Classifications

• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
  • G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
  • G01T1/16—Measuring radiation intensity
  • G01T1/20—Measuring radiation intensity with scintillation detectors
  • G01T1/2018—Scintillation-photodiode combinations
  • G01T1/20182—Modular detectors, e.g. tiled scintillators or tiled photodiodes
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
  • G01N9/00—Investigating density or specific gravity of materials; Analysing materials by determining density or specific gravity
  • G01N9/24—Investigating density or specific gravity of materials; Analysing materials by determining density or specific gravity by observing the transmission of wave or particle radiation through the material
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
  • G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
  • G01T1/16—Measuring radiation intensity
  • G01T1/20—Measuring radiation intensity with scintillation detectors
  • G01T1/2018—Scintillation-photodiode combinations
  • G01T1/20184—Detector read-out circuitry, e.g. for clearing of traps, compensating for traps or compensating for direct hits
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
  • G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
  • G01T1/16—Measuring radiation intensity
  • G01T1/24—Measuring radiation intensity with semiconductor detectors
  • G01T1/248—Silicon photomultipliers [SiPM], e.g. an avalanche photodiode [APD] array on a common Si substrate
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01T—MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR OR X-RADIATION
  • G01T1/00—Measuring X-radiation, gamma radiation, corpuscular radiation, or cosmic radiation
  • G01T1/29—Measurement performed on radiation beams, e.g. position or section of the beam; Measurement of spatial distribution of radiation
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01V—GEOPHYSICS; GRAVITATIONAL MEASUREMENTS; DETECTING MASSES OR OBJECTS; TAGS
  • G01V5/00—Prospecting or detecting by the use of ionising radiation, e.g. of natural or induced radioactivity
  • G01V5/20—Detecting prohibited goods, e.g. weapons, explosives, hazardous substances, contraband or smuggled objects
  • G01V5/22—Active interrogation, i.e. by irradiating objects or goods using external radiation sources, e.g. using gamma rays or cosmic rays
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
  • G01V—GEOPHYSICS; GRAVITATIONAL MEASUREMENTS; DETECTING MASSES OR OBJECTS; TAGS
  • G01V5/00—Prospecting or detecting by the use of ionising radiation, e.g. of natural or induced radioactivity
  • G01V5/20—Detecting prohibited goods, e.g. weapons, explosives, hazardous substances, contraband or smuggled objects
  • G01V5/22—Active interrogation, i.e. by irradiating objects or goods using external radiation sources, e.g. using gamma rays or cosmic rays
  • G01V5/226—Active interrogation, i.e. by irradiating objects or goods using external radiation sources, e.g. using gamma rays or cosmic rays using tomography

Definitions

• the present invention relates to an apparatus and method for detecting radiation, and relates particularly, but not exclusively, to an apparatus and method for scanning a structure to detect changes in density between different parts of the structure.
• the apparatus and method of the invention have particular benefits for use in an undersea pipeline inspection apparatus.
• This apparatus comprises a source of gamma radiation and an array of detectors.
• the apparatus is capable of being arranged with the structure to be scanned, such as a pipeline, positioned between the source and
• the number of detectors in the array may range from fewer than 10 up to more than 100, e.g. up to 150, depending on the application.
• the detectors are arranged in the form of an arc centred on the structure to be scanned.
• the source and array of detectors are arranged in fixed relationship with respect to each other, and are rotated around the structure to be scanned. In this way, information about the density of the structure along a plurality of paths is obtained, enabling a high resolution density map of the structure to be calculated.
• This technique has similarities with medical imaging techniques such as x-ray tomography.
• the apparatus must be able to withstand this pressure. Furthermore the apparatus must be compact for deployment subsea using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) capable of operating at the required depth. It is
• an apparatus for detecting radiation for obtaining information about the density of a structure comprising:
• the detector comprising:
• a scintillator comprising a scintillating
• a photodetector for receiving light emitted by the scintillating material and outputting an electrical signal in response to light received from the scintillating material
• the photodetector comprises at least one silicon photomultiplier .
• the present invention provides an advantageously compact apparatus.
