cross flow injection manifold 222 or to the ionically resistive element manifold 208. In cases where the ionically resistive element manifold 208 is implemented as a plurality of electrolyte source regions, the fluidic adjustment rods (or other flow control elements such as pumps, valves, etc.) may be used to independently control the flow of electrolyte to the individual electrolyte source regions. The flow to each electrolyte source region of the ionically resistive element manifold 208 can be independent from the flow to other electrolyte source regions and from the flow to other regions of the electroplating apparatus (e.g., independent of the flow to the cross flow injection manifold, and independent of the flow to the anode chamber). In certain embodiments, independent adjustment of the fluidics adjustment rods 270 in the channels 258 that deliver catholyte directly to the cross flow injection manifold 222 allows the operator or controller to control the azimuthal component of fluid flow into the cross flow manifold 226. The effect of these adjustments are discussed further in the Experimental section below. [0154] FIGS. 8A-8B show cross sectional views of a cross flow injection manifold 222 and corresponding cross flow inlet 250 relative to a plating cup 254. The position of the cross flow inlet 250 is defined, at least in part, by the position of the cross flow confinement ring 210. Specifically, the inlet 250 may be considered to begin where the cross flow confinement ring 210 terminates. Note that in the case of an initial design, seen in FIG. 8 A, the confinement ring 210 termination point (and inlet 250 commencement point) was under the edge of the wafer, whereas in a revised design, seen in FIG. 8B, the termination/commencement point is under the plating cup and further radially outward from the wafer edge, as compared to the initial design. Also, the cross flow injection manifold 222 in the earlier design had a step in the cross flow ring cavity (where the generally leftward arrow begins rising upwards) which potentially formed some unwanted turbulence near that point of fluid entry into the cross flow manifold region 226. In some cases, an edge flow element (not shown) may be present proximate the periphery of the substrate and/or the periphery of the ionically resistive element. The edge flow element may be present proximate the inlet 250 and/or proximate the outlet (not shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B). The edge flow element may be used to direct electrolyte into a corner that forms between the plating face of the substrate and the edge of the cup 254, thereby counteracting an otherwise relatively low cross-flow in this region. [0155] Another element that may be included near the periphery of the substrate is an edge jet. The number of individual jets can be adapted for a particular application. Each jet may be formed as a cavity through which electrolyte flows. In some cases these cavities are relatively small such that the electrolyte passing through the jets can be delivered at a high linear velocity toward the plating face of the substrate. In some embodiments, the cavities are provided as long thin slits, for example as described in relation to FIGS. 35G, 36A, and 36B. The individual jets may be positioned proximate the periphery of the substrate such that they preferentially deliver electrolyte in this region (as compared to near the center of the substrate, for instance). In some cases, the jets may be positioned to expose specific portions of the substrate to flow conditions (e.g., higher flow and lower flow) that vary with time and rotation of the substrate. Any embodiment herein can be modified to include one or more individual edge jets or other kinds of electrolyte jets. [0156] Because the edge jet preferentially delivers electrolyte at the periphery of the substrate, the mass transfer conditions in this region are preferentially enhanced. As such, edge jets may be particularly useful in cases where the features proximate the edge of the substrate do not fill as completely as features proximate the center of the substrate. This phenomenon is common in electroplating semiconductor substrates, and may be a result of edge-thick photoresist that makes plating near the edges of the substrate relatively more challenging than plating near the center of the substrate. This issue is further described in relation to FIGS. 13A, 15, 16B, 28, 30, 34A, and 34B. [0157] In a similar embodiment, a different type of electrolyte jet may be provided. Instead of an edge jet that delivers fluid at a peripheral region of the substrate, an inner jet may be provided to deliver fluid at a non-peripheral region of the substrate. Details described in relation to an edge jet may similarly apply to an inner jet (except for the location where each element delivers electrolyte). In some cases, an electrolyte jet may deliver electrolyte near the substrate at both peripheral and non-peripheral locations. Details described in relation to an edge jet may similarly apply to an electrolyte jet that delivers electrolyte at both peripheral and non-peripheral locations.

[0158] The electrolyte jet may be supplied with electrolyte from various sources such as a cross flow injection manifold, an ionically resistive element manifold, a jet manifold, or a combination of individual manifolds. In one embodiment, the electrolyte jet receives electrolyte from the cross flow injection manifold, as shown in FIGS. 32A and 32B. These figures illustrate a substrate 3201 positioned in a substrate holder 3202 as electrolyte (indicated by the arrows) flows (a) through a cross flow injection manifold 3222, cross flow inlet holes 3242, a cross flow manifold 3226, and out an outlet 3234; (b) through the cross flow injection manifold 3222, an edge jet 3261a or 3261b, the cross flow manifold 3226, and out the outlet 3234; and (c) upwards through channels in an ionically resistive element 3206, through the cross flow manifold 3226, and out the outlet 3234. The edge jet 3261a in FIG. 32A is vertically oriented such that it directs electrolyte toward the substrate in a

substantially vertical (e.g., impinging) manner. By contrast, the edge jet 3261b in FIG. 32B is tilted inwards toward the center of the substrate 3201. In each case, a topside insert 3260a (FIG. 32A) or 3260b (FIG. 32B) is provided. The topside insert 3260a or 3260b serves the purpose of various elements described in relation to FIGS. 2-12B. For example, the topside inserts 3260a and 3260b may be configured to serve as the cross flow confinement ring, the cross flow showerhead/inlet/holes, the directional fins, and the edge flow element. Similarly, as shown in FIGS. 32A and 32B, the topside inserts 3260a and 3260b may define at least a top surface of the cross flow injection manifold 3222.

[0159] In similar embodiments to those shown in FIGS. 32A and 32B, a separate jet manifold (not shown, and sometimes referred to as an edge jet manifold) may be provided to supply electrolyte to the edge jet. In this way, the flow through the edge jet can be controlled independently of the flow through the cross flow injection manifold. The jet manifold may be provided anywhere in the apparatus, provided that appropriate plumbing is provided to deliver the electrolyte from the jet manifold to the electrolyte jet. The jet manifold may be implemented as a series of separate jet manifolds, where each separate jet manifold feeds a different electrolyte jet or set of electrolyte jets. In such cases, the relevant flows through the individual electrolyte jets or sets of electrolyte jets can be independently controlled.

[0160] In another similar embodiment, the edge jets may be supplied with fluid from the ionically resistive element manifold (e.g., under the ionically resistive element 3206), with appropriate plumbing being provided to direct fluid as needed. In other embodiments, an inner jet or other electrolyte jet may be used in place of, or in addition to, the edge jet. The inner jet may receive fluid from an inner jet manifold (also referred to more generally as a jet manifold), or from another of the listed manifolds. [0161] The disclosed apparatus may be configured to perform the methods described herein. A suitable apparatus includes hardware as described and shown herein and one or more controllers having instructions for controlling process operations in accordance with the disclosed embodiments. The apparatus will include one or more controllers for controlling, inter alia, the positioning of the wafer in the cup 254 and cone, the positioning of the wafer with respect to the ionically resistive element 206, the rotation of the wafer, the delivery of catholyte into the cross flow manifold 226, delivery of catholyte into the ionically resistive element manifold 208 (and in some cases, to the individual electrolyte source regions therein), delivery of catholyte into the cross flow injection manifold 222, delivery of catholyte through an edge jet, delivery of catholyte through an inner jet, the resistance/position of the fluidic adjustment rods 270, the delivery of current to the anode and wafer and any other electrodes, the mixing of electrolyte components, the timing of electrolyte delivery, inlet pressure, plating cell pressure, plating cell temperature, wafer temperature, position of an edge flow element, and other parameters of a particular process performed by a process tool.

[0162] A system controller will typically include one or more memory devices and one or more processors configured to execute the instructions so that the apparatus will perform a method in accordance with the disclosed embodiments. The processor may include a central processing unit (CPU) or computer, analog and/or digital input/output connections, stepper motor controller boards, and other like components. Machine-readable media containing instructions for controlling process operations in accordance with the disclosed embodiments may be coupled to the system controller. Instructions for implementing appropriate control operations are executed on the processor. These instructions may be stored on the memory devices associated with the controller or they may be provided over a network. In certain embodiments, the system controller executes system control software.... [0163] System control software may be configured in any suitable way. For example, various process tool component subroutines or control objects may be written to control operation of the process tool components necessary to carry out various process tool processes. System control software may be coded in any suitable computer readable programming language. [0164] In some embodiments, system control software includes input/output control (IOC) sequencing instructions for controlling the various parameters described above. For example, each phase of an electroplating process may include one or more instructions for execution by the system controller. The instructions for setting process conditions for an immersion process phase may be included in a

corresponding immersion recipe phase. In some embodiments, the electroplating recipe phases may be sequentially arranged, so that all instructions for an

electroplating process phase are executed concurrently with that process phase. [0165] Other computer software and/or programs may be employed in some embodiments. Examples of programs or sections of programs for this purpose include a substrate positioning program, an electrolyte composition control program, a pressure control program, a heater control program, and a potential/current power supply control program.

[0166] In some cases, the controllers control one or more of the following functions: wafer immersion (translation, tilt, rotation), fluid transfer between tanks, etc. The wafer immersion may be controlled by, for example, directing the wafer lift assembly, wafer tilt assembly and wafer rotation assembly to move as desired. The controller may control the fluid transfer between tanks by, for example, directing certain valves to be opened or closed and certain pumps to turn on and off. The controllers may control these aspects based on sensor output (e.g., when current, current density, potential, pressure, etc. reach a certain threshold), the timing of an operation (e.g., opening valves at certain times in a process) or based on received instructions from a user.

[0167] The apparatus/process described hereinabove may be used in conjunction with lithographic patterning tools or processes, for example, for the fabrication or manufacture of semiconductor devices, displays, LEDs, photovoltaic panels and the like. Typically, though not necessarily, such tools/processes will be used or conducted together in a common fabrication facility. Lithographic patterning of a film typically comprises some or all of the following steps, each step enabled with a number of possible tools: (1) application of photoresist on a workpiece, i.e., substrate, using a spin-on or spray-on tool; (2) curing of photoresist using a hot plate or furnace or UV curing tool; (3) exposing the photoresist to visible or UV or x-ray light with a tool such as a wafer stepper; (4) developing the resist so as to selectively remove resist and thereby pattern it using a tool such as a wet bench; (5) transferring the resist pattern into an underlying film or workpiece by using a dry or plasma-assisted etching tool; and (6) removing the resist using a tool such as an RF or microwave plasma resist stripper. Features of an lonically Resistive Element

Electrical Function

[0168] In certain embodiments, the ionically resistive element 206 approximates a nearly constant and uniform current source in the proximity of the substrate (cathode) and, as such, may be referred to as a high resistance virtual anode (HRVA) in some contexts. As noted above, this element may also be referred to as a channeled ionically resistive element or a channeled ionically resistive plate (CIRP). Normally, the ionically resistive element 206 is placed in close proximity with respect to the wafer. In contrast, an anode in the same close-proximity to the substrate would be significantly less apt to supply a nearly constant current to the wafer, but would merely support a constant potential plane at the anode metal surface, thereby allowing the current to be greatest where the net resistance from the anode plane to the terminus (e.g., to peripheral contact points on the wafer) is smaller. So while the ionically resistive element 206 has been referred to as a high-resistance virtual anode (HRVA), this does not imply that electrochemically the two are interchangeable. Under certain operational conditions, the ionically resistive element 206 would more closely approximate and perhaps be better described as a virtual uniform current source, with nearly constant current being sourced from across the upper plane of the ionically resistive element 206. While the ionically resistive element is certainly viewable as a "virtual current source", i.e. it is a plane from which the current is emanating, and therefore can be considered a "virtual anode" because it can be viewed as a location or source from which anodic current emanates, it is the relatively high-ionic-resistance of the ionically resistive element 206 (with respect to the electrolyte) that leads the nearly uniform current across its face and to further advantageous, generally superior wafer uniformity when compared to having a metallic anode located at the same physical location. The plate's resistance to ionic current flow increases with increasing specific resistance of electrolyte contained within the various channels of the plate 206 (often but not always having the same or nearly similar resistance of the catholyte), increased plate thickness, and reduced porosity (less fractional cross sectional area for current passage, for example, by having fewer holes of the same diameter, or the same number of holes with smaller diameters, etc.). Structure [0169] The ionically resistive element 206 contains micro size (typically less than 0.04") through-holes that are spatially and ionically isolated from each other and do not form interconnecting channels within the body of ionically resistive element, in many but not all implementations. Such through-holes are often referred to as non- communicating through-holes. They typically extend in one dimension, often, but not necessarily, normal to the plated surface of the wafer (in some embodiments the non- communicating holes are at an angle with respect to the wafer which is generally parallel to the ionically resistive element front surface). Often the through-holes are parallel to one another. Often the holes are arranged in a square array. Other times the layout is in an offset spiral pattern. These through-holes are distinct from 3-D porous networks, where the channels extend in three dimensions and form interconnecting pore structures, because the through-holes restructure both ionic current flow and fluid flow parallel to the surface therein, and straighten the path of both current and fluid flow towards the wafer surface. However, in certain embodiments, such a porous plate, having an interconnected network of pores, may be used in place of the 1-D channeled element (ionically resistive element). When the distance from the plate's top surface to the wafer is small (e.g., a gap of about 1/10 the size of the wafer radius, for example less than about 5 mm), divergence of both current flow and fluid flow is locally restricted, imparted and aligned with the ionically resistive element channels.

[0170] One example ionically resistive element 206 is a disc made of a solid, non- porous dielectric material that is ionically and electrically resistive. The material is also chemically stable in the plating solution of use. In certain cases the ionically resistive element 206 is made of a ceramic material (e.g., aluminum oxide, stannic oxide, titanium oxide, or mixtures of metal oxides) or a plastic material (e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF),

polytetrafluoroethylene, polysulphone, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polycarbonate, and the like), having between about 6,000 - 12,000 non-communicating through-holes. The ionically resistive element 206, in many embodiments, is substantially

coextensive with the wafer (e.g., the ionically resistive element 206 has a diameter of about 300 mm when used with a 300 mm wafer) and resides in close proximity to the wafer, e.g., just below the wafer in a wafer-facing-down electroplating apparatus. Preferably, the plated surface of the wafer resides within about 10 mm, more preferably within about 5 mm of the closest ionically resistive element surface. To this end, the top surface of the ionically resistive element 206 may be flat or substantially flat. Often, both the top and bottom surfaces of the ionically resistive element 206 are flat or substantially flat. [0171] Another feature of the ionically resistive element 206 is the diameter or principal dimension of the through-holes and its relation to the distance between the ionically resistive element 206 and the substrate. In certain embodiments, the diameter of each through-hole (or of a majority of through-holes, or the average diameter of the through-holes) is no more than about the distance from the plated wafer surface to the closest surface of the ionically resistive element 206. Thus, in such embodiments, the diameter or principal dimension of the through holes should not exceed about 5 mm, when the ionically resistive element 206 is placed within about 5 mm of the plated wafer surface.

[0172] As above, the overall ionic and flow resistance of the plate 206 is dependent on the thickness of the plate and both the overall porosity (fraction of area available for flow through the plate) and the size/diameter of the holes. Plates of lower porosities will have higher impinging flow velocities and ionic resistances.

Comparing plates of the same porosity, one having smaller diameter 1-D holes (and therefore a larger number of 1-D holes) will have a more micro-uniform distribution of current on the wafer because there are more individual current sources, which act more as point sources that can spread over the same gap, and will also have a higher total pressure drop (high viscous flow resistance).

[0173] In certain cases, however, the ionically resistive plate 206 is porous, as mentioned above. The pores in the plate 206 may not form independent 1-D channels, but may instead form a mesh of through holes which may or may not interconnect. It should be understood that as used herein, the term ionically resistive element (and its synonyms) are intended to include this embodiment, unless otherwise noted.

[0174] In a number of embodiments, the ionically resistive element 206 may be modified to include (or accommodate) an edge flow element. The edge flow element may be an integral part of the ionically resistive element 206 (e.g., the ionically resistive element and edge flow element together form a monolithic structure), or it may be a replaceable part installed on or near the ionically resistive element 206. The edge flow element promotes a higher degree of cross-flow, and hence shear on the substrate surface, near the edge of the substrate (e.g., near an interface between the substrate and the substrate holder). Without an edge flow element, an area of relatively low cross-flow may develop near the interface of the substrate and substrate holder, for example due to the geometry of substrate and substrate holder, and the direction of electrolyte flow. The edge flow element may act to increase cross-flow in this area, thereby promoting more uniform plating results across the substrate.

Further details related to the edge flow element are presented below.

[0175] In these or other embodiments, the ionically resistive element 206 may include a plurality of flow regions. In various cases, the flow through each flow region can be controlled independently of the flow through other flow regions. Each flow region may receive electrolyte from a particular electrolyte source region of the ionically resistive element manifold 208. Examples of ionically resistive elements having a plurality of flow regions are shown in FIGS. 31 A- 31L. These figures may also be considered to represent the electrolyte source regions of the ionically resistive element manifold, whose shape corresponds to the shape of a corresponding flow region of the ionically resistive element. Elements 3101-3154 each represent a distinct flow region.

[0176] In a simple embodiment shown in FIG. 31 A, the ionically resistive element includes a first flow region 3101 and a second flow region 3102. The first flow region 3101 is peripherally oriented such that it will preferentially provide electrolyte to the periphery of the substrate, while the second flow region 3102 covers the remaining area of the ionically resistive element. In a particular example, the flow through the first flow region 3101 is controlled to be higher than the flow through the second flow region 3102, for example to compensate for edge-thick photoresist on the substrate. In another embodiment shown in FIG. 3 IB, three flow regions 3103-3105 are provided. In another embodiment shown in FIG. 31C, seven flow regions 3106- 3112 are provided. In this example, the various annularly shaped flow regions 3106- 3111 have approximately equal width, as measured by the difference between the outer radius and the inner radius of the flow region. By contrast, FIG. 3 ID illustrates an embodiment where the various flow regions have substantially differing widths, with flow regions 3114 and 3118 being substantially wider than flow regions 3113 and 3115-3117. The flow regions in the embodiments of FIGS. 31 A- 3 ID are generally circular or annular, and are concentric. Such characteristics may be beneficial, particularly considering that the substrate is typically rotated during electroplating.

[0177] FIG. 3 IE illustrates an embodiment where five flow regions 3119-3123 are provided. In this example, the flow regions are shaped as strips along the ionically resistive element surface, rather than as circles/rings. The flow regions have different widths (measured left to right at the maximum width of each region), though in other cases they may be uniform. FIG. 3 IF illustrates an embodiment where the ionically resistive element includes two flow regions 3124 and 3125. The first flow region 3124 is crescent-shaped, and the second flow region 3125 occupies the remainder of the ionically resistive element. In this example, the first flow region 3124 is azimuthally non-uniform in multiple respects. For instance, the first flow region 3124 is present on the left side of the ionically resistive element (which may correspond to the inlet side or the outlet side of the cross flow manifold) and absent on the right side of the ionically resistive element. Further, the width of the first flow region 3124 is non-uniform. [0178] FIG. 31G shows an embodiment where two flow regions 3126 and 3127 are provided. Flow region 3126 is long and thin, and essentially spans the diameter of the ionically resistive element. In one example, a relatively high degree of electrolyte flow is established through flow region 3126 and a relatively lower degree of electrolyte flow is established through flow region 3127 (or vice versa). As the substrate rotates, most regions of the substrate surface are cyclically exposed to the higher and lower flow conditions (e.g., higher flow conditions are experienced when the relevant region of the substrate is proximate flow region 3126, and lower flow conditions are experienced when the relevant region of the substrate is proximate flow region 3127). In effect, most regions of the substrate (e.g., except for the very center which is always exposed to flow region 3126) experience hydrodynamic conditions that pulse between higher and lower convection as the substrate rotates. The timing of the pulsing can be controlled based on the rotation speed of the substrate. Embodiments that utilize such pulsed hydrodynamic conditions may be particularly useful in cases where the substrate includes features of differing sizes. In such cases, the diffusion boundary thickness is dependent on the size and shape of the feature. If the pulsing is done on a timescale that is similar to the diffusion time constant, it may mitigate differences in the diffusion boundary thickness to lead to improved uniformity as compared to cases where the hydrodynamic conditions are not pulsed as the substrate rotates.

[0179] FIGS. 31H-31L similarly depict embodiments where azimuthal non- uniformities in the ionically resistive element result in different flow conditions through the individual flow regions of the ionically resistive elements to thereby pulse the hydrodynamic conditions over the surface of the substrate as the substrate rotates. In FIG. 31H, flow region 3128 extends between the center and the edge of the substrate. Another flow region 3129 is provided in the remaining areas of the ionically resistive element. In FIG. 3 II, flow regions 3130-3137 extend radially outward, flow region 3138 is near the center, and flow region 3139 is provided in the remaining regions of the ionically resistive element. In FIG. 31 J, flow region 3140 extends along the diameter of the ionically resistive element, flow regions 3141 and 3142 extend along the radius of the ionically resistive element, and are oriented perpendicular to flow region 3140. Flow region 3143 is provided in the remaining regions of the ionically resistive element. In certain embodiments, flow regions that are implemented as linear shapes (e.g., flow regions 3126, 3128, 3130-3137, and 3140-3142) may have a particular length to width aspect ratio (where the length of the flow region is the longest linear dimension of the flow region). In some cases, one or more of such flow regions may have a length to width aspect ratio of at least about 3 : 1, or at least about 5: 1.

[0180] FIG. 3 IK illustrates an embodiment where flow regions 3144-3147 are pie-shaped and extend radially outward from the center of the ionically resistive element. Outside of flow regions 3144-3147 is flow region 3148. FIG. 31L shows an embodiment where flow regions 3149-3152 are pie-shaped and extend radially outwards from the center of the ionically resistive element, with an additional flow region 3153 that is peripherally located. The remaining portion of the ionically resistive element is provided as flow region 3154. This embodiment includes flow regions that are non-uniform both radially and azimuthally. Each of the embodiments shown in FIGS. 31G-31H can be used to modulate the hydrodynamic conditions experienced at a particular region of the substrate as the substrate rotates over the ionically resistive element. [0181] Various characteristics described in relation to FIGS. 31 A- 31L may be combined as desired for a particular application. The flow regions of the ionically resistive element may be of any shape (circular, annular, elliptical, strips, rectangles or other polygons, crescents, pie-shapes, etc.). A particular flow region may have a uniform or non-uniform width, and may have an average width that is uniform or non- uniform compared to other flow regions. The flow regions may or may not be concentric. The flow regions may be azimuthally uniform or non-uniform.

Azimuthal non-uniformities may or may not be aligned with the direction of cross flow in the cross flow manifold. The edges of the flow regions may be relatively smooth/straight, or they may curve, for example to avoid blocking the channels of the ionically resistive element.

Vertical Flow through the Through-Holes

[0182] The presence of an ionically resistive but ionically permeable element (ionically resistive element) 206 close to the wafer substantially reduces the terminal effect and improves radial plating uniformity in certain applications where terminal effects are operative/relevant, such as when the resistance of electrical current in the wafer seed layer is large relative to that in the catholyte of the cell. The ionically resistive element 206 also simultaneously provides the ability, in some embodiments, to have a substantially spatially-uniform impinging flow of electrolyte directed upwards at the wafer surface by acting as a flow diffusing manifold plate. In other embodiments, the ionically resistive element 206 includes a plurality of flow regions that, in operation, permit independent control over the flow through each flow region. In such cases, the impinging flow of electrolyte is purposefully spatially non-uniform (e.g., radially and/or azimuthally non-uniform), for example to compensate for on- substrate non-uniformities that are present before electroplating takes place.

Importantly, if the same element 206 is placed farther from the wafer, the uniformity of ionic current and flow improvements become significantly less pronounced or nonexistent. [0183] Further, because non-communicating through-holes do not allow for lateral movement of ionic current or fluid motion within the ionically resistive element, the center-to-edge current and flow movements are blocked within the ionically resistive element 206, leading to further improvement in radial plating uniformity. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 9, the ionically resistive element 206 is a perforated plate having approximately 9000 uniformly spaced one-dimensional holes acting as microchannels and arranged in a square array (i.e., the holes are arranged in columns and rows) over the face of the plate (e.g., over a substantially circular area having a diameter of about 300 mm in the case of plating a 300 mm wafer) and with an effective average porosity of about 4.5%, and an individual microchannel hole size of about 0.67 mm (0.026 inches) in diameter. Also shown in FIG. 9 are the flow distribution adjustment rods 270, which may be used to preferentially direct flow to enter the cross flow manifold 226 either through the ionically resistive element manifold 208 and up through the holes in the ionically resistive element 206, or in through the cross flow injection manifold 222 and cross flow showerhead 242. The cross flow confinement ring 210 is fitted on top of the ionically resistive element, which is supported by the membrane frame 274.