• the prior art
• photodetector and are preferred due to their high sensitivity to low light levels.
• photomultiplier tubes are based on vacuum tubes which are relatively bulky, must be protected against very high pressures if used subsea, and require a high voltage power supply ( ⁇ lkV) which must be isolated for subsea operation.
• silicon which is relatively bulky, must be protected against very high pressures if used subsea, and require a high voltage power supply ( ⁇ lkV) which must be isolated for subsea operation.
• silicon silicon
• photomultipliers are compact, robust, and operate at low voltages.
• the present invention therefore reduces the space occupied by the photodetector, requires less protection against high pressures, and it is no longer necessary to insulate high voltage power supply connections from other components or seawater. All these factors lead to a reduction in overall volume of the apparatus.
• the compact size of the detectors allows the detectors to be packed more closely to improve the scanning resolution of the apparatus and/or for more sophisticated data processing to be carried out adjacent each detector.
• Yet another advantage of the present invention is that silicon photomultipliers , although exhibiting high noise at room temperature, exhibit low noise at temperatures of around 4°C which are typical at depths of the order of a kilometre subsea, which means that the present invention is particularly adapted for use subsea. Nonetheless, the small size of silicon photomultipliers means that it is relatively easy to provide temperature
• the photodetector may comprise a plurality of silicon photomultipliers .
• conventional photomultiplier tube is used to detect light from a relatively small area of the scintillating material.
• the surfaces of the scintillating material which are not optically coupled to the photodetector are often coated with a reflecting surface so that more of the scintillation photons reach the photodetector. It would therefore be expected that one silicon photomultiplier covering a similar area to the conventional photomultiplier tube would be sufficient.
• the improvement does not simply scale with the area covered, and once optimum performance is reached there appears to be no further improvement in further increasing the area of the scintillating material covered silicon photomultipliers.
• photomultiplier and also provides redundancy in the event of failure of one of the silicon photomultipliers.
• the plurality of silicon photomultipliers may be arranged in contact with one or more surfaces of the
• the thin wafer configuration of silicon photomultipliers means that they can be positioned directly against the flat surfaces of a scintillating crystal to obtain good optical coupling.
• the silicon photomultipliers may be arranged in contact with more than one surface of the
• the plurality of silicon photomultipliers may be tiled along at least one surface of the scintillating material.
• Advantageously silicon photomultipliers may be provided in a suitable shape to effectively cover an entire surface of the scintillating material, for example square or rectangular silicon photomultipliers may be used to cover a rectangular surface of a scintillating crystal. By tiling the silicon photomultipliers side by side with no space, the area of the detecting surface is optimised.
• photomultipliers may be combined prior to amplification.
• the apparatus may further comprise a power supply arranged to supply power to said plurality of silicon
• the apparatus may further comprise at least one
• a multichannel analyser for measuring a number of radiation particles from said source detected by at least one said detector, said multichannel analyser comprising a field programmable gate array (FPGA) .
• FPGA field programmable gate array
• a multichannel analyser (MCA) enables energy spectra to be generated rapidly from the output of silicon
• combination of photodetector and multichannel analyser is a low power unit which may be battery powered.
• a further advantage is that rapid energy analysis of the detected radiation enables changes in the gain of the photodetector to be monitored in real time, for example by observing the position of a photopeak corresponding to a characteristic energy of the radiation source. Temperature drifts can thereby be tracked and/or compensated by adjustment of the bias voltage applied to the photodetector to keep the
• Said or each multichannel analyser may be located adjacent to a respective said photodetector.
• the FPGA outputs a digital signal, which can be transmitted for further processing, or to a nearby ship, with less susceptibility to noise and therefore less shielding.
• the apparatus may further comprise temperature
• stabilisation means for stabilising the temperature of the/or each silicon photomultiplier .
• This feature enables the apparatus to be used at a range of operating temperatures. It may not be necessary to include temperature stabilisation for operating the apparatus subsea where temperatures are around 4°C, but it may improve the performance of the apparatus when used at higher
• temperatures for example for land-based measurements.