[0184] It is noted that in some embodiments, the ionically resistive element206 can be used primarily or exclusively as an intra-cell electrolyte flow resistive, flow controlling and thereby flow shaping element, sometimes referred to as a turboplate. This designation may be used regardless of whether or not the plate 206 tailors radial deposition uniformity by, for example, balancing terminal effects and/or modulating the electric field or kinetic resistances of plating additives coupled with the flow within the cell. Thus, for example, in TSV and WLP electroplating, where the seed metal thickness is generally large (e.g. >1000 A thick) and metal is being deposited at very high rates, uniform distribution of electrolyte flow is very important, while radial non-uniformity control arising from ohmic voltage drop within the wafer seed may be less necessary to compensate for (at least in part because the center-to-edge non- uniformities are less severe where thicker seed layers are used). Therefore the ionically resistive element 206 can be referred to as both an ionically resistive ionically permeable element, and as a flow shaping element, and can serve a deposition-rate corrective function by either altering the flow of ionic current, altering the convective flow of material, or both. [0185] In some cases, flow through the different flow regions of the ionically resistive element may be tailored to provide additional flow of electrolyte toward areas of the substrate where relatively greater mass transfer conditions are desired. For instance, enhanced mass transfer may be desirable in areas where the features are relatively deeper, which may be a result of relatively taller/thicker photoresist (or a purposeful design of the substrate). FIG. 34A illustrates one example of photoresist thickness as a function of radial position on the substrate. FIG. 34B illustrates an example of convection magnitude as a function of radial position on the substrate, where the convection magnitude is tailored to correspond to the photoresist thickness at a particular radial position. By tailoring the hydrodynamic conditions to provide greater convection in areas where the photoresist is thicker (and/or where the features are otherwise deeper), more uniform plating results can be achieved. In other words, the non-uniformity of the mass transfer conditions can be tailored to mitigate the preexisting non-uniformity of the substrate surface. Non-uniform mass transfer conditions can be established through various methods described herein, including but not limited to the use of (i) an ionically resistive element having a plurality of flow regions, (ii) an electrolyte jet, and/or (iii) an ionically resistive element that is configured to include one or more ionically resistive element jets.

[0186] Thicker photoresist corresponds with deeper features, making it difficult to plate uniformly between the different feature shapes. This difficulty may arise due to the different diffusion boundary layer thicknesses for the different feature shapes. The diffusion boundary layer thickness refers in this case to the distance between the bottom of a recessed feature and the depth at which the electroplating conditions become diffusion-controlled. The diffusion boundary layer is thicker for deeper features and thinner for shallower features. To compensate for this difference, additional electrolyte flow can be directed at areas of the substrate where the photoresist is thicker, increasing the mass transfer in these areas and making the diffusion boundary layer thickness more uniform between the different feature shapes.

Distance between Wafer and Channeled Plate

[0187] In certain embodiments, a wafer holder 254 and associated positioning mechanism hold a rotating wafer very close to the parallel upper surface of the ionically resistive element 206. During plating, the substrate is generally positioned such that it is parallel or substantially parallel to the ionically resistive element (e.g., within about 10°). Though the substrate may have certain features thereon, only the generally planar shape of the substrate is considered in determining whether the substrate and ionically resistive element are substantially parallel. [0188] In typical cases, the separation distance is about 0.5-10 millimeters, or about 2-8 millimeters. In some cases, the separation distance is about 2 mm or less, for example about 1 mm or less. This small plate to wafer distance can create a plating pattern on the wafer associated with proximity "imaging" of individual holes of the pattern, particularly near the center of wafer rotation. In such circumstances, a pattern of plating rings (in thickness or plated texture) may result near the wafer center. To avoid this phenomenon, in some embodiments, the individual holes in the ionically resistive element 206 (particularly at and near the wafer center) can be constructed to have a particularly small size, for example less than about l/S^ the plate to wafer gap. When coupled with wafer rotation, the small pore size allows for time averaging of the flow velocity of impinging fluid coming up as a jet from the plate 206 and reduces or avoids small scale non-uniformities (e.g., those on the order of micrometers). Despite the above precaution, and depending on the properties of the plating bath used (e.g. particular metal deposited, conductivities, and bath additives employed), in some cases deposition may be prone to occur in a micro-non- uniform pattern (e.g., forming center rings) as the time average exposure and proximity-imaging-pattern of varying thickness (for example, in the shape of a "bulls eye" around the wafer center) and corresponding to the individual hole pattern used. This can occur if the finite hole pattern creates an impinging flow pattern that is nonuniform and influences the deposition. In this case, introducing lateral flow across the wafer center, and/or modifying the regular pattern of holes right at and/or near the center, have both been found to largely eliminate any sign of micro-non-uniformities otherwise found there.

Porosity of Channeled Plate

[0189] In various embodiments, the ionically resistive element 206 has a sufficiently low porosity and pore size to provide a viscous flow resistance backpressure and high vertical impinging flow rates at normal operating volumetric flow rates. In some cases, about 1-10% of the ionically resistive element 206 is open area allowing fluid to reach the wafer surface. In particular embodiments, about 2-5% the plate 206 is open area. In a specific example, the open area of the plate 206 is about 3.2%) and the effective total open cross sectional area is about 23 cm².

[0190] In some embodiments, the porosity in the ionically resistive element 206 is uniform across the area of the ionically resistive element. In other embodiments, the porosity may be different at different regions of the ionically resistive element. In a particular embodiment where the ionically resistive element includes a plurality of flow regions, the average porosity in one flow region may be higher than the average porosity in another flow region. In a particular example, one flow region of the plate may have an average porosity that is greater than the average porosity of another flow region by a factor of at least about 1.2, for example at least about 1.5 or at least about 2. For instance, a first flow region may have a porosity that is about 2% and a second flow region may have a porosity that is about 2.4% (1.2*2% = 2.4%). Such differences in channel porosity may be used (alone or in combination with other factors such as pump speed, valve position, and/or differences in channel size) to tune the velocity of the impinging flow on the substrate at different areas.

Hole Size of Channeled Plate

[0191] The porosity of the ionically resistive element 206 can be implemented in many different ways. In various embodiments, it is implemented with many vertical holes of small diameter. In some cases the plate 206 does not consist of individual "drilled" holes, but is created by a sintered plate of continuously porous material. Examples of such sintered plates are described in US Patent No. 6,964,792, [attorney docket NOVLP023] which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. In some embodiments, drilled non-communicating holes have a diameter of about 0.01 to 0.08 inches. In some cases, the holes have a diameter of about 0.02 to 0.03 inches, or between about 0.03-0.06 inches. As mentioned above, in various embodiments the holes have a diameter that is at most about 0.2 times the gap distance between the ionically resistive element 206 and the wafer. The holes are generally circular in cross section, but need not be. Further, to ease construction, all holes in the plate 206 may have the same diameter. However this need not be the case, and both the individual size and local density of holes may vary over the plate surface as specific requirements may dictate. [0192] As an example, a solid plate 206 made of a suitable ceramic or plastic material (generally a dielectric insulating and mechanically robust material), having a large number of small holes provided therein, e.g. at least about 1000 or at least about 3000 or at least about 5000 or at least about 6000 (9465 holes of 0.026 inches diameter has been found useful). As mentioned, some designs have about 9000 holes. The porosity of the plate 206 is typically less than about 5 percent so that the total flow rate necessary to create a high impinging velocity is not too great. Using smaller holes helps to create a large pressure drop across the plate as compared to larger holes, aiding in creating a more uniform upward velocity through the plate. [0193] In another example, channels of different sizes are provided on a single ionically resistive element 206. In a particular embodiment where the ionically resistive element includes a plurality of flow regions, the channels in one flow region may be smaller in average diameter than the channels in another flow region. In some cases, one flow region of the ionically resistive element may have an average channel diameter that is larger than the average channel diameter of another flow region by a factor of at least about 1.2, for example at least about 1.5 or at least about 2. In a particular example, a first flow region of the ionically resistive element has an average channel diameter of about 0.020 inches, and a second flow region of the ionically resistive element has an average channel diameter of about 0.024 inches (1.2*0.020 inches = 0.024 inches). Such differences in channel diameter may be used (alone or in combination with other factors such as pump speed, valve position, and differences in porosity) to tune the velocity of the impinging flow on the substrate at different areas.

[0194] Generally, the distribution of holes over the ionically resistive element 206 may be of uniform density and non-random. In some cases, however, the density of holes may vary, particularly in the radial direction or corresponding with different flow regions of an ionically resistive element. In a specific embodiment, as described more fully below, there is a greater density and/or diameter of holes in the region of the plate that directs flow toward the center of the rotating substrate. Further, in some embodiments, the holes directing electrolyte at or near the center of the rotating wafer may induce flow at a non-right angle with respect to the wafer surface. Further, the hole patterns in this region may have a random or partially random distribution of non-uniform plating "rings" to address possible interaction between a limited number of holes and the wafer rotation. In some embodiments, the hole density proximate an open segment of a flow diverter or confinement ring 210 is lower than on regions of the ionically resistive element 206 that are farther from the open segment of the attached flow diverter or confinement ring 210.

Flow Regions

[0195] As mentioned, in certain embodiments the ionically resistive element may include a plurality of flow regions. Each flow region may be supplied with electrolyte from a particular electrolyte source region of the ionically resistive element manifold. This configuration allows the flow through each flow region of the ionically resistive element to be controlled independently from the flow through other flow regions and independently from the flow through the cross flow injection manifold. The different electrolyte source regions are separated from one another to permit individual control over the flow through the different electrolyte source regions/flow regions. The separated electrolyte source regions may be in physical contact with one another (e.g., sharing a wall between them), and may be in fluidic communication with one another at some point in the apparatus (e.g., after passing through the ionically resistive element). The relevant consideration that "separates" the electrolyte source regions from one another is the ability to independently control the flow rates through each manifold.

[0196] Examples of ionically resistive elements having a plurality of flow regions are shown in FIGS. 31A-31F, described above. Various design factors (e.g., porosity, channel size, channel density, channel layout, etc.) may vary between different flow regions, as described herein. [0197] As used herein, the concept of independent control of flow rates does not necessarily mean that a first flow rate through one portion of the apparatus has no effect on a second flow rate through another portion of the apparatus. Rather, independent control of flow rates means that the relevant flow rates can be

simultaneously controlled as desired (e.g., controlling one flow rate does not preclude simultaneously controlling another flow rate).

Ionically Resistive Element Jets [0198] In some embodiments, the ionically resistive element may be adapted to include one or more ionically resistive element jets. Such jets may be similar to the electrolyte jets described herein. However, the ionically resistive element jets differ from the electrolyte jets in that the ionically resistive element jets are formed in/on the ionically resistive element itself. Typically, the openings of the jets are raised compared to the opening of the channels in the main body of the ionically resistive element.

[0199] FIG. 37A illustrates one example of an ionically resistive element 3700 that is configured to include ionically resistive element jets 3703a. The ionically resistive element includes a main body portion that includes a series of channels 3701. Between certain sets of channels 3701, ionically resistive element jets 3703a are provided extending away from the main body portion of the ionically resistive element 3700. The ionically resistive element jets 3703a each include an opening 3704a that delivers electrolyte toward the surface of the substrate. The openings 3704a are positioned above the openings of the channels 3701. Chambers 3702 can be formed in the ionically resistive element (e.g., through milling and then reattaching pieces as needed to seal the chambers), and are used to provide electrolyte to the jets 3703a. The chambers 3702 may be fed through appropriate piping, e.g., within or below the ionically resistive element. The jets 3703a may be implemented as distinct individual jets, or as a series of jets that may or may not be in fluidic communication with one another. In some examples, the jets 3703a are linearly oriented (in some cases radially oriented) over the ionically resistive element. In some such cases, the jets may be provided in ribs (e.g., relatively long/thin strips that are raised from the main body of the ionically resistive element). The ribs may have a particular length:width aspect ratio (where the length is the longest linear dimension of the rib), for example an aspect ratio of at least about 3 : 1 , or at least about 5: 1. The raised ribs may promote formation of useful hydrodynamic conditions, even without the openings therein that form the ionically resistive element jets.

[0200] FIGS. 37B-37D illustrate top-down views of various ionically resistive element jets that may be used in certain embodiments. In these examples, the ionically resistive element jets are long and thin, and may be positioned along the diameter and/or radius of a substrate in some cases. In FIG. 37B, the ionically resistive element jet 3703b includes four circular openings 3704b. The flow through each individual opening 3704b may be uniform or non-uniform. In some cases the flow through each individual opening 3704b may be independently controlled (e.g., using appropriate piping, valves, pumps, etc.). FIG. 37C illustrates an ionically resistive element jet 3703c that includes two oval-shaped openings 3704c. FIG. 37D illustrates an ionically resistive element jet 3703d that includes two linear slit-shaped openings 3704d. The flow through the various openings in FIGS. 37C and 37D may be uniform or non-uniform, and may be independently controllable in some cases, as described in relation to FIG. 37B. [0201] As mentioned below, FIGS. 31 A-31L may be considered to show the shape and position of the ionically resistive element jets. For instance, the ionically resistive element jets may be present in the shaded regions and absent in the non- shaded regions, or vice versa. The embodiments shown in FIGS. 31G-31L may be particularly useful for exposing the substrate to alternating hydrodynamic conditions (e.g., high flow and low flow) as the substrate rotates.

Edge Flow Element

[0202] In many implementations, electroplating results may be improved through the use of an edge flow element and/or a flow insert. Generally speaking, an edge flow element affects the flow distribution near the periphery of the substrate, proximate the interface between the substrate and substrate holder. The edge flow element differs from an electrolyte jet in that an electrolyte jet includes channels through which electrolyte is actively delivered, whereas edge flow elements do not actively deliver electrolyte, but rather, passively affect the flow of electrolyte in the vicinity of the edge flow element (although in some cases the edge flow elements may be dynamic/adjustable, as mentioned below). In some embodiments, the edge flow element may be integral with an ionically resistive element. In some other embodiments, the edge flow element may be integral with a substrate holder. In yet other embodiments, the edge flow element may be a separate piece that can be installed on an ionically resistive element or substrate holder. The edge flow element may be used to tune the flow distribution near the edge of the substrate, as is desired for a particular application. Advantageously, the flow element promotes a high degree of cross-flow near the periphery of the substrate, thereby promoting more uniform (from center to edge of the substrate), high quality electroplating results. An edge flow element is typically positioned, at least partially, radially inside of the inner edge of the substrate holder/the periphery of the substrate. In some cases, an edge flow element may be at least partially positioned at other locations, for example under the substrate holder and/or radially outside of the substrate holder, as described further below. In a number of drawings herein, the edge flow element is referred to as the "flow element."

[0203] The edge flow element may be made of various materials. In some cases, the edge flow element may be made of the same material as the ionically resistive element and/or the substrate holder. Generally speaking, it is desirable for the material of the edge flow element to be electrically insulating.

[0204] Another method for improving cross-flow near the periphery of the substrate is to use a high rate of substrate rotation. However, fast substrate rotation presents its own set of disadvantages, and in various embodiments may be avoided. For example, where the substrate is rotated too quickly, it can prevent formation of an adequate cross-flow across the substrate surface. In certain embodiments, therefore, the substrate may be rotated at a rate between about 50-300 RPM, for example between about 100-200 RPM. Similarly, cross-flow near the periphery of the substrate can be promoted by using a relatively smaller gap between the ionically resistive element and the substrate. However, smaller ionically resistive element- substrate gaps result in electroplating processes that are more sensitive and have tighter tolerance ranges for process variables.

[0205] FIG. 13 A presents experimental results showing bump height vs. radial position on the substrate for patterned substrates electroplated without an edge flow element. FIG. 13B presents experimental results showing within-die non-uniformity vs. radial position on the substrate for the patterned substrates described in relation to FIG. 13 A. Notably, the bump height decreases toward the edge of the substrate. Without wishing to be bound by theory or mechanism of action, it is believed that this low bump height is a result of relatively low electrolyte flow near the periphery of the substrate. The poor convection conditions near the substrate- substrate holder interface lead to a lower local metal concentration, which leads to a reduced plating rate. Further, photoresist is often thicker near the edge of a substrate, and this increased photoresist thickness leads to deeper features, for which it is more difficult to achieve adequate convection, thereby leading to a lower plating rate at the edge of the substrate. As shown in FIG. 13B, this decreasing plating rate/decreased bump height near the edge of the substrate corresponds with an increase in within-die non- uniformity. The within-die non-uniformity was calculated as the ((max bump height in a die)-(min bump height in the die))/(2* average bump height in the die).

[0206] FIG. 14A depicts the structure of an electroplating apparatus near the periphery of the substrate 1400 at the outlet side of the apparatus. Electrolyte exits the cross-flow manifold 1402 by flowing over the ionically resistive element 1404 and under the substrate 1400, and out under the substrate holder 1406, as shown by the arrows. In this example, the ionically resistive element 1404 has a substantially flat portion that sits under the substrate 1400. At the edge of this region, near the interface between the substrate 1400 and substrate holder 1406, the ionically resistive element 1404 angles downward, then flattens out again. FIG. 14B depicts a graph presenting modeling results related to the flow distribution between the substrate 1400 and the ionically resistive element 1404 in the region shown in FIG. 14A.

[0207] The modeling results show the predicted shear velocity at a location 0.25 mm from the surface of the substrate. Notably, the shear flow decreases dramatically near the edge of the substrate.

[0208] FIG. 15 depicts experimental results related to bump height vs. radial position on the substrate, and modeling results showing the shear flow vs. radial position on the substrate (on the electrolyte outlet side). In this example, the substrate was not rotated during plating. The experimental bump height results followed the same trend as the predicted shear velocity, indicating that the lower shear velocity likely plays a role in low edge bump height.

[0209] FIG. 16A depicts experimental results showing within-die non-uniformity vs. radial position on the substrate. FIG. 16B depicts experimental results showing the thickness of photoresist vs. radial position on the substrate. Together, FIGS. 16A and 16B suggest there is a strong correlation between photoresist thickness and within-die non-uniformity, with higher resist thickness and non-uniformity being found near the edge of the substrate.

[0210] FIG. 17A illustrates a cross-sectional view of an electroplating cell having an edge flow element 1710 installed therein. The edge flow element 1710 is situated under the edge of the substrate 1700, proximate the interface between the substrate 1700 and substrate holder 1706. In this example, the ionically resistive element 1704 is shaped to include a raised plateau region which is nearly coextensive with the substrate 1700. In certain embodiments, an edge flow element 1710 may be positioned, wholly or partially, radially outside of the raised portion of the ionically resistive element 1704. The edge flow element 1710 may also be positioned, wholly or partially, on the raised portion of the ionically resistive element 1704. Electrolyte flows through the cross-flow manifold 1702 as shown by the arrows. A flow diverter 1708 helps shape the path through which the electrolyte flows. The flow diverter 1708 is shaped differently at the inlet side (where the cross-flow originates) compared to the outlet side to promote cross-flow across the surface of the substrate.

[0211] As shown in FIG. 17A, electrolyte enters the cross flow manifold 1702 on the inlet side of the electroplating cell. The electrolyte flows around the edge flow element 1710, through the cross flow manifold 1702, around the edge flow element 1710 a second time, and out through an outlet. As mentioned above, electrolyte also enters the cross flow manifold 1702 by traveling upwards through holes in the ionically resistive element 1704. One purpose of the edge flow element 1710 is to increase convection at the interface between the substrate 1700 and the substrate holder 1706. This interface is shown in greater detail in FIG. 17B. Without the use of an edge flow element 1710, the convection in the region shown in the dotted circle is undesirably low. The edge flow element 1710 affects the flow path of electrolyte near the edge of the substrate 1700, promoting greater convection in the region shown in the dotted circle. This helps overcome low convection and low plating rates near the substrate edge. This may also help combat differences that arise due to differing photoresist/feature height, as explained in relation to FIGS. 16A and 16B. [0212] In certain embodiments, the edge flow element 1710 may be shaped such that the cross flow in the cross flow manifold 1702 is directed more favorably into the corner formed by the substrate 1700 and substrate holder 1706. A variety of shapes may be used to achieve this purpose.

[0213] FIGS. 18A-18C depict three available configurations for installing an edge flow element 1810 in an electroplating cell. Various other configurations may be used, as well. Regardless of the exact configuration, the edge flow element 1810 may be shaped like a ring or arc in many cases, though FIGS. 18A-18C only show a cross- sectional view of one side of the edge flow element 1810. In the first configuration (Type 1, FIG. 18 A), the edge flow element 1810 is attached to the ionically resistive element 1804. The edge flow element 1810 in this example does not include any flow bypass for electrolyte to flow between the edge flow element 1810 and the ionically resistive element 1804. As such, all the electrolyte flows over the edge flow element 1810. In the second configuration (Type 2, FIG. 18B), the edge flow element 1810 is attached to the ionically resistive element 1804 and includes a flow bypass between the edge flow element and the ionically resistive element. The flow bypass is formed by passages in the edge flow element 1810. These passages permit some amount of electrolyte to flow through the edge flow element 1810 (between the upper corner of the edge flow element 1810 and the ionically resistive element 1804). In the third configuration (Type 3, FIG. 18C), the edge flow element 1810 is attached to the substrate holder 1806. In this example, electrolyte may flow between the edge flow element 1810 and the ionically resistive element 1804. Further, passages in the edge flow element 1810 permit flow of electrolyte through the edge flow element 1810, very near the interface between the substrate 1800 and the substrate holder 1806. FIG. 18D presents a table summarizing some of the features of the edge flow elements shown in FIGS. 18A-18C. [0214] FIGS. 19 A- 19E present examples for different methods of achieving adjustability in an edge flow element 1910. In some embodiments, the edge flow element 1910 may be installed at a fixed location, e.g., on the ionically resistive element 1904, and have a fixed geometry, as shown in FIG. 19 A. However, in many other cases, there may be additional flexibility in the way the edge flow element is installed/used. For example, in some cases the position/shape of the edge flow element may be adjusted (manually or automatically), either between electroplating processes (e.g., to tune a particular plating process, as desired, compared to other plating processes), or within an electroplating process (e.g., to tune plating parameters over time within a single plating process).

[0215] In one example, shims may be used to adjust the position (and to some degree shape) of an edge flow element. For instance, a series of shims may be provided, with shims of various heights for different applications and desired flow patterns/characteristics. The shims may be installed between the ionically resistive element and the edge flow element to raise the height of the edge flow element, thereby reducing the distance between the edge flow element and the

substrate/substrate holder. In some cases, the shims may be used in an azimuthally asymmetric way, thereby achieving a different edge flow element height at different azimuthal locations. The same result can be achieved using screws (as shown by element 1912 in FIGS. 19B and 19C) or other mechanical features to position the flow shaping element. FIGS. 19B and 19C illustrate two embodiments where screws 1912 may be used to control the position of the edge flow element 1910. As with the shims, the screws 1912 (located at different positions along the edge flow element 1910) may be positioned in a way that results in azimuthally asymmetric positioning of the edge flow element 1910 (e.g., by positioning the screws 1912 at different heights). In each of FIGS. 19B and 19C, the edge flow element 1910 is shown at two different positions. In FIG. 19B, the edge flow element changes between the two (or more) positions by rotating about a pivot point. In FIG. 19C, the edge flow element changes between the two (or more) positions by moving the edge flow element in a linear manner. Additional screws or other positioning mechanisms may be provided for extra support.

[0216] In some implementations, the position and/or shape of the edge flow element 1910 may be dynamically adjusted during a plating process, for example using electric or pneumatic actuators. FIGS. 19D and 19E present embodiments where the edge flow element 1910 can by dynamically moved, even during an electroplating process, using a rotary actuator 1913 (FIG. 19D) or a linear actuator 1915 (FIG. 19E). Such adjustments allow for precise control of the electrolyte flow over time, thereby allowing a high degree of tunability and promoting high quality plating results. [0217] Returning to FIG. 18D, the first and second configurations shown in FIGS. 18A and 18B, respectively, allow for the edge flow element 1810 to be azimuthally asymmetric because the edge flow element 1810 is attached to the ionically resistive element 1804 (which typically does not rotate during plating). The asymmetry may relate to differences in shape between portions of the edge flow element 1810 that are positioned near the inlet side of the electroplating cell vs. portions of the edge flow element that are positioned elsewhere, for example near the outlet side of the electroplating cell. Such azimuthal asymmetries may be used to combat non- uniformities that arise due to the way electrolyte cross-flows across the substrate surface during electroplating. Such asymmetry may relate to differences in a number of characteristics in the shape of the edge flow element 1810, for example height, width, roundness/sharpness of edges, presence of flow bypass passages, vertical position, horizontal/radial position, etc. The third configuration shown in FIG. 18C, being installed on the substrate holder 1806, may also be azimuthally asymmetric. However, because in many embodiments the substrate 1800 and substrate holder 1806 rotate during electroplating, any asymmetry in the edge flow element 1810 would likely average-out due to the fact that the edge flow element 1810 rotates with the substrate 1800 during electroplating (at least in cases where the edge flow element is attached to the substrate holder 1806, as in the embodiment of FIG. 18C). As such, it is generally not as beneficial to have an azimuthally asymmetric edge flow element when the edge flow element is attached to, and rotates with, the substrate holder. For this reason, FIG. 18D lists "No*" in relation to azimuthal asymmetry for the third configuration. All of the configurations described are considered to be within the scope of the present embodiments. [0218] FIGS. 20A-20C illustrate a number of ways in which the edge flow element 2010 may be azimuthally asymmetric. FIGS. 20A-20C depict top views of an edge flow element 2010 positioned in an electroplating cell, for example on an ionically resistive element 2004. Other attachment methods may also be used, as discussed above. In each example, the cross-sectional shape of the edge flow element 2010 is shown. In FIG. 20A, the edge flow element 2010 is azimuthally symmetric and extends around the entire perimeter of the substrate. Here, the edge flow element 2010 has a triangular cross-section, with the tallest portion positioned toward the inside edge of the edge flow element 2010. In FIG. 20B, the edge flow element is azimuthally asymmetric and extends around the entire perimeter of the edge flow element 2010. Here, the azimuthal asymmetry results because the edge flow element has a first cross-sectional shape (e.g., triangular) near the electrolyte inlet, and a second cross-sectional shape (e.g., rounded pillar) near the electrolyte outlet

(positioned opposite the inlet).