• Said radiation may be gamma radiation.
• Said apparatus may further comprise a source of
• the apparatus may comprise a plurality of said
• This feature enables the apparatus to detect radiation having travelled along a plurality of different paths through a structure to be scanned, from a source to the detector.
• the present invention provides a particularly compact
• the apparatus may further comprise a power supply arranged to supply power to said plurality of detectors.
• Said plurality of detectors may be arranged in an arc around a space adapted to receive a structure to be scanned.
• the advantage of this feature is that is provides a particularly compact arrangement for scanning a structure such as a pipe.
• the plurality of detectors and said source may be arranged on opposite sides of space for receiving a structure to be scanned, and the apparatus may further comprise means for rotating said plurality of detectors and said source around a structure to be scanned.
• the apparatus may be a subsea apparatus.
• the apparatus may be a subsea apparatus suitable for use at a depth of 1000 m.
• the apparatus may be a subsea apparatus suitable for use at a depth greater than 1000 m.
• a scintillator comprising a scintillating
• a photodetector for receiving light emitted by the scintillating material and outputting an electrical signal in response to light received from the scintillating material
• the photodetector comprises at least one silicon photomultiplier ;
• At least one said photodetector may comprise a
• the plurality of silicon photomultipliers may be arranged in contact with one or more surfaces of the
• the plurality of silicon photomultipliers may be tiled along at least one surface of the respective scintillating material .
• the output signals of said plurality of silicon photomultipliers may be combined prior to amplification.
• the method may further comprise providing a power supply arranged to supply power to said plurality of silicon photomultipliers.
• the method may further comprise providing at least one multichannel analyser for measuring a number of radiation particles from said source detected by at least one
• said multichannel analyser comprising a field programmable gate array (FPGA) .
• FPGA field programmable gate array
• Said or each multichannel analyser may be located adjacent to a respective said photodetector.
• the method may further comprise stabilising the temperature of the or each silicon photomultiplier .
• Said radiation may be gamma radiation.
• the method may further comprise providing a power supply arranged to supply power to said plurality of said detectors .
• a plurality of said detectors may be arranged in an arc around a space adapted to receive a structure to be scanned.
• a plurality of said detectors and said source may be arranged on opposite sides of a space for receiving a
• said method may further comprise rotating said plurality of detectors and said source around a structure to be scanned.
• the method may further comprise the step of positioning the apparatus at a subsea measurement location, prior to carrying out above steps at said location.
• the subsea measurement location may be at a depth of up to 1000 m.
• the subsea measurement location may be at a depth of 1000 m or greater.
• Figure 1 shows (left image) an example of a detector arrangement incorporating a photomultiplier tube for
• FIG. 1 shows a detector for an apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention
• Figure 3 shows a detector and multichannel analyser circuitry for an apparatus according to a further embodiment of the present invention
• Figures 4A and 4B show front and rear surfaces
• Figure 5 is a schematic representation of an amplifier circuit for one or more silicon photomultipliers for an apparatus according to an embodiment of the present
• Figure 6 shows spectra obtained using a test silicon photomultiplier array at temperatures of 4°C (Figure 6A) , 21°C ( Figure 6B) and 40°C ( Figure 6C) ;
• Figure 7 shows spectra obtained using test silicon photomultiplier arrays comprising 7 and 4 silicon
• an apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention comprises a radiation detector 10 comprising a scintillator, in the form of scintillating crystal 12, for emitting light in response to incident radiation 14 and a photodetector 16, in the form of an array of silicon photomultipliers 16a, for receiving light emitted by the scintillating crystal 12 and outputting an electrical signal in response to light received from the scintillating material 12.
• a radiation detector 10 comprising a scintillator, in the form of scintillating crystal 12, for emitting light in response to incident radiation 14 and a photodetector 16, in the form of an array of silicon photomultipliers 16a, for receiving light emitted by the scintillating crystal 12 and outputting an electrical signal in response to light received from the scintillating material 12.
• the array of silicon photomultipliers are arranged such that their detection surfaces receive scintillation photons emitted through a surface of the scintillating crystal 12.