[0219] In similar embodiments, any combination of cross-sectional shapes may be used. Generally speaking, the cross-sectional shapes may be any shapes including, but not limited to, triangular, square, rectangular, circular, ellipsoidal, rounded, curved, pointed, trapezoidal, corrugated, hour-glass shaped, etc. Flow through passages may or may not be provided through the edge flow element 2010 itself. In another similar embodiment, the cross-sectional shapes may be similar, but of varying sizes around the periphery, thus introducing the azimuthal asymmetry. Likewise, the cross-sectional shapes may be the same or similar, but positioned at different vertical and/or horizontal locations with respect to the substrate/substrate holder and/or ionically resistive element 2004. The transition to different cross-sectional shapes may be abrupt or gradual. In FIG. 20C, the edge flow element 2010 is only present at certain azimuthal locations. Here, the edge flow element 2010 is only present on the downstream (outlet) side of the plating cell. In a similar embodiment, the edge flow element may only be present on the upstream (inlet) side of the plating cell.

Azimuthally asymmetric edge flow elements may be particularly advantageous for tuning electroplating results to overcome any asymmetries that may arise as a result of cross-flowing electrolyte. This helps promote uniform, high quality plating results. As should be apparent, the azimuthal asymmetry may result from azimuthal variations in edge flow element shape, dimensions (e.g., height and/or width), position with respect to the substrate edge, bypass region presence or configuration, and the like.

[0220] With respect to FIG. 20C, in certain embodiments an arc-shaped edge flow element 2010 may extend at least about 60°, at least about 90°, at least about 120°, at least about 150°, at least about 180°, at least about 210°, at least about 240°, at least about 270°, or at least about 300° proximate the periphery of the substrate. In these or other embodiments, the arc-shaped edge flow element may extend no more than about 90°, no more than about 120°, no more than about 150°, no more than about 180°, no more than about 210°, no more than about 240°, no more than about 270°, no more than about 300°, or no more than about 330°. The center of the arc may be positioned proximate the inlet area, the outlet area (opposite the inlet area), or at some other location offset from the inlet/outlet areas. In certain other embodiments where azimuthal asymmetries are used, the arc shapes described in this paragraph may correspond to the size of a region exhibiting such asymmetry. For example, a ring- shaped edge flow element may have an azimuthal asymmetry as a result of having different shim heights installed at different positions along the edge flow element, as explained with reference to FIG. 22 (further described below), for instance. In some such embodiments, a region having relatively thicker or thinner shims (thus resulting in a relatively taller or shorter edge flow element, respectively, after installation) may span an arc having any of the minimum and/or maximum dimensions described above. In one example, a region having relatively larger shims spans at least about 60°, and no more than about 150°. Any combination of the listed arc dimensions may be used, and the azimuthal asymmetry present may be any type of asymmetry described herein.

[0221] FIG. 21 depicts a cross-sectional view of an electroplating cell having an edge flow element 2110 installed therein. In this example, the edge flow element 2110 is positioned radially outside of the raised plateau portion of the ionically resistive element 2104. The shape of the edge flow element 2110 allows electrolyte near the inlet to travel upwards at an angle to reach the cross flow manifold 2102, and similarly, allows electrolyte near the outlet to travel downwards at an angle to exit the cross flow manifold 2102. As shown in FIGS. 19A-19E, the uppermost portion of the edge flow element may extend above the plane of the raised portion of the ionically resistive element. In other cases, the uppermost portion of the edge flow element may be flush with the raised portion of the ionically resistive element 2104. In some cases, the position of the edge flow element is adjustable, as described elsewhere herein. The shape and position of the edge flow element 2110 may promote a higher degree of cross-flow near the corner formed between the substrate 2100 and substrate holder 2106. [0222] FIG. 22A illustrates a cross-sectional view of an ionically resistive element 2204 and edge flow element 2210. In this example, the edge flow element 2210 is a removable piece that fits into a groove 2216 in the ionically resistive element 2204. FIG. 22B provides an additional view of the edge flow element 2210 and ionically resistive element 2204 shown in FIG. 22A. In this embodiment, the edge flow element 2210 is held in place on the ionically resistive element 2204 using up to 12 screws, which provides 12 individual locations for tuning the height/position of the edge flow element 2210. In similar embodiments, any number of

screws/adjustment/attachment points may be used. The ionically resistive element 2204 may include a second groove 2217, which may provide an outlet for the electrolyte to exit from the cross-flow manifold, thereby promoting cross-flowing electrolyte. The edge flow element 2210 is secured into the groove 2216 in the ionically resistive element 2204 using a series of screws (not shown in FIGS. 22A and 22B).

[0223] FIG. 22C provides modeling results related to the x-direction velocity of cross-flow as electrolyte exits the cross-flow manifold. Also shown in FIG. 22C, a series of shims 2218 may be used (in this example, shim washers that fit around the screws 2212 that secure the edge flow element 2210 into the groove 2216 in the ionically resistive element 2204) to adjust the height of the edge flow element 2210 at individual locations around the edge flow element 2210. The height of the shim is labeled H. These heights may be adjusted independently to achieve an azimuthally asymmetric distance between the top of the edge flow element 2210 and the substrate (not shown). In this example, the edge flow element 2210 is positioned such that an inner edge of the edge flow element 2210 extends to a height/position that is above the raised portion of the ionically resistive element 2204, as shown in the black circle.

[0224] In some embodiments, the vertical distance between the uppermost part of an edge flow element and the uppermost portion of an ionically resistive element may be between about 0-5 mm, for example between about 0-1 mm. In these or other cases, this distance may be at least about 0.1 mm, or at least about 0.25 mm, at one or more locations on the edge flow element. The vertical distance between the uppermost part of an edge flow element and the substrate may be between about 0.5-5 mm, in some cases between about 1-2 mm. In various embodiments, the distance between the uppermost part of an edge flow element and the uppermost portion of the ionically resistive element is between about 10-90% of the distance between the raised portion of the ionically resistive element and the substrate surface, in some cases between about 25-50%. The "uppermost portion of the ionically resistive element" referenced in this paragraph excludes the edge flow element itself (e.g., in cases where the edge flow element is integral with the ionically resistive element). Typically, the uppermost portion of the ionically resistive element is an upper surface of the ionically resistive element, positioned opposite the substrate in the cross-flow manifold. In various embodiments, as shown in FIG. 21, the ionically resistive element includes a raised plateau portion. The "uppermost portion of the ionically resistive element" in such embodiments is the raised plateau portion of the ionically resistive element. In embodiments where the ionically resistive element includes a series of protuberances thereon, the top of the protuberances corresponds to the

"uppermost portion of the ionically resistive element." Only regions of the ionically resistive element that are directly under the substrate are considered when

determining what is the uppermost portion of the ionically resistive element.

[0225] Returning to the embodiment of FIG. 22C, without the shims 2218 (or with appropriately thin shims 2218), the top of the edge flow element 2210 may be about coplanar with the raised portion of the ionically resistive element 2204. In one particular embodiment, the edge flow element 2210 is as shown in FIG. 22C, and the shims 2218 are provided in an azimuthally asymmetric way such that near the inlet side of the electroplating cell, the top of the edge flow element 2210 is about coplanar with, or below, the raised portion of the ionically resistive element 2204 (e.g., no shims, fewer shims, and/or thinner shims are provided near the inlet) and near the outlet side of the electroplating cell, the top of the edge flow element 2210 is above, though radially outside of, the raised portion of the ionically resistive element 2204 (e.g., more shims and/or thicker shims are provided near the outlet compared to the inlet).

[0226] Notably, the flow in the corner formed between the substrate 2200 and the substrate holder 2206 is somewhat low, but is improved compared to the case where no edge flow element 2210 is provided.

[0227] FIG. 22D depicts modeling results showing the x-direction velocity of cross-flow (i.e., flow in the horizontal direction) near the substrate vs. radial location on the substrate for several different shim thicknesses using the setup shown in FIG. 22C. The height of the shim has a strong effect on the velocity of cross-flow near the edge of the substrate. Generally speaking, the thicker the shim, the higher the velocity of cross-flow near the edge of the substrate. This increase in cross-flow near the periphery of the substrate may compensate for the low plating rate that is typically achieved near the substrate edge (e.g., as a result of apparatus geometry and/or photoresist thickness, as described above). These differences allow for the

modulation/tunability of the edge flow profile by simply changing the height of the shims at relevant locations.

[0228] In certain embodiments, the edge flow element has a width (measured as the difference between the outer radius and the inner radius) between about 0.1-50 mm. In some such cases, this width is at least about .01 mm or at least about 0.25 mm. Typically, at least a portion of this width is positioned radially interior of the inner edge of the substrate holder. The height of the edge flow element depends in large part upon the geometry of the remaining parts of the electroplating apparatus, for example the height of the cross-flow manifold. Further, the height of the edge flow element depends on how this element is installed in an electroplating apparatus, and the accommodations made in other pieces of equipment (e.g., grooves machined into the ionically resistive element). In certain implementations, an edge flow element may have a height that is between about 0.1-5 mm, or between about 1-2 mm. Where shims are used, they can be provided at a variety of thicknesses. These thicknesses are also dependent upon the geometry of the plating apparatus and the accommodations made in the ionically resistive element or other portion of the apparatus for securing the edge flow element therein. For example, if the edge flow element fits into a groove in the ionically resistive element, as shown in FIGS. 22A and 22B, relatively thicker shims may be needed if the groove in the ionically resistive element is relatively deeper. In some embodiments, the shims may have thicknesses between about 0.25-4 mm, or between about 0.5-1.5 mm.

[0229] In terms of position, the edge flow element is typically positioned such that at least a portion of the edge flow element is radially interior of the inner edge of the substrate support. In many cases this means that the edge flow element is positioned such that at least a portion of the edge flow element is radially interior of the edge of the substrate itself. The horizontal distance by which the edge flow element extends inward from the inner edge of the substrate support may in certain embodiments be at least about 1 mm, or at least about 5 mm, or at least about 10 mm, or at least about 20 mm. In some embodiments, this distance is about 30 mm or less, for example about 20 mm or less, about 10 mm or less, or about 2 mm or less. In these or other embodiments, the horizontal distance by which the edge flow element extends radially outward from the inner edge of the substrate support may be at least about 1 mm, or at least about 10 mm. Generally, there is no upper limit for the distance by which the edge flow element extends radially outward from the inner edge of the substrate support, so long as the edge flow element can fit in the electroplating apparatus. [0230] FIG. 23 A depicts modeling results for electrolyte flow where an edge flow element having a ramp-shape is used. In FIG. 23 A, the shaded area relates to the area through which electrolyte flows. The different shades indicate the rate at which electrolyte is flowing. The white space above the shaded area corresponds to the substrate and substrate holder (for example as labeled in FIG. 22C). The white space below the shaded area corresponds to the ionically resistive element and the edge flow element. For this example, the edge flow element may be any shape that, together with the ionically resistive element, results in a flow path having the shape shown in FIG. 23 A. In some cases, the edge flow element may simply be the edge of the ionically resistive element. In FIG. 23 A, the ionically resistive element/edge flow element together result in a ramp shape near the interface between the substrate and substrate holder. The ramp has a ramp height, shown in the figure, which extends above the raised portion of the ionically resistive element. The ramp has a maximum height that is located radially inside of the interface between the edge of the substrate and the substrate holder. In some embodiments, the ramp height may be between about 0.25-5 mm, for example between about 0.5-1.5 mm. A horizontal distance between the maximum height of the ramp and the inner edge of the substrate holder (labeled in FIG. 23 A as the "Ramp Inset from Cup") may be between about 1-10 mm, for example between about 2-5 mm. A horizontal distance between the inner edge of the substrate holder and the beginning of the ramp (labeled in FIG. 23 A as the "Inner Ramp Width" may be between about 1-30 mm, for example between about 5-10 mm. A horizontal distance between the beginning of the ramp and the end of the ramp (labeled in FIG. 23 A as the "Total Ramp Width" may be between about 5-50 mm, for example between about 10-20 mm. The average angle at which the ramp is inclined on the inner edge of the ramp may be between about 10-80 degrees. The average angle at which the ramp is declined on the outer edge of the ramp may be between about 10-80 degrees, for example between about 40-50 degrees. The top of the ramp may be a sharp angle, or it may be smooth, as shown. [0231] FIG. 23B depicts modeling results illustrating flow velocity vs. radial position on the substrate for different ramp heights. Higher ramp heights result in higher velocity flow. Higher ramp heights also correlate with more significant pressure drops.

[0232] FIG. 24A depicts modeling results related to another type of edge flow element. In this example, the edge flow element (which, like the one in FIG. 23 A, may be a separate piece that attaches to the ionically resistive element, or may be integral with the ionically resistive element), and it includes a flow bypass that allows electrolyte to flow through passages in the edge flow element. The length of the flow bypass passage is labeled "Length," and the height of the flow bypass passage is labeled "Bypass height." The "Ramp Height" refers to the vertical distance between the top of the flow bypass passage and the top of the ramp. In certain embodiments, the flow bypass passage may have a minimum length of at least about 1 mm, or at least about 5 mm, and/or a maximum length of about 2 mm, or about 20 mm. The height of the flow bypass passage may be at least about 0.1 mm, or at least about 4 mm. In these or other cases the height of the flow bypass passage may be about 1 mm or less, or about 8 mm or less. In some embodiments, the height of the flow bypass passage may be between about 10-50% the distance between the ionically resistive element (e.g., the raised portion of the ionically resistive element, if present) and the substrate (this distance is also the height of the cross-flow manifold). Similarly, the height of the ramp may be between about 10-90% the distance between the ionically resistive element and the substrate. This may correspond to a ramp height of at least about 0.2 mm, or at least about 4.5 mm in some cases. In these or other cases, the ramp height may be about 6 mm or less, for example about 1 mm or less.

[0233] FIG. 24B depicts modeling results that were run using different values for the parameters labeled in FIG. 24A. Notably, the results show that these geometrical parameters may be varied to tune the flow near the edge of the substrate, thereby achieving a desired flow pattern for any given application. It is not necessary to distinguish between the different cases shown in this graph. Instead, the results are relevant for showing that many different flow patterns may be achieved by varying the geometry of the edge flow element.

[0234] FIG. 25 presents flow modeling results related to an edge flow element 2510 that is positioned in the corner formed between the substrate 2500 and substrate holder 2506. In this example, the edge flow element 2510 includes flow bypass passages to allow electrolyte to flow, as shown. Notably, electrolyte can flow between the ionically resistive element 2504 and the edge flow element 2510, and also between the edge flow element 2510 and the substrate 2500/substrate holder 2506. In one example, the edge flow element may be attached directly to the substrate holder, as described in relation to FIG. 18C. In another example, the edge flow element may be attached directly to the ionically resistive element, as described in relation to FIG. 18B.

[0235] FIGS. 26A-26D depict several examples of edge flow inserts according to various embodiments. Only a portion of the edge flow element is shown in each case. These edge flow elements may be installed in an electroplating cell by attaching them to the ionically resistive element, for example within a groove as described in relation to FIG. 22 A. The edge flow elements shown in FIGS. 26A-26D are fabricated to have different heights, different flow bypass passage heights, different angles, different degrees of azimuthal symmetry/asymmetry, etc. One type of asymmetry that is easily visible in the edge flow elements of FIGS. 26A and 26B is that at certain azimuthal positions, no flow bypass passages are present and the electrolyte must travel all the way over the uppermost portion of the edge flow element at these locations to exit the electroplating cell. At other positions on the edge flow element, flow bypass passages are present, allowing electrolyte to flow both over and under the uppermost portion of the edge flow element. In certain embodiments, an edge flow element includes portion(s) that have flow bypass passages and portion(s) that do not have flow bypass passages, the different portions being positioned at different azimuthal locations, as depicted in FIGS. 26 A and 26B. The edge flow element may be installed in an electroplating apparatus such that the portion(s) having the flow bypass passages is aligned with either or both of the inlet/outlet areas of the electroplating cell. In some embodiments, the edge flow element may be installed in an electroplating apparatus such that the portion(s) lacking the flow bypass passages are aligned with either or both of the inlet/outlet areas of the electroplating cell.

[0236] Another way in which the edge flow element may be azimuthally asymmetric is by providing flow bypass passages of different dimensions at different locations on the edge flow element. For example, the flow bypass passages near the inlet and/or outlet may be wider or narrower, or taller or shorter, than flow bypass passages farther away from the inlet and/or outlet. Similarly, the flow bypass passages near the inlet may be wider or narrower, or taller or shorter, than flow bypass passages near the outlet. In these or other cases, the space between adjacent flow bypass passages may be non-uniform. In some embodiments, the flow bypass passages may be closer together (or farther apart) near the inlet and/or outlet regions, compared to regions that are farther away from the inlet and/or outlet. Similarly, the flow bypass passages may be closer together (or farther apart) near the inlet area compared to the outlet area. The shape of the flow bypass passages may also be azimuthally asymmetric, for example to promote cross-flow. One way to accomplish this in certain implementations may be to use flow bypass passages that are, to some degree, aligned with the direction of cross-flow. In some embodiments, the height of the edge flow element is azimuthally asymmetric. The relatively higher portions may be aligned with an inlet and/or outlet side of the electroplating apparatus in some embodiments. This same result can be accomplished using an edge flow element having an azimuthally symmetric height, installed onto an ionically resistive element using shims of varying heights.

[0237] While it is understood that electrolyte may exit the electroplating cell at many positions, the "outlet area" of the electroplating cell is understood to be the area opposite the inlet (where the cross-flowing electrolyte originates, not considering electrolyte which enters the cross-flow manifold through holes in the ionically resistive element). In other words, the inlet corresponds to the upstream area, where the cross-flow substantially originates, and the outlet corresponds to the downstream area that is opposite the upstream area. [0238] FIGS. 27A-27C present the experimental setup used for a number of experiments described in relation to FIGS. 28-30. In this series of tests, an edge flow element 2710 was installed in an ionically resistive element 2704 at varying heights at different positions. Four different setups were used, labeled in FIG. 27A as A, B, C, and D. Shims of varying heights were used to position the edge flow element 2710 at the different heights. As shown in FIG. 27A, the edge flow element 2710 was conceptually divided into an upstream portion 2710a (between about the 9 o'clock position and the 3 o'clock position) and a downstream portion 2710b (between about the 4 o'clock position and the 8 o'clock position). The upstream portion 2710a of the edge flow element 2710 was aligned with the inlet to the cross flow manifold (e.g., the center of the inlet was positioned at about the 12 o'clock position). The different setups tested are described in the table in FIG. 27B. In FIG. 27 A, it should be understood that the ionically resistive element 2710 is generally much longer/wider than shown in the bottom portion of the figure.

[0239] The table in FIG. 27B describes three gap heights relevant to the experimental setup. The first gap height (the wafer-ionically resistive element gap) corresponds to the distance between the substrate surface and the raised portion of the ionically resistive element. This is the height of the cross-flow manifold. The second gap height (the upstream gap) corresponds to the distance between the substrate and the topmost portion of the edge flow element for the upstream portion of the edge flow element. Similarly, the third gap height (the downstream gap) corresponds to the distance between the substrate and the topmost portion of the edge flow element for the downstream portion of the edge flow element. In setup A, the upstream gap and downstream gap are each the same size as the substrate-ionically resistive element gap. Here, the top of the edge flow element is flush with the raised portion of the ionically resistive element. In setup B, the upstream and downstream gaps are equal, and are both smaller than the substrate-ionically resistive element gap. In this example, the edge flow element extends to a position that is higher than the raised portion of the ionically resistive element in an azimuthally symmetric way. In setup C, the upstream gap is the same size as the substrate-ionically resistive element gap, while the downstream gap is smaller. In this example, the edge flow element is flush with the raised portion of the ionically resistive element at the upstream locations on the edge flow element, and is higher than the raised portion of the ionically resistive element at downstream locations of the edge flow element. Setup D is similar to setup C, with an even smaller downstream gap. Smaller gaps between the edge flow element and the substrate are a result of using larger shims between the edge flow element and the ionically resistive element. FIG. 27C depicts modeling results related to the cross-flow velocity of electrolyte at different locations. This figure shows geometry of the basic experimental setup in relation to FIGS. 27 A and 27B.

[0240] FIG. 28 presents experimental results related to setups A and B described in relation to FIGS. 27A-27C. For this experiment, the substrate was not rotated during electroplating. The graph in FIG. 28 illustrates plated bump height vs. radial position on the substrate. The results indicate that setup B resulted in substantially more uniform bump height near the edge of the substrate compared to setup A. This suggests that raising the edge flow element above the plane of the raised portion of the ionically resistive element can have substantial benefits on plating uniformity.

[0241] FIG. 29 presents experimental data related to setups A-D described in relation to FIGS. 27A-27C. The graph illustrates within-die non-uniformity vs. radial position on the substrate. Lower degrees of non-uniformity are desired. In various embodiments, there may be a goal of <5% within-die non-uniformity. The D setup performed best (lowest non-uniformity). The B and C setups also performed better than the A setup. As such, it is believed that there are particular benefits to raising an edge flow element above the plane of the raised ionically resistive element, particularly (but not necessarily exclusively) at downstream locations on the edge flow element. [0242] FIG. 30 presents experimental results depicting plated bump height vs. radial position on the substrate for setups A-D described in relation to FIGS. 27A- 27C. Setup D resulted in the most uniform edge profile, with the lowest within-die non-uniformity. The "WiD" values shown in FIG. 30 relate to the within-die thickness non-uniformities that were observed on the substrates after plating.

Electrolyte Jets

[0243] In various embodiments, an electrolyte jet may be included to provide additional impinging electrolyte flow toward the substrate at a particular location on the substrate. This flow is in addition to the impinging electrolyte that passes through an ionically resistive element. The term electrolyte jet includes both edge jets (which preferentially deliver electrolyte near the periphery of the substrate compared to other regions of the substrate) and inner jets (which preferentially deliver electrolyte at non- peripheral regions of the substrate compared to peripheral regions of the substrate), as described herein. The term also includes electrolyte jets that deliver electrolyte at both peripheral and non-peripheral regions of the substrate. The term electrolyte jet is not intended to cover any jets that are formed by channels in an ionically resistive element. However, in some cases the ionically resistive element may be adapted to include both channels and jets. In such embodiments, the jets formed in the ionically resistive element are referred to as ionically resistive element jets, which are further described above. As used herein, the terms "electrolyte jet," "edge jet," and "inner jet" are understood to include a plurality of individual jets unless otherwise stated.

[0244] FIGS. 35A-35E depict various examples of flow emanating from an electrolyte jet. In FIG. 35 A, the flow out of the electrolyte jet is relatively straight and narrow. In FIG. 35B, the flow out of the electrolyte jet is relatively wider compared to that shown in FIG. 35 A. In FIG. 35C, the flow out of the electrolyte jet is non-uniform, with relatively greater flow emanating from the left hand portion of the jet, and relatively less flow emanating from the right hand portion of the jet. FIG. 35D shows an example similar to that shown in FIG. 35C, but with a wider delivery of electrolyte. In FIG. 35E, the flow out of the electrolyte jet is angled (e.g., with respect to the plane of the ionically resistive element or substrate). Various flow patterns may be used.

[0245] FIGS. 35G, 36A, and 36B provide examples of electrolyte jets that deliver electrolyte toward the substrate at both peripheral and non-peripheral regions of the substrate. In the example of FIG. 35G, the electrolyte jet includes a uniform slit- shaped opening that extends along the length of the electrolyte jet. The flow out of the slit-shaped opening may be substantially uniform (e.g., in cases where the slit is uniform, as shown in FIG. 35G) or non-uniform at different positions (e.g., in cases where the width of the slit varies along the length of the slit).

[0246] In some cases, as shown in FIG. 36A, the electrolyte jet may be implemented as a series of individual electrolyte jets 3603a-3603e, which may or may not be independently controllable. In some such cases, the electrolyte jets may be provided together as shown in FIG. 36B. In one example, electrolyte jet 3603f includes a plurality of individual electrolyte jet openings as shown in FIG. 36A. In another example, electrolyte jet 3603f includes a single roughly slit-shaped opening that varies in width along the length of the slit to establish relatively greater/lesser electrolyte delivery at different slit widths. FIG. 36B also shows ionically resistive element 3604, which may be omitted in some cases. [0247] The electrolyte jets may be implemented in a uniform or non-uniform manner. The non-uniformities may be radial and/or azimuthal. Although FIGS. 31G- 31L are described above in terms of different flow regions on an ionically resistive element (or electrolyte source regions of a channeled ionically resistive element manifold), these figures may also be considered to show the shape/position of electrolyte jets in various embodiments. For example, in FIG. 31G, element 3126 may represent an electrolyte jet positioned above an ionically resistive element represented by element 3127. In FIG. 31H, element 3128 may represent an electrolyte jet positioned above an ionically resistive element represented by element 3129. Elements 3130-3138 (FIG. 311), 3140-3142 (FIG. 31 J), 3144-3147 (FIG. 3 IK), and 3149-3153 (FIG. 31L) may each be considered to represent electrolyte jets positioned above ionically resistive elements represented by elements 3139 (FIG. 311), 3143 (FIG. 31 J), 3148 (FIG. 3 IK), and 3154 (FIG. 31L). In such embodiments, particular portions of the substrate surface may be cyclically exposed to different hydrodynamic conditions (e.g., higher and lower convection) as the substrate rotates. Such techniques are similar to those described in relation to FIGS. 31G-31L, above, but use electrolyte jets above the ionically resistive element, rather than flow regions on the ionically resistive element. Most of the electrolyte jets in FIGS. 31G-L are linear or pie-shaped, and are oriented to be positioned proximate the radius/diameter of the substrate. As such, the electrolyte jets are oriented like spokes on a wheel. In certain embodiments, each linear or pie-shaped electrolyte jet depicted in FIGS. 31G- 31L may be implemented as shown in FIGS. 35G, 36A, 36B, or 37B-37D.