• the silicon photomultipliers 16a are in contact with the crystal 12.
• the electrical signal output by the photodetector 16 is transmitted to a detection circuit board 18 comprising a multichannel analyser for counting a number of radiation particles, in this case gamma photons, detected by the detector 10.
• the radiation source is a gamma radiation source, such as 137 Cs which has a characteristic emission at 661.7keV and sufficient penetrating power for scanning dense structures such as subsea pipelines.
• a scintillating material suitable for detecting gamma photons at this energy is BGO (bismuth germanate) .
• BGO bismuth germanate
• other sources and scintillating materials may be used as is known in the art.
• the present embodiment is based on gamma photon detection, it will be appreciated that the present invention can be applied to other types of radiation (e.g. neutrons ) .
• the photodetector 16 comprises an array of eight silicon photomultiplier sensors 16a arranged in parallel.
• photomultiplier 16a is the 6x6mm 35 ⁇ B series available from SensL. The sensors are less than 1mm thick.
• Silicon photomultipliers are based on avalanche diode arrays with integral clamping resistors. They operate with relatively low bias voltages, typically around 30V, and produce an output current which is proportional to the number of incident photons. When combined with normal scintillating materials they can detect a wide range of radiations.
• detector is an example of a detector comprising a
• the right hand detector 10 is a detector according to an embodiment of the present invention, comprising a scintillating crystal 2, a photodetector 6 in the form of an array of silicon photomultipliers tube, and additionally comprising detection electronics 18.
• the detector 10 of the present invention has a size determined mainly by the size of the scintillating crystal 10.
• Other advantages of silicon photomultipliers are that they are unaffected by magnetic and electric fields and are mechanically more robust. Only one detector 10 is shown in each of Figures 1, 2 and 3. However, for scanning a pipeline or similar
• a large number of detectors 10 is preferred for obtaining high resolution data with a reasonable scanning time.
• ninety-five detectors 10 are arranged closely spaced along an arc of a circle on one side of the structure to be scanned, with the radiation source position on the other.
• the apparatus includes means for positioning the source and detectors 10 in close proximity to the structure to be scanned and for rotating the source and detectors 10 around the structure, without changing their relative positions. It is challenging to integrate such a large number of detectors 10 into such an apparatus, particularly if the apparatus is to be deployed subsea. In subsea applications, the apparatus must be sealed against high pressure and must therefore fit into a
• the detection electronics 18 has been adapted to take advantage of the compact arrangement of the detector 10 and to produce yet further space savings.
• Silicon photomultipliers produce a current output dependent on the number of incident photons. In order to produce count rates or spectra, the signal is generally converted to a voltage and amplified with a high speed amplifier. It has been found that it is possible to combine the output signals of the plurality of silicon
• FIG. 5 shows an amplifier for the photodetector 16.
• the amplifier receives the photocurrent from the parallel array of silicon photomultipliers and uses an llkQ series resistance to convert the photocurrent to a voltage.
• Typical photocurrents of 180-200nA generate a signal of around 2mV across the readout resistors which is then amplified by a factor of 10 by the amplifier.
• a lOOnF coupling capacitor couples the voltage signal to the
• the signal pulses have a width of around 2 ⁇ is and are amplified using a high bandwidth op amp. Given the relatively low signal level, it is important that a first stage of amplification is provided close to the
• the reverse bias voltage is applied to the silicon photomultipliers through this readout resistance. It has been found that it is possible to use a single power supply to apply the biasing voltage (around 30V) required by each of the silicon photomultipliers by connecting them in parallel to the power supply. A capacitor may also be connected in parallel to the power supply to stabilise the bias voltage. Applied biasing voltages in the range from 25.75V to 31V have been used. However, more than 2V can be dropped across the readout resistors, such that the maximum reverse diode bias voltage applied to the silicon photomultipliers has been 28.98V.
• a suitable variable bias generator is provided by a boost converter such as the LT3494 available from Linear Technology.