[0248] FIGS. 31 A-3 IF may similarly be considered to show different regions above the ionically resistive element where electrolyte jets are provided or not provided. In one example, electrolyte jets may be provided in the shaded regions of FIGS. 31 A-3 IF, while no electrolyte jets are provided in the non-shaded regions (or vice versa). In other similar embodiments, FIGS. 31 A-31L may be considered to show the shape/position of ionically resistive element jets on an ionically resistive element. The ionically resistive element jets may be present in the shaded regions and absent in the non-shaded regions (or vice versa).

[0249] The electrolyte jets may be positioned in a particular way with respect to the channels in the ionically resistive element. Generally speaking, the electrolyte jets in many cases are not closely electrically connected to the anode, and therefore do not play a strong role in the distribution of current toward the substrate (though they do play a strong role in the distribution of flow toward the substrate). By contrast, the channels in the ionically resistive element are often provided specifically to control the distribution of current toward the substrate (and to some extent, the flow distribution toward the substrate). In some cases, some or all of the electrolyte jets and the channels in the ionically resistive element may be aligned with one another azimuthally. This results in a relatively high delivery of impinging electrolyte on the substrate, as well as high local voltage at the same time. This may be particularly useful in areas of the substrate where relatively greater plating is desired, e.g., where photoresist is relatively thick and/or where features are otherwise relatively large. In these or other cases, some or all of the electrolyte jets may alternate with the channels in the ionically resistive element (e.g., such that the electrolyte jets and the ionically resistive element channels are provided at different azimuthal locations). In some such embodiments, the electrolyte jets may be provided proximate the radius and/or diameter of the of the substrate, so that as the substrate rotates, a relevant portion of the substrate experiences: (i) relatively high convection conditions paired with relatively low current/voltage conditions in regions where the flow from the electrolyte jet(s) impinge upon the substrate, and (ii) relatively low convection conditions paired with relatively high current/voltage conditions in regions where the flow from the channels in the ionically resistive element impinges upon the substrate. By alternating between high convection/low voltage and low convection/high voltage conditions, the time constant for electroplating is increased, which may result in more uniform plaint results between different feature sizes/shapes. Each electrolyte jet acts to flush the features in a particular region with new plating solution when that region of the substrate is proximate the electrolyte jet, and then current is applied to the region with relatively low convection when the relevant portion of the substrate is proximate the channels in the ionically resistive element. [0250] In various embodiments, an electrolyte jet may be implemented to preferentially deliver electrolyte toward the substrate at a peripheral region of the substrate (in which case the electrolyte jet may be referred to as an edge jet) or at a non-peripheral region of the substrate (in which case the electrolyte jet may be referred to as an inner jet).

Edge Jets

[0251] In certain implementations, the electroplating apparatus may include an edge j et. The edge j et may include a single j et, or a plurality of j ets. The edge j et may be positioned proximate the periphery of the substrate when the substrate is being electroplated, and acts to preferentially provide additional electrolyte to the plating face of the substrate near the periphery of the substrate as opposed to near the center of the substrate. This additional fluid flow may preferentially enhance the hydrodynamic conditions near the edge of the substrate compared to the center. This preferential enhancement may combat pre-existing non-uniformities on a substrate, for example photoresist that is thicker near the edge of the substrate and thinner near the center of the substrate, as described in relation to FIGS. 34A and 34B, for instance.

[0252] FIGS. 32A and 32B, described above, present examples of apparatus that include edge jets 3261a and 3261b. While the edge jets 3261a and 3261b shown in these figures receive electrolyte from the cross flow injection manifold 3222, this is not always the case. In some other embodiments, the edge jets may receive electrolyte from the ionically resistive element manifold positioned below the ionically resistive element 3206. In some other embodiments, the edge jets may receive electrolyte from a separate jet manifold (also referred to as an edge jet manifold when the electrolyte j et is an edge j et). The j et manifold may be separated from other manifolds in the apparatus, meaning that the flow through the jet manifold can be controlled independently from the flow through other relevant manifolds. The separated manifolds may be in physical contact with one another (e.g., sharing a wall/ceiling/floor between them), and may be in fluidic communication with one another at some point in the apparatus. The relevant consideration that "separates" the manifolds is the ability to independently control the flow rates through each manifold. In some cases, the edge jet manifold may be defined, wholly or partially, within an ionically resistive element, with appropriate plumbing provided to deliver electrolyte between, for example, a main catholyte manifold and the edge jet manifold. The edge jet manifold may also be defined, wholly or partially, by another portion of the apparatus (e.g., membrane frame, cell walls, etc.), provided that appropriate plumbing is present to direct electrolyte as needed. In some cases, more than one edge jet manifold may be provided, and different regions of the edge jet (e.g., at different azimuthal positions) may be supplied with electrolyte from the different edge jet manifolds. Where this is the case, the flow through the different regions of the edge jet may be independently controllable. [0253] It may be beneficial to ensure that the electrolyte delivered to and through the edge jets is relatively isolated electrically from the electrolyte that is present in or below the ionically resistive element manifold. The electrolyte that passes through the jets may have a nominally high electrical path to the anode. This electrical isolation establishes/maintains uniform delivery of current to the substrate. However, in some cases, the jets may be configured to provide a short electrical path between the anode and the jets. In this way, the jets can be used to inject additional current at a desired location.

[0254] The edgejets may be oriented to deliver electrolyte at a normal or non- normal angle toward the substrate, as shown in FIGS. 35A-35E. In some cases, the edge jets (or some subset thereof) are tilted radially inward toward the center of the substrate. The edgejets may be provided around the entire periphery of the substrate, or around a particular azimuthal stretch (or stretches) along the perimeter of the substrate, for example as described in relation to FIGS. 31A-31L, especially in relation to FIGS. 31G-31L. [0255] FIGS. 33A-33D illustrate an example where edge jets 3361 are provided along only a portion of the cross flow manifold. By providing the edge jets along only a portion of the cross flow manifold (e.g., omitting the edgejets in the area near the outlet to the cross flow manifold), the global cross flow profile across the substrate may be generally maintained. Moreover, by providing the edgejets (or other electrolyte jets) at azimuthally non-uniform locations, relevant portions of the substrate can be cyclically exposed to different convection conditions (e.g., high flow and low flow) as the substrate rotates, as described in relation to FIGS. 31G-31L. [0256] A topside insert 3360 extends around the entire periphery of the cross flow manifold, as shown in FIG. 33D. Near the inlet, at region 3301a, the topside insert

3360 may be as shown in FIG. 33A, with both horizontal channels provided for introducing cross flowing electrolyte, and vertical edge jets 3361 for introducing additional impinging electrolyte. Near regions 3301b, the topside insert 3360 may be as shown in FIG. 33B, with vertical jets 3361 for introducing additional impinging electrolyte (and without horizontal channels for introducing horizontally cross flowing electrolyte). Near the outlet, at region 3301c, the topside insert 3360 may be as shown in FIG. 33C. In this region 3301c, no edge jets or horizontal channels for introducing horizontally cross flowing electrolyte are present. Instead, in this region 3301c, the topside insert 3360 is shaped to include an upper portion and a lower portion, where the lower portion acts as an edge flow element as described herein. As shown in FIG. 33D, the edge jets 3361 are provided along about 300° of the perimeter of the cross flow manifold in this embodiment. The 60° area where no edge jets are provided corresponds with (e.g., be centered at about the same point as) the outlet region of the cross flow manifold, as shown in FIG. 33D.

[0257] In another embodiment, an area where no edge jets are provided may correspond with an inlet to the cross flow manifold. In another embodiment shown in FIG. 33E, the inlet and outlet areas of the cross flow manifold may be free of edge jets. This embodiment is similar to that shown in FIG. 33D, except that the edge jets

3361 are omitted in region 3301d. The topside insert 3360 in region 3301d may be as shown in FIG. 33C, or it may include a differently shaped edge flow element, or the edge flow element may be omitted. In certain embodiments, the edge jets may span particular azimuthal positions. If the cross flow inlet is considered to be at 0° and the cross flow outlet is considered to be at 180°, the edge jets in one embodiment may span between about 45-135° and 225-315°, spanning a total of about 180° on the two sides of the apparatus. Of course, many other implementations/layouts of the edge jets are possible. In total, the edge jets may span at least about 90°, at least about 180°, or at least about 270°. In these or other implementations, the edge jets may span a maximum of about 330°, or about 300°, or about 200°. In these or other implementations, the edge jets may span a range between about 90-330°, or between about 180-300°. The jet location and spacing may be designed such that the cross flow is as straight as possible. The jet location and spacing may also be designed to establish pulsing on/off conditions (with respect to a particular area on the substrate surface) as the substrate rotates, as described herein.

[0258] The edge jets may be formed in a variety of manners. In some embodiments, the edge jets are formed by a topside insert as described in relation to FIGS. 32A, 32B, 33 A, and 33B. In other embodiments, the edge jets may be formed in the ionically resistive element itself (in which case the jets are referred to as ionically resistive element jets). In still other embodiments, the edge jets may be formed by another frame, insert, manifold, or other element separate from those described herein. [0259] The channels forming the jets may end at a vertical location that is above, at, or below the substrate-facing surface of the ionically resistive element. Similarly, the channels forming the jets may end at a vertical location that is above, at, or below the location at which the horizontally cross flowing electrolyte enters the cross flow manifold. In some cases, the jets may be implemented as flutes that may or may not extend above the substrate-facing surface of the ionically resistive element, for example as shown in FIGS. 35G, 36A, 36B, and 37A-D.

[0260] The diameter of the jets may be between about 0.01-0.25 inches, for example between about 0.020-0.125 inches. The diameter of the jets may be uniform or non-uniform among the different jets. In some cases, the jets have a substantially circular cross section. In other cases, the jets may be implemented as slits/slots to thereby distribute the electrolyte in a more fan-like manner, for example as shown in FIGS. 35G, and 37D. The slits/slots may have a uniform or non-uniform opening width along the length of the slit. FIGS. 35A-35E depict how the jets may be configured, showing electrolyte emanating from the jets in a number of different possible ways. Such flow patterns can be established by various kinds of jets, including both those that have a substantially circular cross-sections and those that have more elongated cross sections (e.g., as shown in FIG. 35G).

Inner Jet

[0261] In some embodiments, one or more inner jets may be provided. These inner jets are similar to the edge jets described above, but extend further inward toward the center of the substrate. In this way, the inner jets can preferentially promote enhanced mass transfer at any desired location. The inner jets may generally have any of the characteristics described in relation to the edge jets, except that they deliver electrolyte at non-peripheral locations on the substrate. Edge Jets and inner jets may collectively be referred to as electrolyte jets. [0262] In some embodiments, the inner jets may be used to preferentially promote enhanced hydrodynamic conditions at a particular location that is radially inward from the periphery of the substrate. In other words, the inner jets may deliver fluid at a non-peripheral location that is within a certain distance of the center of the substrate. In some such cases, the inner jets may extend radially inward to provide fluid at a location that is radially outward from the center of the substrate by no more than about 25%, or 50%, or 75%, or 85%, as compared to the radius of the substrate. In one example where the substrate has a diameter of about 300 mm and a radius of about 150 mm, the inner jets deliver fluid to the substrate at a radius of about 37.5 mm (0.25* 150 mm = 37.5 mm). [0263] In a particular embodiment, both edge jets and inner jets may be provided. In another particular embodiment, edge jets, inner jets, and an edge flow element may be provided. In another embodiment, any combination of the following features may be present: edge jets, inner jets, an edge flow element, an ionically resistive element with plurality of flow regions, and an ionically resistive element manifold having a plurality of electrolyte source regions.

[0264] It is to be understood that the configurations and/or approaches described herein are exemplary in nature, and that these specific embodiments or examples are not to be considered in a limiting sense, because numerous variations are possible. The specific routines or methods described herein may represent one or more of any number of processing strategies. As such, various acts illustrated may be performed in the sequence illustrated, in other sequences, in parallel, or in some cases omitted. Likewise, the order of the above described processes may be changed.