• the detector 10 is sensitive not only to the number of gamma photons detected, but also to their energies. The amplitude of the electrical pulses output by the
• photodetector 16 depends on the energy of the photons received from the scintillating crystal 12. Since the amount of light produced by the scintillating crystal 12 is
• the data processing electronics 18 comprises a multichannel analyser for discriminating between pulses of different amplitude, assigning pulses having an amplitude within a specified range to a corresponding channel of the MCA, and counting the number of electrical pulses assigned to each channel.
• the multichannel analyser used in this embodiment comprises a high frequency analogue to digital convertor (ADC) followed by a field programmable gate array (FPGA) .
• ADC analogue to digital convertor
• FPGA field programmable gate array
• Multichannel analysers are traditionally bench top devices, and therefore not suitable for use in an apparatus such as this.
• the detection electronics 18 is sufficiently compact to be located alongside each scintillating crystal 12, as shown in Figure 3.
• the FPGA has been programmed to generate a 256 channel spectrum.
• the output of the MCA is a digital signal which is much less susceptible to noise than an analogue signal, such as the signals output by the silicon
• Figure 4 shows the front and rear surfaces of an arrangement of the photodetector 16 and detection electronics board 18.
• the upper image shows the surface of a board carrying the detection electronics 18 and the lower image shows the surface of a board carrying the silicon
• this surface is
• Figure 6 shows example energy spectra of scintillation events detected by a photodetector 16 comprising 7
• the vertical axis shows the number of counts (i.e. the number of electrical pulses output by the
• the photodetector 16 and the horizontal axis shows the MCA channel to which the pulses were assigned. Each channel corresponds to an amplitude range of the detected electrical pulses. In these examples, only 64 channels were used to collect each spectrum.
• the gamma ray source used for obtaining the spectra shown in Figure 6 is 137 Cs which has a characteristic emission at 661.7keV. However, the energy spectra do not show a single narrow peak because of the way the gamma photons interact with the scintillating crystal 12. The conversion to visible photons made by the scintillating material 12 depends on whether the gamma photons are completely absorbed or randomly scattered.
• the peak 22 towards the right of the spectrum is called the photopeak and is due to interaction processes such as the photoelectric effect in which the full energy of the gamma photon is deposited in the scintillating material 12.
• the photopeak 22 appears as a Gaussian due to intrinsic energy broadening within the detector itself.
• the mean and standard deviation of the Gaussian photopeak 22 give information concerning the energy of the gamma photons and the detector resolution respectively.
• the signal 24 to the left of the photopeak 22 is due to interaction processes such as Compton scattering which deposit only a part of the energy of gamma photon in the scintillating material 12 and lead to a smooth distribution at energies lower than the photopeak 22.
• photopeak 22 give information about changes in the density of the structure through which the radiation has travelled.
• the position of the photopeak 22 with respect to channel number depends on the gamma photon energy and photodetector gain.
• the photodetector gain varies with temperature and applied bias voltage, and further depends on the intrinsic properties of each photomultiplier sensor 16a.
• An advantage of using silicon photomultiplier sensors 16a is that the manufacturing process is highly reproducible. This means that it is possible to select a group of silicon photomultipliers 16a which, given the same boundary conditions (applied voltage, temperature etc) , have a similar gain and therefore output signals for the photopeak centred on the same or very similar channel number. For example, silicon photomultipliers manufactured on the same wafer are likely to have very similar properties.
• a plurality of selected silicon photomultipliers 16a having similar gain are grouped together in a single photodetector 16, it is therefore possible to apply a common bias voltage to all the silicon
• photomultipliers 16a in the photodetector 16 and to combine their outputs to produce a spectrum using a single
• Figure 6A shows a spectrum obtained at 5.1°C which is similar to subsea temperatures which are typically around 4°C, and with an applied bias voltage of 26.5V. At around 5°C a reliable spectrum is produced with very high count rates compared to conventional photomultiplier tubes, around 900-1300 counts per channel. At this temperature, the photopeak is well resolved, which is important for accurately determining the number of counts contributing to the
• the photopeak position can be used to monitor temperature drifts and to provide real time feedback for adjusting the bias voltage to compensate for these. In this way, the photopeak position can be maintained within a small range of channels of the MCA.
• Figure 7 shows spectra obtained using photodetectors 16 comprising different numbers of silicon photomultiplier sensors 16a.
• Figures 7A and 7B compare spectra obtained using 7 sensors and 4 sensors respectively, at similar temperatures (5.1°C and 6.1°C respectively) and with
• a single gamma event does not necessarily result in an output pulse from each sensor 16a due to the position of the gamma interaction within the scintillating crystal 12.
• the count rate drops when a lower number of sensors is used because events in some parts of the scintillating crystal 12 are not recorded, or some photons generated by a single gamma event are missed as they span more than the area of the sensors.
• the resolution of the photodetector 16 also depends on the number of sensors used. There was very little
• each photodetector including 8
• FIG. 8 shows a schematic representation of the detection electronics used for each detector 10.
• the SPM amplifier circuit 30 receives and amplifies signals from the silicon photomultiplier array 16, and digitises the pulses for output to the FPGA 40 using an ADC 32.
• the SPM amplifier circuit 30 also includes sample hold/reset 34 and DC restore 36 circuits controlled by the FPGA 40.
• the FPGA 40 includes: an SPM amplifier timing and control block 42 for control of the SPM amplifier 30 signal gating; a fast (40MHz) SPI bus 42 for reading the ADC output 34 from the SPM amplifier 30; a pulse height discriminator 46 for pulse height discrimination and outputting count pulse; 256-channel, 32-bit spectrum accumulators 48; 32-bit accumulator 50 for counting total pulse number; 32-bit timestamp counter 52 with 10 ⁇ is
• the SPM amplifier timing and control block 42 produces SPM amplifier control signals (hold, reset, DC restore) on receiving a pulse detect trigger from the SPM amplifier and produces a trigger to the SPI circuit to initiate an ADC sample.
• SPM amplifier control signals hold, reset, DC restore
• Counts accumulated by the spectrum counters 48, 50 and timestamp counted by the timestamp counter 52 are copied to sample registers 49, 51, 53 ready for reading by a microcontroller 60, to allow counting to continue while the microcontroller 60 reads the sample.
• the microcontroller 60 has an
• the microcontroller 60 performs communications with a host over RS485 for setup and reading of counts and spectrum data.
• the microcontroller 60 reads the FPGA counts and assembles them into a data packet for transmission.
• An SPI bus 62 transmits signals to the SPM amplifier circuit 30 for adjusting SPM bias and pulse
• the present invention provides a thin and compact gamma ray spectrometer for topside and subsea
• An apparatus for detecting radiation for obtaining density information of a structure comprising: at least one detector, the detector comprising:
• a scintillator comprising a scintillating material for emitting light in response to incident radiation
• a photodetector for receiving light emitted by the scintillating material and outputting an electrical signal in response to light received from the scintillating material, wherein the photodetector comprises at least one silicon photomultiplier .
• photodetector comprises a plurality of silicon
• plurality of silicon photomultipliers are tiled along at least one surface of the scintillating material.
• An apparatus according to any of clauses 2 to 4, further comprising a power supply arranged to supply power to said plurality of silicon photomultipliers. 6. An apparatus according to any of the preceding clauses, further comprising at least one multichannel analyser for measuring a number of radiation particles from said source detected by at least one said detector, said multichannel analyser comprising a field programmable gate array (FPGA) .
• FPGA field programmable gate array
• An apparatus according to any of the preceding clauses, further comprising a source of radiation. 11. An apparatus according to any of the preceding clauses, comprising a plurality of said detectors.
• An apparatus further comprising a power supply arranged to supply power to said plurality of said detectors.
• a method for scanning a structure to detect differences in density between different parts of the structure
• a scintillator comprising a scintillating
• a photodetector for receiving light emitted by the scintillating material and outputting an electrical signal in response to light received from the scintillating material
• the photodetector comprises at least one silicon photomultiplier ;
• photomultipliers are combined prior to amplification.
• multichannel analyser comprising a field programmable gate array (FPGA) .
• FPGA field programmable gate array

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