[0265] The subject matter of the present disclosure includes all novel and nonobvious combinations and sub-combinations of the various processes, systems and configurations, and other features, functions, acts, and/or properties disclosed herein, as well as any and all equivalents thereof. Modulation of Cross Flow Manifold and Current

[0266] In certain implementations, the height of the cross flow manifold may be modulated during electroplating. In some such embodiments, the cross flow manifold may be modulated between a sealed state and an unsealed state. The substrate may be selectively rotated while the cross flow manifold is in the unsealed state. Such techniques are further described in U.S. Patent Application No. 15/225,716, filed August 1, 2016, and titled "DYNAMIC MODULATION OF CROSS FLOW MANIFOLD DURING ELECTROPLATING," which is herein incorporated by reference. In these or other embodiments, the current applied to the substrate may be modulated during electroplating. The timing of the current modulation may correspond to the timing of the cross flow manifold height modulation. Such current modulation techniques are further described in U.S. Patent Application No. 15/413,252, filed January 23, 2017, and titled "MODULATION OF APPLIED CURRENT DURING SEALED ROTATIONAL ELECTROPLATING," which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIG. 35F illustrates an example where the height of the substrate 3501 is adjustable, as indicated by the double-sided arrow. In this example, the position of the substrate 3501 can be set to a specific distance from the edge jet 3503 to achieve a desired convection profile on the substrate surface. In some such cases, the position of the edge jet (or other electrolyte jet) may be stationary/non-adjustable. An adjustable substrate holder position can be used to accommodate differences in photoresist thickness from substrate to substrate, which allows for a single apparatus configuration to be used in many different applications. In some embodiments, the height of the substrate/substrate holder may be modulated during electroplating. Where this is the case, edge jet 3503 preferentially delivers electrolyte near the edge of the substrate 3501 while the position of the substrate is modulated. A current may be applied to the substrate 3501 via electrical contact 3502. In cases where an ionically resistive element is provided, modulation of the substrate height also modulates the height of the cross flow manifold. However, the ionically resistive element is not necessary for modulating the position of the substrate, and in some cases the ionically resistive element may be omitted, as shown in FIG. 35F. Additional Examples

[0267] A few observations that suggest that improved cross flow through the cross flow manifold 226 is desirable are presented in this section. Throughout this section, two basic plating cell designs are tested. Both designs contain a confinement ring 210, sometimes referred to as a flow diverter, defining a cross flow manifold 226 on top of the ionically resistive element 206. Neither design includes an edge flow element, though such an element may be added to either setup, as desired. The first design, sometimes referred to as the control design and/or the TCI design, does not include a side inlet to this cross flow manifold 226. Instead, in the control design, all flow into the cross flow manifold 226 originates below the ionically resistive element 206 and travels up through the holes in the ionically resistive element 206 before impinging on the wafer and flowing across the face of the substrate. The second design, sometimes referred to as the second design and/or the TC2 design, includes a cross flow injection manifold 222 and all associated hardware for injecting fluid directly into the cross flow manifold 226 without passing through the channels or pores in the ionically resistive element 206 (note that in some cases, however, the flow delivered to the cross flow injection manifold passes through dedicated channels near the periphery of the ionically resistive element 206, such channels being distinct/separate from the channels used to direct fluid from the ionically resistive element manifold 208 to the cross flow manifold 226).

[0268] FIGS. 10A and 10B through FIGS. 12A and 12B compare the flow patterns achieved using a control plating cell having no side inlet (10A, 11 A, and 12A) vs. a second plating cell having a side inlet to the cross flow manifold 10B, 1 IB, and 12B).

[0269] FIG. 10A shows a top-down view of part of a control design plating apparatus. Specifically, the figure shows an ionically resistive element 206 with a flow diverter 210. FIG. 10B shows a top-down view of part of the second plating apparatus, specifically showing the ionically resistive element 206, flow diverter 210 and cross flow injection manifold 222/cross flow manifold inlet 250/cross flow showerhead 242. The direction of flow in FIGS. 10A-10B is generally left to right, towards the outlet 234 on the flow diverter 210. The designs shown in FIGS. 10A- 10B correspond to the designs modeled in FIGS. 11 A-l IB through 12A-12B.

[0270] FIG. 11 A shows the flow through the cross flow manifold 226 for the control design. In this case, all the flow in the cross flow manifold 226 originates from below the ionically resistive element 206. The magnitude of the flow at a particular point is indicated by the size of the arrows. In the control design of FIG. 11 A, the magnitude of the flow increases substantially throughout the cross flow manifold 226 as additional fluid passes through the ionically resistive element 206, impinges upon the wafer, and joins the cross flow. In the current design of FIG. 1 IB, however, this increase in flow is much less substantial. The increase is not as great because a certain amount of fluid is delivered directly into the cross flow manifold 226 through the cross flow injection manifold 222 and associated hardware.

[0271] FIG. 12A depicts the horizontal velocity across the face of a substrate plated in the control design apparatus shown in FIG. 10A. Notably, the flow velocity starts at zero (at the position opposite the flow diverter outlet) and increases until reaching the outlet 234. Unfortunately, the average flow at the center of the wafer is relatively low in the control embodiments. As a consequence, the jets of catholyte emitted from the channels of the ionically resistive element 206 predominate hydrodynamically in the center region. The problem is not as pronounced towards the edge regions of the work piece because the rotation of the wafer creates an

azimuthally averaged cross flow experience.

[0272] FIG. 12B depicts the horizontal velocity across the face of a substrate plated in the current design shown in FIG. 10B. In this case, the horizontal velocity starts at the inlet 250 at a non-zero value due to the fluid injected from the cross flow injection manifold 222, through the side inlet 250 and into the cross flow manifold

226. Further, the flow rate at the center of the wafer is increased in the current design, as compared to the control design, thereby reducing or eliminating the region of low cross flow near the center of the wafer where the impinging jets may otherwise dominate. Thus, the side inlet substantially improves the uniformity of cross flow rates along the inlet-to-outlet direction, and will result in more uniform plating thickness. Other Embodiments

[0273] While the above is a full description of the specific embodiments, various modifications, alternative constructions and equivalents may be used. Therefore, the above description and illustrations should not be taken as limiting the scope of the disclosed embodiments.

[0274] For example, various elements described herein may be combined as desired for a particular application. Similarly, various elements described herein may be omitted as desired for a particular application. One element that may be omitted in certain embodiments is the side inlet to the cross flow manifold for introducing cross- flowing electrolyte. In such embodiments, the cross flow injection manifold may be similarly omitted, and all of the electrolyte flowing in the cross flow manifold may originate from (a) the ionically resistive element manifold (which may be

implemented as a plurality of electrolyte source regions), and/or (b) the edge jets, if present. Example apparatus are further described in U.S. Patent No. 8,795,480, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. While having additional electrolyte flow originating from the cross flow injection manifold/side inlet may be beneficial in a number of implementations, it is not necessary for practicing the disclosed embodiments.

Claims

CLAIMS What is claimed is:

1. An electroplating apparatus comprising: an electroplating chamber configured to contain an electrolyte and an anode while electroplating metal onto a substrate, the substrate being substantially planar; an inlet for introducing electrolyte to the electroplating chamber; an outlet for removing electrolyte from the electroplating chamber; a substrate holder configured to hold the substrate such that a plating face of the substrate is separated from the anode during electroplating; and an electrolyte jet configured to deliver electrolyte toward the plating face of the substrate in a non-uniform manner, wherein a flow rate through the electrolyte jet and a total flow rate through the electroplating chamber are independently controllable.

2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte jet is an edge jet configured to deliver the electrolyte such that it preferentially impinges upon a peripheral region of the substrate.

3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte jet is an inner jet configured to deliver electrolyte such that it preferentially impinges upon a non-peripheral region of the substrate.

4. The apparatus of any of claims 1-3, wherein the electrolyte jet comprises a plurality of individual jets.

5. The apparatus of claim 4, wherein at least two of the plurality of individual jets of the electrolyte jet are positioned to deliver electrolyte at different radial locations.

6. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein a first individual jet of the plurality of individual jets is configured to deliver electrolyte at a peripheral region of the substrate, and wherein a second individual jet of the plurality of individual jets is configured to deliver electrolyte at a non-peripheral region of the substrate.

7. The apparatus of any of claims 4-6, wherein the electrolyte jet is divided into at least a first region and a second region, each of the first and second regions of the electrolyte jet being supplied electrolyte from a distinct electrolyte source, and each of the first and second regions of the electrolyte jet comprising at least one of the plurality of individual jets, wherein a first flow rate through the first region of the electrolyte jet is independently controllable from a second flow rate through the second region of the electrolyte jet.

8. The apparatus of any of claims 4-7, wherein the electrolyte jet is provided at a particular azimuthal location or locations such that as the substrate rotates, an area on the plating face of the substrate is cyclically exposed to (i) regions where the electrolyte jet is present and (ii) regions where the electrolyte jet is absent.

9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein within regions where the electrolyte jet is present, the electrolyte jet delivers electrolyte at different radial locations, wherein the flow rate of electrolyte through the electrolyte jet is non-uniform at the different radial locations.

10. The apparatus of any of claims 1-9, wherein the electrolyte jet is configured to direct electrolyte toward the substrate at a normal angle with respect to the plating face of the substrate.

11. The apparatus of any of claims 1-9, wherein the electrolyte jet is configured to direct electrolyte toward the substrate at a non-normal angle with respect to the plating face of the substrate.

12. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the electrolyte jet comprises at least one individual jet that is angled radially inwards.

13. The apparatus of any of claims 1-12, further comprising a jet manifold that supplies electrolyte to the electrolyte jet.

14. The apparatus of claim 13, further comprising an ionically resistive element including a substrate-facing surface that is separated from the plating face of the substrate by a gap, the gap forming a cross flow manifold, wherein the ionically resistive element is at least coextensive with the plating face of the substrate during electroplating, the ionically resistive element adapted to provide electrolyte transport and ionic transport through the ionically resistive element during electroplating; a side outlet to the cross flow manifold for receiving electrolyte flowing in the cross flow manifold; and an ionically resistive element manifold that supplies electrolyte below the ionically resistive element, wherein the ionically resistive element manifold and the jet manifold are separated from one another.

15. The apparatus of claim 13, further comprising an ionically resistive element including a substrate-facing surface that is separated from the plating face of the substrate by a gap, the gap forming a cross flow manifold, wherein the ionically resistive element is at least coextensive with the plating face of the substrate during electroplating, the ionically resistive element adapted to provide electrolyte transport and ionic transport through the ionically resistive element during electroplating; a side inlet to the cross flow manifold for introducing electrolyte to the cross flow manifold; a side outlet to the cross flow manifold for receiving electrolyte flowing in the cross flow manifold; and a cross flow injection manifold, wherein the side inlet and the side outlet are positioned proximate azimuthally opposing perimeter locations on the plating face of the substrate during electroplating, wherein the cross flow injection manifold supplies electrolyte to the side inlet, and wherein the jet manifold and the cross flow injection manifold are separated from one another.

16. The apparatus of any of claims 1-15, further comprising an edge flow element positioned proximate a periphery of the substrate and at least partially radially inside of a corner formed at an interface between the substrate and the substrate holder, wherein the edge flow element is configured to direct electrolyte into the corner formed at the interface between the substrate and the substrate holder, the edge flow element being ring-shaped or arc-shaped.

17. The apparatus of any of claims 1-16, further comprising an ionically resistive element including a substrate-facing surface that is separated from the plating face of the substrate by a gap, the gap forming a cross flow manifold, wherein the ionically resistive element is at least coextensive with the plating face of the substrate during electroplating, the ionically resistive element adapted to provide electrolyte transport and ionic transport through the ionically resistive element during electroplating; wherein the electrolyte jet comprises a channel that extends from a first location to a second location, the first location being positioned below a plane formed by the substrate-facing surface of the ionically resistive element, and the second location being positioned at or above the plane formed by the substrate-facing surface of the ionically resistive element.

18. An electroplating apparatus comprising:

(a) an electroplating chamber configured to contain an electrolyte and an anode while electroplating metal onto a substrate, the substrate being substantially planar; (b) a substrate holder configured to hold the substrate such that a plating face of the substrate is separated from the anode during electroplating;

(c) an ionically resistive element comprising:

(i) a substrate-facing surface that is separated from the plating face of the substrate by a gap, the gap forming a cross flow manifold,

(ii) a first flow region and a second flow region, wherein each of the first and second flow regions allow for transport of an electrolyte through the ionically resistive element during electroplating, wherein the ionically resistive element is at least coextensive with the plating face of the substrate during electroplating, the ionically resistive element adapted to provide ionic transport through the ionically resistive element during electroplating;

(d) an ionically resistive element manifold positioned below the ionically resistive element, the ionically resistive element manifold comprising a first electrolyte source region and a second electrolyte source region, the first and second electrolyte source regions being separated from one another, wherein the first electrolyte source region supplies electrolyte to the first flow region of the ionically resistive element and the second electrolyte source region supplies electrolyte to the second flow region of the ionically resistive element, and wherein a flow of electrolyte through the first flow region is independently controllable from a flow of electrolyte through the second flow region; and

(e) a side outlet to the cross flow manifold for receiving electrolyte flowing in the cross flow manifold.

19. An electrolyte jet assembly for use in an electroplating apparatus, the electrolyte jet assembly comprising: a frame comprising a portion that is ring-shaped or arc-shaped, the frame being configured to engage with a substrate holder and/or an ionically resistive element of the electroplating apparatus; and a plurality of jets positioned on the frame, each jet comprising a channel through which electrolyte flows during electroplating, wherein the jets are configured to deliver impinging electrolyte on a plating face of a substrate supported in the substrate holder during electroplating.